Basics of Mechanical

Engineering (Part–A)
GAURAV KUMAR

RESEARCH SCHOLAR

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DELHI TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

UNIT-2
First Law of Thermodynamics for closed & open systems
Non Flow Energy Equation
Steady State, Steady Flow Energy Equation
Second Law of Thermodynamics-Kelvin and Plank’s Statements, clausius inequality
Definition of Heat Engines, Heat pumps, Refrigerators
Concept of Energy and availability
Carnot Cycle; Carnot efficiency, Otto, Diesel, Dual cycle and their efficiencies

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Why Second Law of Thermodynamics ?

The first law of thermodynamics states that during any cycle that a system undergoes, the cyclic integral of the heat is equal to the cyclic
integral of the work.

The first law, however, places no restrictions on the direction of flow of heat and work.

A cycle in which a given amount of heat is transferred from the system and an equal amount of work is done on the system satisfies the
first law just as well as a cycle in which the flows of heat and work are reversed.

However, we know from our experience that a proposed cycle that does not violate the first law does not ensure that the cycle will
actually occur. It is this kind of experimental evidence that led to the formulation of the second law of thermodynamics.

Thus, a cycle will occur only if both the first and second laws of thermodynamics are satisfied.

In its broader significance, the second law acknowledges that processes proceed in a certain direction but not in the opposite direction.

The use of the second law of thermodynamics is not limited to identifying the direction of processes, however. The second law also
asserts that energy has quality as well as quantity. The first law is concerned with the quantity of energy and the transformations of
energy from one form to another with no regard to its quality.

The second law of thermodynamics is also used in determining the theoretical limits for the performance of commonly used engineering
systems, such as heat engines and refrigerators, as well as predicting the degree of completion of chemical reactions.

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Slide 3

GK1 A hot cup of coffee cools by virtue of heat transfer to the surroundings, but heat will not flow from the cooler
surroundings to the hotter cup of coffee.
Gaurav Kumar, 07-06-2022
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THERMAL ENERGY RESERVOIRS

In the development of the second law of thermodynamics, it is very convenient to have a hypothetical
body with a relatively large thermal energy capacity (mass x specific heat) that can supply or absorb finite
amounts of heat without undergoing any change in temperature. Such a body is called a thermal energy
reservoir, or just a reservoir.
A body does not actually have to be very large to be considered a reservoir. Any physical body whose
thermal energy capacity is large relative to the amount of energy it supplies or absorbs can be modeled as
one.
A reservoir that supplies energy in the form of heat is called a source, and one that absorbs energy in the
form of heat is called a sink. Thermal energy reservoirs are often referred to as heat reservoirs since they
supply or absorb energy in the form of heat.

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Slide 4

GK2 In practice, large bodies of

water such as oceans, lakes, and rivers as well as the atmospheric air can be modeled accurately as thermal
energy reservoirs because of their large thermal energy storage capabilities or thermal masses
Gaurav Kumar, 07-06-2022
 Heat Engines
Work can be converted to heat directly and completely, but converting heat to work requires the use of
some special devices. These devices are called heat engines.
Heat engines differ considerably from one another, but all can be characterized by the following :
They receive heat from a high-temperature source (solar energy, oil furnace, nuclear reactor, etc.).
They convert part of this heat to work (usually in the form of a rotating shaft).
They reject the remaining waste heat to a low-temperature sink (the atmosphere, rivers, etc.).
They operate on a cycle.
Heat engines and other cyclic devices usually involve a fluid to and from which heat is transferred while
undergoing a cycle. This fluid is called the working fluid.

