CALCULUS

Chapter 1: Function and limit

Contents
1.1. Functions and their representations
1.2. Mathematical models.
1.3. The limit of a function.
1.4. Calculating limits using the limit laws.
1.5.Continuity.
1.6. Limits involving infinity
 1.1 Functions and their representations
Function
A function f is a rule that assigns to each element x in a set D exactly
one element, called f (x), in a set E.
 1.1 Functions and their representations

Example:

Input (x) Out put y=f(x)

Side length area of a square
the weight of the package cost of mailing a package
amount of time the ball is in the air velocity of a ball thrown in the air
Time of Day Temperature
x x2
 1.1 Functions and their representations
Domain and range
- The set D is called the domain of the function f.
- The range of f is the set of all possible values of f (x) as x
varies throughout the domain.

1  y  cos x  1
range of y is  1,1
 1.1 Functions and their representations
Graph
The graph of f is the set of all points (x, y) in the coordinate
plane such that y = f(x) and x is in the domain of f.

The graph of f also allows us to picture:

- The domain of f on the x-axis

- Its range on the y-axis

 1.1 Functions and their representations
Graph
Example 1:The graph of a function f is shown.
a/ Find the values of f(1) and f(5).
b/What is the domain and range of f ?
 1.1 Functions and their representations
Graph
Solution:
a/ f(1) = 3; f(5)  - 0.7
b/ D = [0, 7]
Im(f) = [-2, 4]
 1.1 Functions and their representations
Representations
Find the domain and region of the DISCUSSION

functions ( if it is a function).
a/ f  n   n for all natural numbers n

b/ g  x  is any real number such that larger than x

 1.1 Functions and their representations
Representations of funtions

There are four possible ways to represent a function:

- Algebraically (by an explicit formula)

- Visually (by a graph)

- Numerically (by a table of values)

- Verbally (by a description in words)

 1.1 Functions and their representations
Example:
The human population of the world P depends on the time t.

- The table gives estimates of the

world population P(t) at time t,
for certain years.

- However, for each value of the

time t, there is a corresponding
value of P, and we say that
P is a function of t.
 1.1 Functions and their representations
Example:

The human population of the world P depends on the time t.

If we plot these values, we get the

graph (called a scatter plot).

 1.1 Functions and their representations
Example:

What about a formula ?

Of course, it’s impossible to devise an explicit formula that

gives the exact human population P  t  at any time t .
But it is possible to find an expression for a function that
approximates P  t  .
In fact, we could use a graphing calculator with exponential
regression capabilities to obtain the approximation

P  t   f  t   1.43653  10   1.01395 
9 t
 1.1 Functions and their representations
Example:

"When you turn on a hot-water faucet, the temperature T

of the water depends on how long the water has been
running".
Draw a rough graph of T as a function of the time t that
has elapsed since the faucet was turned on.
 1.1 Functions and their representations
Solution:
The initial temperature of the running

water is close to room temperature

because the water has been sitting in

the pipes. When the water from the

hotwater tank starts flowing from the faucet, increases quickly. In

the next phase, is constant at the tempera ture of the heated water in
the tank. When the tank is drained, decreases to the temperature of
the water supply. This enables us to make the rough sketch of as a
function of in Figure.
 1.1 Functions and their representations
The graph of a function is a curve in the xy -plane.
But the question arises:
Which curves in the xy -plane are graphs of functions ?
This is answered by the following test.
 1.1 Functions and their representations
THE VERTICAL LINE TEST

A curve in the xy -plane is the graph of a function of if and

only if no vertical line intersects the curve more than
once.

It is a function Not a function

 1.1 Functions and their representations
Symmetry: even function and odd function.
- If a function f satisfies: f (-x) = f (x),  x  D then f is called
an even function.

-If a function f satisfies: f (-x) = - f (x),  x  D then f is called

an odd function.

Example:

a/ f  x   x 2 , h  x   x 4 are even functions.

b/ g1  x   x, g 2  x   x 3 are odd functions.

 1.1 Functions and their representations
Symmetry: even function and odd function.
Properties:

- The geometric significance of an even function is that its graph is

symmetric with respect to the y-axis.

