Drilling Hydraulics: 6.1 Mass and Energy Balance

Curtin University of Technology Master of Petroleum Well Engineering
Department of Petroleum Engineering Drilling Engineering Fundamentals
Chapter 6
Drilling Hydraulics
During most of the drilling operations, the drilling fluid is circulating through
the circulating system and/or the drillstring is moving with respect to the fluid.
These dynamic components cause pressure gradients and pressure losses that
must be determined, predicted, and controlled in order to perform the drilling
operation safely and optimally. The most important parameters to be deter-
mined are:
• The pressure along the borehole while circulating (equivalent circulating

density – ECD)
• The pressure along the borehole while moving the drillstring (surge and
swab pressures)
• The optimum circulating parameters and bit nozzle sizes
• The cuttings transport capacity of the fluid (hole cleaning)
• The pressure along the borehole during well control operations (kick re-
moval)
In order to proceed with these studies, we need to use basic physical principles
like mass conservation and energy conservation. Also, the flow behavior of the
fluid must be understood and determined (rheological properties of the fluid,
laminar and turbulent flow, etc.)
6.1 Mass and Energy Balance
Mass and energy (two different forms of the same thing), can be neither created
nor destroyed and, for non–relativistic scenarios, one cannot be converted into
the other. This results in the mass and energy conservation laws.
CHAPTER 6 Page 6–1

Drilling Hydraulics
6.1.1 Mass Conservation
“the net flow of mass into any volume is equal to

the rate of increase of mass within the volume”
This statement is mathematically expressed by (see Figure 6.1):
Figure 6.1: Mass balance
dm
= ṁ = ρi qi − ρo qo .
dt
where m is the mass within the volume, ρ is density, and q is flow rate. It is
evident that a volume under study may have several influxes and several out
fluxes so that a general expression can be written:
dm X X
= ṁ = ρi q i − ρo q o .
dt
Considering only steady-state conditions (the mass inside the volume under
control does not change) this expression reduces to:
X X
0= ρi q i − ρo q o .
In addition, for incompressible fluids (most drilling fluids are considered

incompressible, except those with gaseous components), this expression re-
duces further to: X X
0= qi − qo → qi = qo .
The expression above is important when considering flows other than gen-
erated by the fluid pumps, like kick influx, fluid loss (to underground formations),
mud treatment (material addition and fluid discard,) et cetera. For a closed, sin-
gle way system (as the circulating system is considered most of the times) we
have:
qi = qo = q ,
that is, the flow rate at any point of the system is constant equal to q (the flow
rate). Therefore, it suffices to know the flow area to calculate fluid average
velocity at any point of the circulating system.

Drilling Hydraulics
Example 22: A 11 lb/gal fluid is being circulated at 280 gal/min. The diameter
of the hole is 81 /2 in. The drill collars have 8 in OD and 3 in ID, and the drill
pipes have 5 in OD and 4.276 in ID. Calculate the average fluid velocities inside
the DP’s and DC’s, and in the annular space opposite to the DP’s and DC’s.
Solution:
A 11 lb/gal fluid can be consider incompressible. Therefore we can write for
the flow rate at any point of the circuit:
q
q = A v̄ → v̄ =
A
where q is the fluid flow rate, A is the area in the point of interest, and v̄ is the
average velocity at the point. or v in ft/s, A in in2 , and q in gal/min we have:
231 in2

q[gal/min] 1 min 1 ft
v̄[ft/s] = × × ×
A[in2 ] 1 gal 60s 12 in
q[gal/min]
v̄[ft/s] = 0.3208
A[in2 ]
The average velocities are:
280 gal/min
vDP = 0.3208 π = 6.26ft/s
4
× 4.2762
280 gal/min
vDC = 0.3208 π = 12.71ft/s
4
× 32
280 gal/min
vannDP = 0.3208 π = 2.42ft/s
4
× (8.52 − 52 )
280 gal/min
vannDC = 0.3208 π = 13.86ft/s
4
× (8.52 − 82 )
6.1.2 Energy Conservation
“the net flow of energy crossing the boundaries of a system is equal to

the rate of increase of the internal energy of the system”
Energy crosses the boundary of a system as work and/or heat, and internal
energy may be of several forms:
• potential,