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Heat Engines
The term heat engine is often used in a broader sense to include work-producing devices that do not
operate in a thermodynamic cycle.
Engines that involve internal combustion such as gas turbines and car engines fall into this category. These
devices operate in a mechanical cycle but not in a thermodynamic cycle since the working fluid (the
combustion gases) does not undergo a complete cycle.
The work-producing device that best fits into the definition of a heat engine is the steam power plant,
which is an external-combustion engine. That is, combustion takes place outside the engine, and the
thermal energy released during this process is transferred to the steam as heat.
Wnet,out = Wout – Win
Wnet,out = Qin - Qout

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Slide 6

GK3 Recall that for a closed system undergoing a cycle, the change in internal energy ΔU is zero, and therefore the
net work output of the system is also equal to the net heat transfer to the system
Gaurav Kumar, 07-06-2022
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Thermal Efficiency
Only part of the heat transferred to the heat engine is converted to work. The fraction of the
heat input that is converted to net work output is a measure of the performance of a heat engine and is
called the thermal efficiency ηthermal
For heat engines, the desired output is the net work output, and the required input is the amount of heat
supplied to the working fluid. Then the thermal efficiency of a heat engine can be
Cyclic devices of practical interest such as heat engines, refrigerators, and heat pumps operate between a
high-temperature medium (or reservoir) at temperature TH and a low-temperature medium (or reservoir)
at temperature TL. To bring uniformity to the treatment of heat engines, refrigerators, and heat pumps, we
define these two quantities: QH and QL

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Slide 7

GK4 Thermal efficiency is a measure of how efficiently a heat engine converts the heat that it receives to work.
Gaurav Kumar, 07-06-2022
REFRIGERATORS AND HEAT PUMPS
We all know from experience that heat is transferred in the direction of decreasing
temperature, that is, from high-temperature mediums to low-temperature ones. This heat
transfer process occurs in nature without requiring any devices. The reverse process, however,
cannot occur by itself. The transfer of heat from a low-temperature medium to a high-
temperature one requires special devices called refrigerators.
Another device that transfers heat from a low-temperature medium to a high-temperature one
is the heat pump.
The objective of a refrigerator is to maintain the refrigerated space at a low temperature by
removing heat from it. Discharging this heat to a higher-temperature medium is merely a
necessary part of the operation, not the purpose. The objective of a heat pump, however, is to
maintain a heated space at a high temperature. This is accomplished by absorbing heat from a
low-temperature source, such as well water or cold outside air in winter, and supplying this heat
to the high-temperature medium such as a house.

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Coefficient of Performance (COP)
The measure of performance of a refrigerator and heat pump is expressed in terms of the
coefficient of performance (COP).

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The Second Law of Thermodynamics
(Kelvin–Planck Statement)
It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a single reservoir
and produce a net amount of work.
That is, a heat engine must exchange heat with a low-temperature sink as well as a high-
temperature source to keep operating.
It can also expressed as no heat engine can have a thermal efficiency of 100 percent, or as for a
power plant to operate, the working fluid must exchange heat with the environment as well as
the furnace.

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The Second Law of Thermodynamics
(Clausius Statement)
It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no effect other than
the transfer of heat from a lower-temperature body to a higher-temperature body.

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Equivalence of the Two Statements
Any device that violates the Kelvin–Planck statement also violates the Clausius statement, and
vice versa.

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PERPETUAL-MOTION MACHINES
We have repeatedly stated that a process cannot take place unless it satisfies both the first and
second laws of thermodynamics. Any device that violates either law is called a perpetual-motion
machine, and despite numerous attempts, no perpetual-motion machine is known to have
worked.
A device that violates the first law of thermodynamics (by creating energy) is called a
perpetual-motion machine of the first kind (PMM1), and a device that violates the second law of
thermodynamics is called a perpetual-motion machine of the second kind (PMM2).

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REVERSIBLE AND IRREVERSIBLE
PROCESSES
A reversible process is defined as a process that can be reversed without leaving any
trace on the surroundings. That is, both the system and the surroundings are returned
to their initial states at the end of the reverse process. This is possible only if the net
heat and net work exchange between the system and the surroundings is zero for the
combined (original and reverse) process. Processes that are not reversible are called
irreversible processes.
It should be pointed out that a system can be restored to its initial state following a
process, regardless of whether the process is reversible or irreversible. But for
reversible processes, this restoration is made without leaving any net change on the
surroundings, whereas for irreversible processes, the surroundings usually do some
work on the system and therefore does not return to their original state.

