Student group approach to teaching using Tuckman model

of group development

MARK D. WEBER AND THOMAS A. KARMAN

Department of Biology, Oral Roberts University, Tulsa 74171; and Department of Educational
Administration and Higher Education, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, Oklahoma 74078-0146

WEBER,MARK D., ANDTHOMAS A. KARMAN. Studentgroup group, there are recurrent themes that focus on task and
approach to teaching using Tuckman model of group develop- relationships.
ment. Am. J. Physiol. 261 (Adv. Physiol. Educ. 6): Sl2-Sl6,

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The timing of the progress through each of the sequen-
1991.-If health care professionals are to be effective members
of an interdisciplinary team of diagnostic specialists, it is crit- tial stages depends on the type, composition, and lead-
ical that their university education equip them for that role. ership of the group. The growth, development, and ma-
Using Tuckman’s four stages of “forming,” “storming,” “norm- turity of the group are related directly to its ability to
ing,” and “performing,” university faculty are shown how a resolve conflicts and to remove barriers that inhibit
group of undergraduate science students can be developed into progress. Consideration must be given to those factors
an organism intent on identifying solutions to problems posed that exert the greatest influence and that guide task-
to them (e.g., technical, medical-ethical). The use of the group
approach enhances maturity, competence, self-esteem, and mo- affective processes in a positive direction by encouraging
tivation of the students and enables the instructor to delegate quality member interaction to emerge naturally.
appropriate responsibilities to the students. In addition to a Having established realistic expectations for specific
sense of achievement, students also reported greater apprecia- group behavior, the leadership coordinates various meth-
tion of the ideas, values, and abilities of their group colleagues. ods of intervention that encourage and facilitate the
progression of the group through the developmental
small group; science education; problem solving stages.
After initial formation, group members are introduced
to the task and continue through a progressive awareness
HEALTH CARE PROFESSIONALS at all levels are increas- and development of team identity. The formation of task-
ingly called on to function not as reactive technicians oriented behavior becomes defined through the activities
but as proactive diagnosticians, doing so often as mem- delineated by goal-derived objectives. Group members
bers of a team of specialists seeking to unravel some test one another and the leadership in an effort to orient
particularly knotty problem. Even though we are aware themselves in the group setting and to define the un-
that professionals do not operate very effectively in known parameters of the interpersonal relationships.
splendid isolation, frequently students in allied health Storming involves affective behavioral responses to
science programs are treated as isolated learners in com-
the requirements of the task and to interpersonal con-
petition with their associates. This ignores the fact that
flicts. This second stage is often characterized by chal-
the classroom of today can be an excellent laboratory
that closely resembles the reality of problem solving in lenges to authority, by confrontation from the leadership,
patient care settings and that the instructor can become and by isolation of the individual from group activities.
a catalyst leading the development of student groups that Through the adept use of group interventions, the lead-
utilize individual talents to analyze problems and reach ership encourages the resolution of conflicts and the
professional decisions. Instruction of this nature can be development of redundant conditions that spur growth
provided by capitalizing on existing models of group and development of the group in a positive direction.
development and can add a significant dimension to the The third stage, norming, contains the basic theme of
undergraduate experience. This report focuses on teach- cooperation obtained through the communication of
ing concepts in undergraduate science classes in general ideas, opinions, and information. Shared values, evident
and in human anatomy and physiology classesin partic- in collaborative efforts by group members, promote syn-
ular through the formation and use of student groups ergistic outcomes, and unity develops from the coopera-
and through the Tuckman model. tive work ethos. Trust, harmony, and the acceptance of
identities and roles encourage cohesion, participative
TUCKMAN MODEL decision making, and egalitarian leadership.
Performing, the fourth stage, is characterized by the
Tuckman described a developmental sequence of four interrelatedness of roles, problem solving, and goal-ori-
stages for group development. The progressive model ented activities. Collaboration for achievement of task
included “forming,” “storming,” “norming,” and “per- becomes evident through member interdependence of
forming.” Throughout the sequential development of the relationships and contributions of resources.
s12 1043-4046/91 $1.50 Copyright 0 1991 the American Physiological Society
 TEACHING BY GROUP APPROACH USING THE TUCKMAN MODEL s13
SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP drawal, and affective behavior, requires the leadership to
respond to the counter-dependent behavior of the group
Hersey and Blanchard’s (6) theory of situational lead- (3). Beyond the displayed frustration (13), control and
ership both complements and coincides with Tuckman’s manipulation (12), and testing (ll), the group members’
group development model. Kormanski (7) integrated the thirst for increased social interaction and acceptance
two models in the article “A Situational Leadership from others (8). This desire, reflected in intrinsic moti-
Approach to Groups Using the Tuckman Model of Group vation, is evident in the willingness to share in task
Development” and noted that application of the situa- responsibility despite being inexperienced.
tional leadership model involves defining the group’s
Through the adept use of group interventions, the
task, determining the group’s level of maturity for the leadership encourages the resolution of conflicts and the
specific task (readiness), and selecting and applying ap- development of redundant conditions that stimulate
propriate performance interventions that take into con-
growth and development of the group in a positive direc-
sideration both task and relationship behavior. The
tion. Interventions used by the leadership should reflect
group’s ability to perform a task, or “task maturity,”
both high task (directive) and high relationship (consid-
depends on the members’ knowledge and interaction
eration, explanation, and clarification) behaviors (6).