- The graph of an odd function is symmetric about the origin.

An even funtions An odd function

 1.1 Functions and their representations
Symmetry: even function and odd function.
Example:
The graph of odd functions

y = x5 y = x7
y= x3
 1.1 Functions and their representations
Symmetry: even function and odd function.
Example:
The graph of even functions

g  x   1  x4
 1.1 Functions and their representations
Symmetry: even function and odd function.
Example:

Let f is an odd function. If (-3,5) is in the graph of f then

which point is also in the graph of f ?

a. (3,5) b. (-3,-5) c. (3,-5) d. All of the others

set x  3   x  3: f  3  f   x    f  x    f  3  5
 1.1 Functions and their representations
Symmetry: even function and odd function.
Example:
Suppose f is an odd function and g is an even function.

What can we say about the function f.g defined by

(f.g)(x)=f(x)g(x) ?

Prove your result.

 1.1 Functions and their representations
Increasing and decreasing functions
Definition

A function f is called increasing on an interval I if:

f(x1) < f(x2) whenever x1 < x2 in I

It is called decreasing on I if:

f(x1) > f(x2) whenever x1 < x2 in I

 1.1 Functions and their representations
Increasing and decreasing functions

The function f is said to be increasing on the interval [a,

b], decreasing on [b, c], and increasing again on [c, d].
 1.1 Functions and their representations
Increasing and decreasing functions
Example:
The function y  x 2 is
- Decreasing on the interval  ,0
- Increasing on the interval 0, 
 1.1 Functions and their representations
Quiz questions
1/ If f is a function then f(x+2)=f(x)+f(2)

a. True b. False

2/ If f(s)=f(t) then s= t

a. True b . False

3/ Let f be a function. We can find s and t such that s=t

and f(s) is not equal to f(t)

a. True b. False
 1.1 Functions and their representations
Answer:
1/ If f is a function then f(x+2)=f(x)+f(2)

a. True b. False

2/ If f(s)=f(t) then s= t

a. True b . False

3/ Let f be a function. We can find s and t such that s=t

and f(s) is not equal to f(t)

a. True b. False
1.2. Functions and models

In this section, we will learn about:

The purpose of mathematical models.
 1.2. Functions and models
A mathematical model is a mathematical description—often by means of a

function or an equation of a real-world phenomenon such as:

- Size of a population

- Demand for a product

- Speed of a falling object

- Life expectancy of a person at birth

- Cost of emission reductions

 1.2. Functions and models
Linear models
When we say that y is a linear function of x, we mean
that the graph of the function is a line.

So, we can use the slope-intercept form of the equation of

a line to write a formula for the function as

y  f ( x)  mx  b
where m is the slope of the line and b is the y-intercept.
 1.2. Functions and models
Polynomials
A function P is called a polynomial if

Pn  x   an x n  an1x n1  ...  a2 x 2  a1x  a0

Where n is a nonnegative integer and the numbers a0 , a1 , a2 ,

..., an are constants called the coefficients of the polynomial.

 1.2. Functions and models
Rational functions
A rational function f is a ratio of two polynomials
P( x)
f ( x) 
Q( x)
Where P  x  and Q  x  are polynomials.
The domain consists of all value x such that Q  x   0
 1.2. Functions and models
Trigonomatric functions
f  x   sin  x  D  (, )

f  x   cos  x  R   1,1

sin ( x  k 2 )  sin  x  ; cos ( x  k 2 )  cos  x  , k  Z

 1.2. Functions and models
Trgonomatric functions
sin  x  , x    ,  3 , 
tan  x  
cos  x  2 2
R  (, )
tan( x  k )  tan x; k Z
 1.2. Functions and models
Trgonomatric functions
sin  x  , x    ,  3 , 
tan  x  
cos  x  2 2
R  (, )
tan( x  k )  tan x; k Z
 1.2. Functions and models
Trgonomatric functions
The reciprocals of the sine, cosine, and tangent functions are
1
cos ec  x  
sin  x 
1
sec  x  
cos  x 
1
cot an  x  
tan  x 
 1.2. Functions and models
Trgonomatric functions

A function of the form f  x   x , where a is constant, is

called a power function.
 1.2. Functions and models
Exponential function
The exponential functions are the functions of the form
f ( x)  a x , where the base a is a positive constant.
- The graphs of y = 2x and y = (0.5)x are shown.
- In both cases, the domain is (,  ) and the range
is (0, ) .
 1.2. Functions and models
Logarithmic funtions
The logarithmic functions f  x   log a x, x  0,0  a  1,

where the base a is a positive constant, are the inverse

functions of the exponential functions.