Drilling Hydraulics
• kinetic,
• chemical,
• thermal,
• etc.
The best way to apply the energy conservation in drilling is using the Bernoulli’s
equation:1
“at any point of an ideal steady state incompressible flow system

the sum of the specific kinetic energy, the pressure, and the
specific potential energy and pressure is constant”
or, in mathematical terms:

1
ρ v̄ 2 + p + ρ g h = constant ,
2
where ρ is the density of the fluid (considered incompressible) and h a height
with respect to any fixed reference. The value of the constant is not relevant,
because we can chose any arbitrary reference to the height. Since we will
be more concerned to depth instead of height, the following expression for the
Bernoulli equation is more appropriate:
1
ρ v̄ 2 + p − ρ g D = constant ,
2
where D is depth. If we take two points in a flow field (points 1 and 2), we can
write:
1 2 1 2
ρ v̄ + p − ρ g D = ρ v̄ + p − ρ g D .
2 2 2 1
Note that this expression can be used to express hydrostatic pressure as pre-
sented before. In this case, the velocities are zero and we have:
p2 − ρ g D2 = p1 − ρ g D1 ,
p2 = p1 + ρ g (D2 − D1 ) .
The meaning of the Bernoulli equation is that the total energy at point 1 is
equal to the total energy at point 2. This is true for ideal system in which no
energy loss occurs in the path between point 1 and point 2. For real systems,
however, a loss of energy always occurs because of the internal viscous friction
in the fluid. This energy loss reveals itself as a friction pressure drop. Therefore,
if the fluid flows from point 1 to point 2 we have, for real flow:

1 2 1 2
ρ v̄ + p − ρ g D = ρ v̄ + p − ρ g D − ∆pf .
2 2 2 1
1
Named after the Swiss physicist and mathematician Daniel Bernoulli.

Drilling Hydraulics
Figure 6.2: Schematic of a circulation system.
In addition, if between points 1 and 2 we have a pump that increases the pres-
sure by a value we end up with the general energy conservation equation:

1 2 1 2
ρ v̄ + p − ρ g D = ρ v̄ + p − ρ g D + ∆pp − ∆pf .
2 2 2 1
Most frequently we will be interested in calculating the pressure downstream.

In these cases we can write:
1
p2 = p1 + ρ g (D2 − D1 ) − ρ v̄22 − v̄12 + ∆pp − ∆pf

(6.1)
2
In field units we have:
p2 = p1 + 0.0519 ρ (D2 − D1 ) − 8.073 × 10−4 ρ v̄22 − v̄12 + ∆pp − ∆pf , (6.2)

for pressure in psi, density in lb/gal, depth in ft, and velocity in ft/s.
Example 23: Determine the pressure at the lower end of the drillstring if the
frictional pressure loss in the drillstring is 1650 psi, the flow rate is 340 gal/min,
the mud density is 11 lb/gal, and the well depth is 11500 ft. The internal diame-
ter of the drill collars at the lower end of the drillstring is 213 /16 in, and the pump
increases the pressure by 3000 psi.
Solution:
Consider the simplified diagram beside. We can assume that the velocity
of the fluid at the tank (point 1) is very low so that v̄1 = 0. In addition we have

Drilling Hydraulics
p1 = 05 psig, D1 = 0 ft, D2 = 11500 ft. The velocity at point 2 is calculated with

the mass conservation formula:
340 gal/min
vDC = 0.3208 π = 17.56ft/s
4
× 2.81252
Using these values in the expression for the downstream pressure we obtain:
p2 = 0+0.0519×11×(11500 − 0)−8.073×10−4 ×11× 17.562 − 02 +3000−1650