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skills, whereas the group’s willingness of “psychological
maturity” depends on the members’ acceptance of re- As the group increases in task maturity, responsibility
sponsibility and intrinsic motivation. The levels of both should be increased to prevent resentment and dissen-
task and psychological maturity are also directly related sion. The selling style will require more involvement and
to the specific task assigned. Effective leadership then time from the leadership due to its very nature of rela-
must incorporate varying amounts of task and relation- tionship investment. The developmental aspect of both
ship behavior into the plan of action, depending on the storming and selling promotes the group’s task and in-
needs of the group. The situational leadership model terrelationship maturity, as well as encouraging the
presented by Hersey and Blanchard (6) identifies four group to attempt successive stages.
styles of leadership with varying amounts of task and When the group is unwilling to accept total responsi-
relationship behavior designed to complement the var- bility, usually due to a lack of self-confidence, the lead-
ious levels of maturity (task and psychological) within ership must display some highly supportive relationship
the group. behavior. At the same time, directive task-related behav-
The initial form of situational leadership is highly ior should be reduced to encourage the group to accept
directive (high task, low relationship behavior) and is and share in the responsibilities of the task. The “partic-
displayed primarily when members of the group are ipating” leadership style promotes two-way or several-
either unwilling or unable to perform the task at hand, way communication and shared decision making.
which is indicative of a low task maturity. Hersey and As a result of the increased interaction and participa-
Blanchard (6) labeled this style of leadership as “telling.” tion, closer unity, greater trust, higher morale, and in-
Kormanski (7) stated that “relationship behavior is low creased harmony are achieved. Through the increased
because, according to behavior-modification principles, integration (5) and involvement (10) of the group mem-
one does not reward people for being unable or unwilling bers, and through the leadership’s use of interventions,
to perform a task.” Motivation should stem primarily redundant conditions encourage the structuring of group
from aspiration for a positive leader relationship or from norms (4) and satisfy the need for recognition and self-
a yearning for reward, thus incentive motivation. The worth (8). High relationship-oriented behavior of the
leader maintains communication channels for clarifica- leader orchestrates the development of cohesion while
tion and further group development. promoting the self-expression and collaboration from the
The telling style of leadership corresponds to the group members. The goal of cooperation becomes more
“forming” stage of group development. A group in the real and evident, and the group becomes transformed
forming stage displays low task maturity and is oriented into a functional unit, allowing for acceptance of greater
toward setting and establishing patterns of interaction responsibility, for increased decision making, and for the
with other members (1, 3). Group members subcon- active participation of each member in directing the
sciously display behavior patterns reflective of subtle future of the group. Thus the leader can begin to offer
insecurities and vacillating confidence. Therefore a less supportive behavior.
leader who utilizes a highly directive style implements As the group continues to mature, growing in compe-
the most effective method of dispelling member depend- tence, self-esteem, and motivation, the leader offers low
ency and acquainting them with the task and objectives. directive-task behavior and low relationship or socio-
The second style of leadership in a developmental emotional support. The “delegating” leadership style,
sequence is “selling.” The leader offers both high task- known for the increase in group autonomy, allows the
relevant behavior and high relationship-relevant behav- group to establish challenging goals and to utilize pride
ior. These behavior patterns match the group’s apparent as the motivating factor (7). The noninterfering leader
willingness to attempt the task and yet recognize that keeps a low profile while maintaining communication
the group is inexperienced. The leader encourages or channels for consultation on task-relevant matters and
“sells” the group members on taking more responsibility periodic reenforcement for achievement of goals.
and on assuming “ownership” of the task. The performing stage of group development is char-
The storming stage of group development, earlier de- acterized by high task and high relationship behavior by
scribed as containing varying degrees of conflict, with- the group members. The individuals are intrinsically
s14 TEACHING BY GROUP APPROACH USING THE TUCKMAN MODEL