The figure shows the graphs

of four logarithmic functions

with various bases.

 1.2. Functions and models
Shifting
Why don’t we consider the case c < 0 ?
Suppose c > 0.

◦ To obtain the graph of

y = f(x) + c, shift the
graph of y = f(x)
a distance c units upward.

◦ To obtain the graph

of y = f(x) - c, shift
the graph of y = f(x)
a distance c units
downward.
 1.2. Functions and models
Shifting

- To obtain the graph of

y = f(x - c), shift the graph
of y = f(x) a distance c
units to the right.
- To obtain the graph
of y = f(x + c), shift
the graph of y = f(x)
a distance c units to
the left.
 1.2. Functions and models
Transformations
Label the following graph from the graph of the function
y  f  x  shown in the part (a)
y  f  x   2, y  f  x  2  , y   f  x  , y  2 f  x  , y  f   x  ?

 y  x  2: by shifting 2 units downward.

 y  x  2 : by shifting 2 units to the right.
 1.2. Functions and models
Transformations
Suppose c > 1. How about the case c < 1 ?

- To obtain the graph of y =

cf(x), stretch the graph of y =
f(x) vertically by a factor
of c.

- To obtain the graph of y =

(1/c)f(x), compress the graph
of y = f(x) vertically by a factor
of c.
 1.2. Functions and models
Transformations
- In order to obtain the
graph of y = -f(x), reflect
the graph of y = f(x) about
the x-axis.
- To obtain the graph
of y = f(-x), reflect the
graph of y = f(x)
about the y-axis.
 1.2. Functions and models
Transformations
Label the following graph from the graph of the function
y  f  x  shown in the part (a)
y  f  x   2, y  f  x  2  , y   f  x  , y  2 f  x  , y  f   x  ?

 y x : by reflecting about the x-axis.

 y  2 x : by stretching vertically by a factor of 2.
 y   x : by reflecting about the y-axis
 1.2. Functions and models
Transformations_Summary
Tranformation of f  c  0  Effect on the graph of f
f  x  c Vertical shift up c units
f  x  c Vertical shift down c units
f  x  c shift left by c units
f  x  c shift right by c units
c  f  x Vertical stretch if c  1
Vertical compression 0  c  1
f c  x Horizontal stretch 0  c  1
Horizontal compression if c  1
 f  x Reflection about the x  axis
f x Reflection about the y  axis
 1.2. Functions and models
Transformations
Example 1: The figure illustrates these stretching
transformations when applied to the cosine
function with c = 2.
 1.2. Functions and models
Transformations
Example 2: Suppose that the graph of f is given. Describe
how the graph of the function f(x-2)+2 can be obtained
from the graph of f. Select the correct answer.
a. Shift the graph 2 units to the left and 2 units down.

b. Shift the graph 2 units to the right and 2 units down.

c. Shift the graph 2 units to the right and 2 units up.

d. Shift the graph 2 units to the left and 2 units up.