p2 = 0 + 6565 − 2.74 + 3000 − 1650 = 7912.26 psi ≈ 7912 psi
Note the small contribution of the kinetic energy to the pressure at point 2
(2.74 psi.) In most of the situations, we can neglect the kinetic energy term. A
situation, however, where we can’t neglect the kinetic energy term is in the flow
through bit nozzles.
6.2 Flow Through Bit Nozzles
The drilling fluid exits the drillstring through nozzles at the bit (normally 3 or 4
nozzles). The nozzles accelerate the fluid forming a high-velocity jet below the
nozzles, which are hurled against the recently cut formation. The fluid jets help
to clean the bit cones and to remove the cuttings from beneath the bit (to avoid
re–grinding them) and so improving the drilling efficiency.
Figure 6.3: Longitudinal cut of bit nozzles. (Courtesy SPE)
Bit nozzles are made of hard–erosion resistant materials such as cast tung-
sten carbide, sintered carbide or a ceramic material.
6.2.1 Pressure Drop Across the Bit
As the fluid exits the drillstring through the nozzles, its velocity accelerates from
v̄1 inside the bit to v̄2 at the jet at the expense of a pressure drop across the bit.

Drilling Hydraulics
Figure 6.4: Pressure drop across the bit.
The pressure drop is determined using the mass conservation and the energy
conservation laws. The length of the nozzles is very short (about 11 /2 in), so
that so that the the potential energy terms can be neglected. In addition, the
friction loss is neglected (temporarily), and since there is no other source of
pressure, the Equation (6.1) becomes:
1
ρ v̄22 − v̄12 .

p2 = p1 −
2
The velocity of the fluid inside the bit is much less than the velocity in the jet.
Therefore we can write for the pressure drop across the bit:
1
∆pb = p1 − p2 = ρ v̄j2 , (6.3)
2
where v̄j is the average velocity of the fluid in the jet.
The pressure drop across the bit is an important parameter in drilling en-
gineering. If we solve Equation (6.3) for the average nozzle jet velocity, we
obtain: s
2 ∆pb
v̄j = .
ρ
This ideal exit velocity, however, is never obtained because of the friction-
less assumption made in the beginning of the derivation. The friction pressure
loss depends on parameters of the nozzle like the shape, material, and surface
roughness. Based on experimental measurements comparing ideal to real noz-
zle jet velocities, the following expression was proposed:
s
2 ∆pb
v̄j = Cd , (6.4)
ρ

Drilling Hydraulics
where the coefficient Cd is called discharge coefficient. Typical values for Cd

are in the range 0.95 to 0.98. Using field units, we can write:
s s
∆pb ∆pb
v̄j = Cd −4
= 35.2 Cd .
8.073 × 10 ρ ρ
A drilling bit has several nozzles distributed in the bit body (normally equal
to the number of cones.) If they have different areas, the total flow q splits to
the nozzles depending on their areas. The pressure drop is the same for each
nozzle (equal to the pressure inside the bit less the pressure outside the bit),
therefore the nozzle velocity is must be the same for each nozzle. Since the
flow q is be equal to the sum of the flows in the nozzles we have (assuming 3
nozzles):
q = q1 + q2 + q3 = v̄j A1 + v̄j A2 + v̄j A3 = v̄j (A1 + A2 + A3 ) = v̄j At ,

q
v̄j =
,
At
where At is the total area of the bit nozzles. Therefore, the pressure drop
across the bit can be expressed by:
s
q 2 ∆pb
v̄j = = Cd ,
At ρ
ρ q2
∆pb = . (6.5)
2 Cd2 A2t
−5 ρ q2 ρ q2
∆pb = 8.310 × 10 = , (6.6)
Cd2 A2t 12034 Cd2 A2t
for ∆pb in psi, ρ in lbm/gal, q in gpm, and At in in2 .
6.2.2 Hydraulic Power Across the Bit
The power across the bit is obtained by multiplying the pressure drop across
the bit by the flow rate:
ρ q3
Pb = q ∆pb = . (6.7)
2 Cd2 A2t
6.2.3 Impact Force of the Jets
The Jet of fluid exert a force at the bottom of the hole called jet impact force. It
is due to the change in the jet momentum as it hits the bottom. An infinitesimal
volume dV of fluid in the jet with velocity v̄j has a linear momentum given by
(see Figure 6.5):