motivated to apply high levels of knowledge, effort, task, or communicator, knowledgeable about anatomy and
and social skills to ensure goal attainment (2, 5). physiology, a pragmatic problem solver, or an innovative
dreamer to name some of the possible roles. However, no
IN THE CLASSROOM group member was assigned to a specific role, and, as
might be expected, some members assumed different
Teaching styles are remarkably similar to leadership roles at different times.
styles. The Hersey and Blanchard (6) model for sequen- The small member groups were asked to take on the
tial development of situational leadership can easily be role of a team of surgeons at a public hospital. All of the
applied to the classroom instructor. The integration of teams were given the same problem, which was related
the Tuckman group development model is equally appli- to the most recent lecture material. In this case, the
cable to the classroom. The following discussion about problem was related to the skeletal system.
classroom instruction offers a description of some of the
Problem. A healthy 60-year-old female has had re-
similarities and congruencies of the Tuckman model of
current fractures of the femur 6 in. below the lesser
group development and situational leadership.
trochanter. She has no history of any chronic ill-
The initial reservation displayed by so many students

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nesses and appears to be in good physical condition.
who are inexperienced and unwilling stems from their
Conventional methods of reducing the fracture and
physiological and psychological needs (8). The high task-
solving this problem proved useless. Suggest at least
directive behavior of the instructor provides the security
and nuturance desired during the orientation phase. four different strategies or treatment plans, listing
the steps, that your team would implement to solve
In a particular anatomy and physiology class, infor-
this problem.
mation was disseminated primarily through lectures with
some discussion. McKeachie (9) noted that when meas- The teams were given 3 days to research, illustrate,
ures of knowledge are used, lectures prove to be as and discuss the problem among themselves. The written
efficient as other methods, and this is especially true in assignment was to be handed in for grading. Included in
science classes. the directions was the request that each member partic-
As the academic year progressed, so did the maturation ipate in the research and discussion. The “surgeons”
process for the group of students within this particular were encouraged not to ignore or discount any sugges-
lecture section. The students’ needs for identity, belong- tions made by other members of the team but rather to
ing to a group, and social interaction served as sufficient search for a way to make suggestions economically fea-
motivation for interaction and the willingness to ask sible and physically possible.
questions and offer comments. The instructor encour- The low task behavior was designed to increase the
aged discussion, offered clarification, and asked ques- expression of opinions and to increase open communi-
tions (high relationship behavior). Positive feedback cation. The instructor’s high relationship behavior while
served to reinforce participation. Gradually, the in- interacting with each group contributed to the develop-
creased level of maturity and experience in the class ment of cohesion. As the group members became more
provided the instructor with an opportunity to imple- confident and willing to assume responsibility for direct-
ment activities that encouraged greater student partici- ing the discussion and for designing the strategies, the
pation. instructor offered less supportive behavior. The group
A class typically is composed of a variety of small developed norms for interacting and for processing in-
groups, and insight into small-group behavior and group- formation.
processing skills can increase program effectiveness by Suggested treatment plans invariably focused on some
eliminating obstacles caused by the environment and by specific aspect of cytological involvement of callus for-
the competitive interaction of classroom group members mation and/or tissue repair. These included the employ-
(7). With the students being both experienced and ment of electrical gradients (needed to create an alkaline
equipped with the scientific knowledge for discussion environment for stimulation and inducement of osteo-
and willing to interact and collaborate, the instructor blasts, promoting specific enzyme activity), transplan-
designed a task in which all the students in the class tion of embryonic or bone bank tissue, tubular implants
were provided with the opportunity to become involved consisting of a combination of flexible metals and nutri-
in upper-level cognitive thinking, decision making, and tive supplements (e.g., vitamin C for collagen synthesis
problem solving. The task design and instructional ob- and B vitamins), local injection of steroid and protein
jectives centered on improved intrinsic motivation, atti- derivative growth hormones (especially oriented toward
tude changes, increased retention of information at the inducing differentiation of osteogenic cells to be osteo-
end of the course, transference and application of knowl- blasts), and porous metal implants coated with a gelati-
edge to new situations, and development of problem- nous membrane of synthetic fibers and hydroxyapatite.
solving skills and critical thinking. Some treatment plans called for variations of traditional
For this class activity, students were separated into approaches or some combination of those listed above.
small groups (usually of 3 or 4 students, depending on Having developed the strategies or treatment plans,
the combination of particular abilities possessed by the the groups were given a second assignment. This time,
members). The groups work best if there is a good mix they were asked to rank 10 patients with the same set of
of ability and social skill, and assignments to groups were medical symptoms in order of priority for treatment. The
made on the admittedly imperfect perceptions of the age, career, position, general health, sex, and background
faculty member regarding who might be a good facilitator were specified for each of the 10 patients. The patients
 TEACHING BY GROUP APPROACH USING THE TUCKMAN MODEL s15