e. none of these
 1.2. Functions and models
Combinations of functions
Two functions f and g can be combined to form new

functions:

a/  f  g  x   f  x   g  x 

b/  f .g  x   f  x .g  x 
f  f ( x )
c/   ( x) 
g g ( x)
 1.2. Functions and models
Composite of functions
Given functions f and g, the composite function is

defined by  f g  x   f  g  x  
 1.2. Functions and models
Example:
Let h(x)=f(g(x)).
1/ If g(x)=x-1 and h(x)=3x+2 then f(x) is:
a. 3x+3 b. 3x+4
c. 3x+1 d. None of them
2/ If h(x)=3x+2 and f(x)=x-1 then g(x) is:
a. 3x+3 b. 3x+4
c.3x+1 d. None of them
3/ If f and g are functions, then f g  g f
a. True b. False
 1.2. Functions and models

a / f  x   3x  3; g  x   x  1; h  x   3x  2

f g  f  g  x    f  x  1  3  x  1  3  3x  h  x 
 1.2. Functions and models

4/ x 1 2 3 4 5 6
f  x 3 2 1 0 1 2

.
g  x 6 5 2 3 4 6

Evaluate ( f g )(2) f g  2   f  g  2    f  5   1

a. 5 b. 1
c. 2 d. None of the others
 1.2. Functions and models

Label the following graphs

1 1 
f  x, f  x, f  2 x
2  
1.3. The limit of a function

In this section, we will learn:

About limits in general and about numerical
and graphical methods for computing them.
 1.3. The limit of a function
The limit of a function

In general, we write

lim f  x   L
x a
if we can make the values
of f(x) arbitrarily close to L
by taking x to be
sufficiently close to a
but not equal to a.
 1.3. The limit of a function
One-sided limits
We write lim f  x   L if we can make the values of f (x)

xa
arbitrarily close toL by taking x to be sufficiently close to a
and x less than a.
 1.3. The limit of a function
One-sided limits
Similarly, “the right-hand limit of f(x) as x approaches a is

equal to L” and we write lim f  x   L

xa

lim g  x   lim g  x  
x2 x 5

lim g  x   lim g  x  
x2 x 5

lim
x2
g  x   lim
x 5
g  x  
 1.3. The limit of a function
A numerical and graphical approach

x 9
2

Let f ( x) 
x3

a/ What is f  3 ?

b/ What is the limit of f as x approaches ?

 1.3. The limit of a function
A numerical and graphical approach

Solution:
x2  9
a/ Since f ( x)  , we will substitute 3 in for x ,
x3 32  9
giving us the new equation f (3)  .
33
Solving for f (3) , we get
3 9 99 0
2
f (3)    .
33 33 0
Thus f (3) does not exist.
 1.3. The limit of a function
A numerical and graphical approach
b/ First let x approach 3 from the left:
Thus it appears
that lim f ( x)  6
x 3

Next let x approach 3 from the right: Thus it appears

that lim f ( x)  6
x 3

Since both the left-hand and right-hand limits agree,

. lim f ( x)  6
x 3
 1.3. The limit of a function
A numerical and graphical approach
Example 1: Consider the function H given by
 2x  2 for x 1
H (x)  
2x  4 for x 1

Graph the function, and find each of the following

limits, if they exist. When necessary, state that the
limit does not exist.

a/ lim H (x) b/ lim H (x)

x1 x3
 1.3. The limit of a function
Solution:
a/ First, let x approach 1 from the left:

Thus, it appears that lim H (x)  4.

x1

Then, let x approach 1 from the right:

Thus, it appears that lim H ( x)  2.

x 1
 1.3. The limit of a function
Solution:
Since 1) lim H ( x)  4.
x 1

and

2) lim H ( x)  2.
x 1

Then, lim H (x) does not exist.

x1
 1.3. The limit of a function
Limit Graphically
Observe on the graph that:
1) lim H (x)  4
x1

and
2) lim H (x)  2
x1

Therefore, lim
x1
H (x) does not exist.
 1.3. The limit of a function
Solution:
b/ First, let x approach 3 from the left:

Thus, it appears that lim H ( x)  4.

x 3

Then, let x approach 3 from the right:

Thus, it appears that lim H ( x)  4.


x 3
 1.3. The limit of a function
Solution:
Since 1) lim H ( x)  4.
x 3

and

2) lim H ( x)  4.
x 3

Then, lim H ( x)  4
x 3
 1.3. The limit of a function
Limit Graphically
Observe on the graph that:
1) lim H ( x)  4
x 3

and
2) lim H ( x)  4
x 3

Therefore, lim H ( x)  4
x 3
1.4. Calculating limits using the limit laws

In this section, we will:

Use the Limit Laws to calculate limits.
 1.4. Calculating limits using the limit laws

The limit laws

Suppose that c is a constant and the limits lim f ( x)
x a

and lim g ( x) exist. Then

x a
1.lim  f ( x)  g ( x)  lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)
xa xa x a

2.lim  cf ( x)   c lim f ( x)
x a x a

3.lim  f ( x) g ( x)   lim f ( x)  lim g ( x)

x a x a x a

f ( x) lim f ( x)
4.lim  xa if lim g ( x)  0
xa g ( x) lim g ( x) x a
xa
 1.4. Calculating limits using the limit laws
The limit laws
n
5.lim  f ( x)   lim f ( x) 
n

x a  x a 
6.lim c  c
x a

7.lim x  a
x a

8.lim x n  a n
x a

9.lim n x  n a
x a

10.lim n f ( x)  n lim f ( x) where n is a positive integer.

x a x a
 1.4. Calculating limits using the limit laws
Direct substitution property

We state this fact as follows. If f is a polynomial or a

rational function and a is in the domain of f, then

lim f ( x)  f (a)
x a

Theorem 1

lim f ( x)  L if and only if lim f ( x)  L  lim f ( x)

x a x a x a
 1.4. Calculating limits using the limit laws
Example:
a/ Show that lim x  0
x 0

x
b/ Prove that lim does not exist.
x 0 x
 1.4. Calculating limits using the limit laws
Squeeze theorem

If f ( x)  g ( x)  h( x) when x is near a (except possibly at

a) and lim f ( x)  lim h( x)  L .Then lim g ( x)  L
x a x a x a
 1.4. Calculating limits using the limit laws
Example:
1
Show that lim x sin  0.
2
x 0 x
 1.4. Calculating limits using the limit laws
Solution

 Note that we cannot use

1 1
lim x sin  lim x  limsin
2 2
x 0 x x 0 x 0 x
1
This is because limsin does not exist.
x 0 x
 1.4. Calculating limits using the limit laws
However, since 1  sin 1  1 ,
x
1
We have:  x  x sin  x 2
2 2

x
Set f  x    x 2 , h  x   x 2 .
We have lim
x 0
f  x   lim
x 0
h  x   0
In the Squeeze Theorem, we obtain:
1
lim x sin  0
2
x 0 x
 1.4. Calculating limits using the limit laws
Quiz questions
f ( x)
1/If lim f ( x)  0,lim g ( x)  0 then lim does not exist
x 3 x 3 x 3 g ( x )

a. True b. False

2/ If lim f ( x) g ( x) exists, then the limit must be f (3) g (3)

x 3

a. True b. False
 1.5. Continuity

In this section, we will:

See that the mathematical definition of continuity
corresponds closely with the meaning of the word
continuity in everyday language.
 1.5. Continuity
Definition 1
A function f is continuous at a number a if lim f ( x)  f (a )
x a

Notice that :
 f  a  is defined - that is,
a is in the domain of f
 lim
xa
f ( x) exists.

 lim f ( x)  f (a) .
x a
 1.5. Continuity
Definition 2
If f is defined near a - that is, f is defined on an open interval
containing a, except perhaps at a - we say that f is
discontinuous at a if f is not continuous at a.
The figure shows the
graph of a function f.
At which numbers is
f discontinuous ?
Why ?
 1.5. Continuity
Definition 3
A function f is continuous from the right at a number a if
lim f ( x)  f (a)
x a

and f is continuous from the left at a if lim f ( x)  f (a)

x a
 1.5. Continuity
Definition 4
 A function f is continuous on an interval if it is
continuous at every number in the interval.

 If f is defined only on one side of an endpoint of the

interval, we understand ‘continuous at the endpoint’ to
mean ‘continuous from the right’ or ‘continuous from
the left.’
 1.5. Continuity
Theorem
If f and g are continuous at a; and c is a constant, then the following

functions are also continuous at a:

1. f + g 2. f - g

3. c.f 4. f. g
f
5. if g (a)  0
g
 1.5. Continuity
Theorem
The following types of functions are continuous at every
number in their domains:

 Polynomials

 Rational functions

 Root functions

 Trigonometric functions
 1.5. Continuity
Intermediate value theorem
Suppose that f is continuous on the closed interval [a, b]
and let N be any number between f(a) and f(b), where
f (a)  f (b)
Then, there exists a number c in (a, b) such that f(c) = N.
 1.5. Continuity
Intermediate value theorem
Example: Show that there is a root of the equation
4 x 3  6 x 2  3 x  2  0 between 1 and 2.