Drilling Hydraulics
Figure 6.5: Jet impact force.
dM = ρdV v̄j .
As this volume hits the surface, the momentum is totally transferred to the sur-
face (the vertical velocity becomes zero), and the force due to this moment
transfer is given by:
dM dV
Fj = =ρ v̄j = ρ q v̄j .
dt dt
Using Equation (6.4) results in:
s
2 ∆pb p
Fj = ρ q Cd = Cd 2 ρ q 2 ∆pb ,
ρ
p
Fj = Cd 2 ρ q 2 ∆pb . (6.8)
Cd p 2
Fj = ρ q ∆pb . (6.9)
54.85
Note that the impact force as derived is only true for nozzles close enough
to the formation so that the viscous friction between the fluid in the jet and the
fluid in the vicinity of the bit can be neglected.
The sizes of the nozzles are usually measured in 1/32nd of inch (hole diam-
eter), and are reported in “thirty-seconds” of inch. Nozzles range from 6/32 to
32/32. The area of a #14 nozzle for example is:
2
π 14
A(14) = = 0.1503 in2 .
4 32

Drilling Hydraulics
Example 24: A 12 ppg drilling fluid is flowing through a bit containing three
#13 nozzles. The pump pressure increase is 3000 psi at a flow of 400 gpm.
Calculate (a) the pressure drop across the bit, (b) the hydraulic power delivered
by the pump, (c) the power spent at the bit, and (d) the hydraulic impact force.
(Use 0.95 for the discharge coefficient.)
Solution:
The total area of the nozzles is:
2
π 13
At = 3 A13 =3× = 0.3889 in2
4 32
The pressure drop across the bit is
ρ q2
∆pb = = 1169 psi
12034 Cd2 A2t
The hydraulic power delivered by the pump is [Equation (2.6)]

3000 × 400
PH = = 700 hp
1714.29
The power spent at the bit is [Equation (6.7)]

1169 × 400
Pb = = 272 hp
1714.29
The hydraulic impact force is [Equation (6.8)]

0.95 √
Fj = 12 × 4002 × 1169 = 821 lbf
54.85
6.3 Required Hydraulic Power
Consider the expression for the pressure downstream from the fluid tank to the
bottom of the borehole along the drillstring (see Figure 6.2). If the pressure in
the tank is p1 , the pressure at the bottom p2 , after the bit is:
1
ρ v̄22 − v̄12 + ∆pp − (∆pf )ds − ∆pb ,

p2 = p1 + ρ g (D2 − D1 ) −
2
where ∆pf ds is the frictional pressure drop along the drillstring. Consider now
the expression for the pressure downstream from the bottom of the borehole to
the fluid tank along borehole annular.
1
ρ v̄12 − v̄22 − ∆pf ann ,

p1 = p2 + ρ g (D1 − D2 ) −
2

Drilling Hydraulics
where pf ann is the frictional pressure drop along the annular. Adding these two
equations we obtain:
∆pp = ∆pb + ∆pf , (6.10)
where ∆pf = (∆pf )ds + (∆pf )ann is the pressure drop along the whole (closed)
flow circuit. This expression says that the pressure increase in the pump is
equal to the friction pressure drop (considered the whole circuit) plus the pres-
sure drop across the bit. Therefore, since the pump adds energy to the fluid
system, we clearly see that this energy is spent part in friction, ∆pf , and part
to accelerate the fluid in the nozzles, represented by the pressure drop across
the bit, ∆pb .
Multiplying the expression above by the flow rate q, and recalling that power
P is equal to q ∆p we obtain the following relation:
PH = Pb + Pf
where PH is the hydraulic power delivered by the pump to the fluid, Pb is the
power spent at the bit to accelerate the fluid through the nozzles, and Pf is the
power spent to overcome viscous friction.
6.4 Bit Hydraulics Optimization
The drilling of a well is made in several phases. A phase is determined by

the bit diameter and starts when the first bit of that size is lowered into the
borehole and the first interval of formation is cut, and ends after the casing or
liner is landed and cemented. The common practice is to drill a phase using
a drilling fluid dense enough to keep the formation fluids from entering into
the borehole, and light enough to prevent fracturing the formations. The fluid
density, if correctly determined, is kept constant along the whole phase.
When a new bit is lowered into the borehole it is expected that to drill a long
interval before it becomes dull. The nozzles of the bit will play an important
role in the performance of the bit, and, therefore, must be carefully selected. A
wrong selection can be costly.
The basic parameter for the bit nozzle selection is the flow rate. A minimum
flow rate is required to keep the borehole clean from the cuttings generated by
the bit. An unsatisfactory cuttings transport may put the operation at risk.
It will be shown later that the frictional pressure drop (also called parasitic
pressure loss) in the circulation system can be modeled quite accurately by an
expression of the following form:
∆pf = c q m , (6.11)
where c and m are constants that determine the behavior of the pressure drop
of the whole circulation system.