varied from one another on all accounts except for the others about the importance of our value statements
symptoms. The groups were informed that there were which will be imposed on the treatment program for
funds to provide for three treatment plans, and they were candidates and their families.” Similar comments typi-
instructed to select three patients for treatment and to fied the students’ learning group processing skills and
give the rationale for their selections. calling for a consensus rather than allowing the dominant
On the basis of the feedback during the debriefing, the personality to make a unilateral decision for the group.
second half of the assignment was significantly more “We found it hard to get a consensus and treatment
challenging than the first. The students, desperately program. That is, one we could all agree on. We all had
searching for differentiating patient information not good things to say, and no one was able to have it totally
originally given, constructed-additional backgrounds on one way.”
their treatment plan “recipients.” The fabricated factors The students reflected on an improved self-esteem and
invariably focused on factors that would not display any a sense of accomplishment. One of the more soft-spoken
previous bias toward a particular patient. These included students said, “I was used to the teacher leading the class
aspects regarding treatment facilities, experience and discussions. I would only speak when I had a question. I
history of other medical personnel involved, and pecu- wasn’t comfortable being so involved.” Another said, “In

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liarities of a specific treatment plan that would be a the beginning, I really didn’t think my opinion counted,
better match for one patient over another. but as I was encouraged to contribute I found my input
This assignment involved little task or relationship was just as important as the other team members.” As
behavior from the teacher. Because the groups’ high reflected in the preceding statements, the students found
levels of competence, self-motivation, and self-direction it important, first, to be accepted as a member, to partic-
needed little socioemotional support and consultative ipate in forming a consensus treatment program, and to
behavior, a delegating leadership style was used by the select certain recipients and, second, to claim ownership
teacher. The self-managing groups asked for little direc- of a decision that was not singularly theirs.
tion and needed even less supervision for accomplish- Such a discussion was equally beneficial to the instruc-
ment of the task. It is believed that the students’ self- tor, who was able to evaluate more accurately the success
actualization needs were enhanced by the type of assign- of the class activity and those behavioral and instruc-
ment. tional objectives that were not delineated before the
The members of each team worked very well together inception of the assignment. The students’ comments
and became quite comfortable with the team structure. reflected a sense of appreciation gained for one another’s
When the assignment was completed, each of the teams ideas, values, and abilities and for the increased confi-
was eager to attack a new problem. The news regarding dence of working together as a cohesive unit. “The team
a return to the traditional lecture/discussion format and discussions gave me a new sense of appreciation for
a consequent disassembling of the teams generated com- others’ opinions and made me think more in depth about
ments that reflected disappointment. The general feeling why I believe the things I do.” “In the beginning, I worked
was represented by comments such as, “What? Why do with the others in my team more because it was assigned.
we have to go back to lectures?” By the time the team finished the assignment, I got to
The adjourning stage was clearly characterized by the know and appreciate some people I might not otherwise
group members’ experience and unwillingness to be self- be drawn to. I made some new friends.”
directed and by a lack of motivation, which was especially In addition, there were several comments regarding
characteristic of the apprehension felt during separation their intrinsic motivation and the values clarification
and termination of task. The groups’ regressive move- that developed from this teaching technique. Common
ment encouraged the instructor to provide high relation- sense to one individual, predicated on idiosyncratic tend-
ship and low task behavior and thus return to a partici- encies, called for justification, not rationalization, of
pating leadership style. another’s suggestions. Most notable were comments re-
After the groups completed the assignments, a class garding the appreciation of collaboration rather than the
discussion provided an opportunity for explaining the inherent feeling of competition found in the traditional
selections and for exchanging ideas. The discussion de- classroom. “Normally we have to learn the material and
veloped into a statement of medical ethics, values, and get limited application. It really helped to have the team
belief systems. discussions to spark my thoughts. I was more interested
At the conclusion of the discussion, time was devoted in the assignment.” “ I began to look for application on
to enable the students to explore their perceptions of the other topics I heard about in the local news, and I would
values and benefits of the group formation and tasks. ask my team what they thought about them.” Comments
This allowed the students to examine their role and such as these reflect the observable development of social
function in their respective teams, their thoughts and and group processing skills.
feelings during the formation of the team, and the devel-
opment of a consensus treatment program and in select- CLOSING THOUGHTS
ing recipients. In particular it allowed time for intro-
spection, values clarification, and reflection on the dif- The insight into group behavior, group processing, and
ficulty of articulating their rationale or justification for leadership provided by Tuckman (14) and Hersey and
a particular suggestion. Typical of the class, one student Blanchard (6) assists instructors in understanding one
commented, “I never realized how difficult it would be of the avenues available for improving their effectiveness.
to put my true feelings into words and try to convince Matching the appropriate leadership style with each
S16 TEACHING BY GROUP APPROACH USING THE TUCKMAN MODEL

stage of group development provides for increased pro- 2. BALES, R. F. Task roles and social roles in problem-solving groups.
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