Let f ( x)  4 x3  6 x 2  3x  2; a  1, b  2
We have f (1)  4  6  3  2  1 and f (2)  32  24  6  2  12
Thus f 1  0  f  2 , that is, N  0 is a number between 1
and 2. Now f is continuous since it is a polynomial, so the
Intermediate Value Theorem says there is a number c
between 1 and 2 such that f  c   0 .
The equation 4 x 3  6 x 2  3 x  2  0 has at least root c in
interval (1,2).
 1.5. Continuity
Quiz questions
1/ If f 1  0 and f  3  0 then there exists a number c
between 1 and 3 such that f  c   0
a.True b. False

2/ Which is the equation expressing the fact that “ f is

continuous at 2”?
a. lim f ( x)  2 b. lim f ( x)  f (2)
x 2 x 

c. lim f ( x)  0 d. lim f ( x)  
x 2 x 2

e. lim f ( x)  f (2)
x 2
 1.6. Limits involving infinity

We will study:

Infinity Limits

Limits at Infinity
 1.6. Limits involving infinity
Infinite limits
Let f be a function defined on both sides of a, except
possibly at a itself. Then,
lim f  x   
x a

means that the values of f  x 

can be made arbitrarily large
by taking x sufficiently
close to a, but not equal to a.
 1.6. Limits involving infinity
Infinite limits
Let f be a function defined on both sides of a, except
possibly at a itself. Then,
lim f  x   
x a

means that the values of f  x 

can be made arbitrarily large
by taking x sufficiently
close to a, but not equal to a.
 1.6. Limits involving infinity
Infinite limits
Similar definitions can be given for the one-sided limits:
lim f  x    lim f  x   
xa xa

lim f  x    lim f  x   
xa xa
 1.6. Limits involving infinity
Definition
x  a is called the vertical asymptote of f  x  if we have
one of the following:

lim f  x    lim f  x   
xa xa
lim f  x    lim f  x   
xa xa
 1.6. Limits involving infinity
Limits at infinity
Let f be a function defined for every x  a . Then

lim f ( x)  L means that   0, M  0

x 

if x  M then f ( x)  L  
 1.6. Limits involving infinity
Example: Compute

1
b/ lim( x  1  x)
2
a/ limsin
x  x x 

c/ limsin x d/ lim( x  x 3 )
x  x 
 1.6. Limits involving infinity
Definition
The line y  L  y  L  is called the horizontal
asymptote of f  x  if we have one of the following:
lim f  x   L lim f  x   L '
x  x 
 1.6. Limits involving infinity
Example: Find the asymptotes of the function
x3  1
f ( x)  3
x  x2  2
 1.6. Limits involving infinity
Solution:
1
1 3
x 1
3
x
 lim 3  lim 1
x  x  x  2
2 x  1 2
1  3
x x
So, y  1 is horizontal asymptote
x 1
3
 x  1  x 2  x  1
 lim 3  lim
x 1 x  x  2
2 x 1 ( x  1)( x 2  2 x  2)

x3  1 3
 lim 3 
x 1 x  x  2
2
5
Don’t have vertical asymptote.
 1.6. Limits involving infinity
Quiz questions
1/ Find lim cos x
x 

a.0 b. infinity

c. 1 d. Does not exist

1
2/ Find lim cos x
x  x

a. 0 b. infinity

c. 1 d. Dose not exist

 1.6. Limits involving infinity
Quiz questions
3/ If lim f ( x)  ,lim g ( x)   then lim[ f ( x)  g ( x)]  0
x 0 x 0 x 0

a. True b. False

4/A function can have two different horizontal asymptotes

a. True b. False
The End