Drilling Hydraulics
The values of both c and m change as the borehole deepens, but not much.
The appropriate way to determine the values of c and m (to be used for the next
bit) is to run a simple test just before a dull bit is changed.
The test consists in circulating the fluid at two different flow rates and mea-
suring the pump pressures. Normally one of the flow rates is close to the min-
imum required to lift the cuttings and the other close to the expected flow rate
to be used for the next bit. Using the nozzles sizes of the dull bit and the values
of the pump pressures and flow rate, the friction pressure drop is calculated for
the two flow rates. Then these two values are used to determine the values of
c and m for the next bit run.
Example 25: In a drilling operation, a flow test was performed before start a
drillstring trip to change the bit. The following result was obtained:
q pp
[gpm] [psi]
475 3000
250 1000
The dull bit has one #13 nozzle and two #12 nozzles. The fluid density is
10 ppg. Determine the constants c and m for the next bit run. The discharge
coefficient is Cd = 0.95.
Solution:
The total nozzle area is:
2 2
π 13 π 12
At = +2× = 0.3505 in2
4 32 4 32
For q = 475 gpm we have (Equation [6.6]):
ρ q2 10 × 4752
∆pb = = = 1691 psi
12034 Cd2 A2t 12034 × 0.952 × 0.35052
∆pf = 3000 − 1691 = 1309 psi
For q = 250 gpm we have:
10 × 2502
∆pb = = 468.4 psi
12034 × 0.952 × 0.35052
∆pf = 1000 − 468.4 = 531.6 psi
Using these values in Equation (6.11) we have:
1309 = c × 475m
531.6 = c × 250m

Drilling Hydraulics
Dividing the first expression by the second expression we obtain:

m
1309 475
= → m = 1.404
531.6 250
Using this result in the first expression we find:
h i
psi
1309 = c × 4751.404 → c = 0.2286 gpm1.404
Therefore, for the next bit run, the frictional pressure drop should quite ac-
curately be expressed by:
∆pf = 0.2286 q 1.404
6.4.1 Nozzle Size Selection Criteria
The two most common criteria used to select the nozzles are
• Maximum hydraulic power at the bit,
• Maximum jet impact force.
6.4.1.1 Maximum Hydraulic Power at the Bit
The hydraulic power spent at the bit is given by:
Pb = PH − Pf = ∆pp q − ∆pf q .
Using the expressions for ∆pf (Equation [6.11])we have:
Pb = ∆pp q − c q m+1 .
Note that the power developed at the bit is function of the flow rate q. To
obtain the flow rate of maximum power at the bit, we make
dPb
= ∆pp − (m + 1) c q m = ∆pp − (m + 1) ∆pf = 0 .
dq
Solving for ∆pf gives:
∆pp m
∆pf = = c qopt .
m+1
Therefore, the flow rate for maximum power at the bit is:
m1
∆pp
qopt = . (6.12)
c(m + 1)

Drilling Hydraulics
The pressure drop at the bit for maximum power is:

∆pp
∆pb = ∆pp − ∆pf = ∆pp − ,
m+1
m
∆pb = ∆pp . (6.13)
m+1
6.4.1.2 Maximum Jet Impact Force at the Bit
The jet impact force at the bit is given by (Equation [6.8]):

p
Fj = Cd 2 ρ q 2 ∆pb .
Substituting ∆pb = ∆pp − c q m we obtain:

q q
Fj = Cd 2 ρ q (∆pp − c q ) = Cd 2 ρ (∆pp q 2 − c q m+2 ) .
2 m
Calculating the derivative of Fj with respect to q and setting to zero, we find:
dFj 2 ∆pp q − (m + 2) c q m+1

= Cd ρ p = 0,
dq 2 ρ (∆pp q 2 − c q m+2 )
which results in
2 ∆pp q − (m + 2) c q m+1 = 2 ∆pp q − (m + 2) ∆pf q = 0 .
Solving for ∆pf gives:

2 ∆pp
∆pf = = c qo ptm .
m+2
Therefore, the flow rate for maximum jet impact force is:
m1
2 ∆pp
qopt = . (6.14)
c(m + 2)
The pressure drop at the bit for maximum jet impact force is:
2 ∆pp
∆pb = ∆pp − ,
m+2
m
∆pb = ∆pp . (6.15)
m+2
6.4.1.3 Total Bit Nozzle Area
For a given optimum pressure drop at the bit ∆pb (calculated using one of the
criteria above), the total nozzle are is calculated using Equation (6.5):
ρ q2
∆pb = ,
2 Cd2 A2t

Drilling Hydraulics
s
qopt ρ
(At )opt = .
Cd 2 (∆pb )opt

s
qopt ρ
(At )opt = .
109.7 Cd (∆pb )opt
Example 26: For the data of Example 25 and ∆pp = 3000 psi, determine the
optimum flow rate, the pressure drop at the bit, and the total nozzle area for (a)
maximum hydraulic power at the bit, and (b) maximum jet impact force.
Solution:
The frictional pressure drop model for Example 25 is
∆pf = 0.2286 q 1.404 .
Then we have
(a) maximum hydraulic power at the bit
m1 1
1.404
∆pp 3000
qopt = = = 459 gpm
c(m + 1) 0.2286 × (1.404 + 1)
m 1.404
∆pb = ∆pp = × 3000 = 1752 psi
m+1 1.404 + 1
s r
qopt ρ 459 10
(At )otm = = = 0.333 in2
109.7 Cd (∆pb )opt 109.7 × 0.95 1752
(b) maximum jet impact force
m1 1
1.404
2∆pp 2 × 3000
qopt = = = 587 gpm
c(m + 2) 0.2286 × (1.404 + 2)
m 1.404
∆pb = ∆pp = × 3000 = 1237 psi
m+2 1.404 + 2
r
587 10
(At )otm = = 0.506 in2
109.7 × 0.95 1237

Drilling Hydraulics
Figure 6.6: Line of maximum hydraulic power.
6.4.2 Graphical Analysis
The hydraulic condition of a borehole is continuously changing as the borehole

deepens. Therefore, it would be necessary to change continuously the nozzle
total area to attain optimum condition all the time. Since this is not economically
possible, the best we can do is to keep the hydraulic parameters close to the
optimum point.
It is always desirable to operate the pumps in their maximum power (PH )max .
The relationship between hydraulic power, pressure and flow rate is given by
∆p q
PH = . (2.6)
1714.29
Taking the logarithm of this expression and solving for log ∆pp we obtain:
log ∆pp = log (1714.29 PH ) − log q .
For the maximum pump pressure (PH )max , plotting log ∆pp versus logq re-
sults in a a straight line with slope -1, as shown in Figure 6.6 (other values for
PH plots as lines parallel to the maximum power line).
The pump can theoretically operate in any condition below the maximum
hydraulic power line. In addition, three other constraints limit the operational
area:
1. the maximum allowable surface pressure (∆pp )max ,
2. the minimum flow rate to carry the cuttings qmin ,

Drilling Hydraulics
Figure 6.7: Additional hydraulic constraints.
3. The maximum flow rate for a given pump liner qmax .
These three constraints are shown in the Figure 6.7.

The shaded area represents the possible operational conditions. The bold
line corresponds to the maximum operational pressure for those constraints.
However, in order to be able to operate on both the slanted bold line and
on the horizontal bold line (maximum power or maximum pressure) it would
be necessary to change the pump liner frequently as the borehole deepens.
The common practice, however, is to select a liner to operate the pumps at the
maximum allowed surface pressure at the maximum hydraulic power, and use
this liner, if possible, in the entire well or, at least, for the whole phase. The
maximum flow rate for the maximum surface pressure is given by
1714.29 (PH )max

qmax = ,
∆pmax
and shown in the graph in Figure 6.8.

Under these limitations, the pump should operate such that the surface op-
erational parameters remain on the bold line of the graph in Figure 6.8. That
is, the pump will be operating at the maximum flow rate during the shallow por-
tion of the well (the pressure is dictated by the resistance to flow), and at the
maximum pressure during the lower portion of the well.
The constants c and m, which determine the frictional pressure drop in the
fluid circuit, depend on the depth (and other factors too). For each depth, an
optimum nozzle total flow area At exists, for a given optimization criterion, which
depends on the constants c and m. Assuming the constant m will not change

Drilling Hydraulics
Figure 6.8: Ideal surface operational parameters.
∆p
too much as the well deepens, the optimum ratio ∆pfp (for one of the criteria)
remains quite constant. Therefore, as the pump operational conditions change
during the drilling, the optimum condition is that for which the values of the
frictional pressure drop ∆pf follows the bold line in Figure 6.9. This line is
called the path of optimum hydraulics.
Consider now the expression for the pressure drop due to friction, ∆pf =
c q m , where c and m depend on the depth. Taking the logarithm of this expres-
sion results in the following expression:
log ∆pf = log c + m log q
Therefore, the graph of log ∆pf × log q plots as a straight line with slope m
as shown in Figure 6.10.
The point where a frictional pressure drop line intercepts the path of opti-
mum hydraulics defines the pair qopt and (∆pb )opt . These values of optimum
flow rate and optimum pressure drop at the bit are used to calculate the total
bit nozzle area for the next bit run.
Example 27: Determine the proper pump operating conditions and bit nozzle
sizes for maximum hydraulic power for the next bit run. The bit currently in use
has three #12 nozzles. The driller has recorded that when the 9.8 lbm/gal fluid
is pumped at a rate of 485 gal/min, a pump pressure of 2900 psig was observed
and when the pump was slowed to a rate of 260 gal/min, a pump pressure of
980 psig was observed. The nominal power of the pump is 1250 hp with an
efficiency of 95%. The minimum flow rate to lift the cuttings is 230 gal/min. The

Drilling Hydraulics
Figure 6.9: Path of optimum hydraulics.
maximum allowable surface pressure is 3000 psig. The fluid density will remain
unchanged in the next bit run. (Use Cd = 0.95
Solution:
The hydraulic power delivered by the pump is
(pH )max = 1250 × 95% = 1188 hp
For a maximum surface pressure of 3000 psi, the maximum flow rate is
1714.29 × 1188
qmax = = 679 gpm
3000
Now we need to calculate the frictional pressure drop for the two flowing test
points. The total nozzle area is
2
π 12
At = 3 × = 0.3313n2
4 32
The pressure drop across the bit and the frictional pressure drop for q = 485 gpm
are:
ρ q2 9.8 × 4852
∆pb = = = 1934 psi
12034 Cd2 A2t 12034 × 0.952 × 0.33132
∆pf = ∆pp − ∆pb = 2900 − 1934 = 966 psi
The pressure drop across the bit and the friction pressure drop for q = 260 gpm
are:
9.8 × 2602
∆pb = = 556 psi
12034 × 0.952 × 0.33132
∆pf = 980 − 556 = 424 psi

Drilling Hydraulics
Figure 6.10: Frictional pressure drop lines.
Therefore, we have for c and m:
966 = c × 485m
424 = c × 260m
m = 1.321
h i
c = 0.2741 gpmpsi1.321
For the maximum hydraulic power criterion, the optimum pressure drop due to
friction and the optimum pressure drop across the bit are:
∆pp 3000
(∆pf )opt = = = 1292 psi
m+1 1.321 + 1
m 1.321
(∆pb )opt = ∆pp = × 3000 = 1708 psi
m+1 1.321 + 1
which defines the optimum hydraulics for the maximum hydraulic power at the
bit. A plot of the path of optimum hydraulics, the line of frictional pressure
drop line (the straight line passing at the two test points), and the optimum
operational point are shown in the graph in Figure 6.11.
The frictional pressure drop line intercepts the path of optimum hydraulics at
1292 psi. The optimum flow rate is calculated from the frictional pressure drop
model for the condition of the operation:
1292 = 0.2741 q 1.321 → q = 603 gpm

Drilling Hydraulics
Figure 6.11: Graph for Example 27.
Therefore, the pressure drop across the bit is ∆pb = 1708‘psi at the flow rate of
603 gpm. The total nozzle bit area is calculated from:
r
603 9.8
(At )otm = = 0.4383 in2
109.7 × 0.95 1708
Sets of nozzles to use are
(13, 14, 14) → At = 0.403 in2
(12, 14, 15) → At = 0.434 in2

(11, 14, 15) → At = 0.438 in2

Drilling Hydraulics

Drilling Hydraulics: 6.1 Mass and Energy Balance

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Drilling Hydraulics: 6.1 Mass and Energy Balance

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Curtin University of Technology Master of Petroleum Well Engineering

Department of Petroleum Engineering Drilling Engineering Fundamentals

• The pressure along the borehole while circulating (equivalent circulating

• The optimum circulating parameters and bit nozzle sizes

• The cuttings transport capacity of the fluid (hole cleaning)

6.1 Mass and Energy Balance

CHAPTER 6 Page 6–1

6.1.1 Mass Conservation

“the net flow of mass into any volume is equal to

This statement is mathematically expressed by (see Figure 6.1):

Figure 6.1: Mass balance

In addition, for incompressible fluids (most drilling fluids are considered

CHAPTER 6 Page 6–2

6.1.2 Energy Conservation

“the net flow of energy crossing the boundaries of a system is equal to

CHAPTER 6 Page 6–3

“at any point of an ideal steady state incompressible flow system

or, in mathematical terms:

CHAPTER 6 Page 6–4

Figure 6.2: Schematic of a circulation system.

Most frequently we will be interested in calculating the pressure downstream.

p2 = p1 + 0.0519 ρ (D2 − D1 ) − 8.073 × 10−4 ρ v̄22 − v̄12 + ∆pp − ∆pf , (6.2)

CHAPTER 6 Page 6–5

p1 = 05 psig, D1 = 0 ft, D2 = 11500 ft. The velocity at point 2 is calculated with

p2 = 0 + 6565 − 2.74 + 3000 − 1650 = 7912.26 psi ≈ 7912 psi

6.2 Flow Through Bit Nozzles

Figure 6.3: Longitudinal cut of bit nozzles. (Courtesy SPE)

6.2.1 Pressure Drop Across the Bit

CHAPTER 6 Page 6–6

Figure 6.4: Pressure drop across the bit.

CHAPTER 6 Page 6–7

where the coefficient Cd is called discharge coefficient. Typical values for Cd

q = q1 + q2 + q3 = v̄j A1 + v̄j A2 + v̄j A3 = v̄j (A1 + A2 + A3 ) = v̄j At ,

for ∆pb in psi, ρ in lbm/gal, q in gpm, and At in in2 .

6.2.2 Hydraulic Power Across the Bit

6.2.3 Impact Force of the Jets

CHAPTER 6 Page 6–8

Figure 6.5: Jet impact force.

CHAPTER 6 Page 6–9

The pressure drop across the bit is

The hydraulic power delivered by the pump is [Equation (2.6)]

The power spent at the bit is [Equation (6.7)]

The hydraulic impact force is [Equation (6.8)]

6.3 Required Hydraulic Power

CHAPTER 6 Page 6–10

6.4 Bit Hydraulics Optimization

The drilling of a well is made in several phases. A phase is determined by

CHAPTER 6 Page 6–11

CHAPTER 6 Page 6–12

Dividing the first expression by the second expression we obtain:

∆pf = 0.2286 q 1.404

6.4.1 Nozzle Size Selection Criteria

• Maximum hydraulic power at the bit,

• Maximum jet impact force.

6.4.1.1 Maximum Hydraulic Power at the Bit

The hydraulic power spent at the bit is given by:

Using the expressions for ∆pf (Equation [6.11])we have:

CHAPTER 6 Page 6–13