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Irreversibilities
The factors that cause a process to be irreversible are called irreversibilities. They include
friction, unrestrained expansion, mixing of two fluids, heat transfer across a finite temperature
difference, electric resistance, inelastic deformation of solids, and chemical reactions. The
presence of any of these effects renders a process irreversible.

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THE CARNOT CYCLE
The net work, thus the cycle efficiency, can be maximized by using processes that require the
least amount of work and deliver the most, that is, by using reversible processes.
Reversible cycles cannot be achieved in practice because the irreversibilities associated with
each process cannot be eliminated. However, reversible cycles provide upper limits on the
performance of real cycles.
Probably the best known reversible cycle is the Carnot cycle, and the theoretical heat engine
that operates on the Carnot cycle is called the Carnot heat engine.
The Carnot cycle is composed of four reversible processes—two isothermal and two
adiabatic—and it can be executed either in a closed or a steady-flow system.

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 THE CARNOT CYCLE
 we see that the area
under curve 1-2-3 is the
work done by the gas
during the expansion part
1. Reversible Isothermal Expansion (process 1-2, TH of the cycle, and the area
= constant). under curve 3-4-1 is the
2. Reversible Adiabatic Expansion (process 2-3, work done on the gas
temperature drops from TH to TL). during the compression
3. Reversible Isothermal Compression (process 3-4, part of the cycle. The
TL = constant). area enclosed by the path
4. Reversible Adiabatic Compression (process 4-1, of the cycle (area 1-2-3-4-
temperature rises from TL to TH). 1) is the difference
between these two and
represents the net work
done during the cycle.

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The Reversed Carnot Cycle
The Carnot heat-engine cycle just described is a totally reversible cycle. Therefore, all the
processes that comprise it can be reversed, in which case it becomes the Carnot refrigeration
cycle.

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THE CARNOT PRINCIPLES
The efficiency of an irreversible heat engine is always less than the efficiency of a reversible
one operating between the same two reservoirs.
The efficiencies of all reversible heat engines operating between the same two reservoirs are
the same.

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THE THERMODYNAMIC TEMPERATURE

SCALE
A temperature scale that is independent of the properties of the substances that are
used to measure temperature is called a thermodynamic temperature scale.
Since energy reservoirs are characterized by their temperatures, the thermal
efficiency of reversible heat engines is a function of the reservoir temperatures only.

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Slide 20

GK5 The second Carnot principle discussed earlier states that all
reversible heat engines have the same thermal efficiency when operating between the same two reservoirs. That
is, the efficiency of a
reversible engine is independent of the working fluid employed and its
properties, the way the cycle is executed, or the type of reversible engine used.
Gaurav Kumar, 27-06-2022
THE THERMODYNAMIC TEMPERATURE
SCALE
 Lord Kelvin first proposed taking f(T) = T to define a thermodynamic temperature
scale

 This temperature scale is called the Kelvin scale, and the temperatures on this
scale are called absolute temperatures.

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THE CARNOT HEAT ENGINE
The hypothetical heat engine that operates on the reversible Carnot cycle is called the Carnot
heat engine.
The thermal efficiency of any heat engine, reversible or irreversible, is
The efficiency of a Carnot engine, or any reversible heat engine, becomes
This relation is often referred to as the Carnot efficiency, since the Carnot heat engine is the
best known reversible engine. This is the highest efficiency a heat engine operating between the
two thermal energy reservoirs at temperatures TL and TH can have.

The thermal efficiencies of actual and reversible

heat engines operating between the same
temperature limits compare

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The Quality of Energy
These efficiency values show that energy has quality as well as quantity. It is clear from the
thermal efficiency values in figure that more of the high-temperature thermal energy can be
converted to work. Therefore, the higher the temperature, the higher the quality of the energy.

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THE CARNOT REFRIGERATOR AND HEAT
PUMP
A refrigerator or a heat pump that operates on the reversed Carnot cycle is called a Carnot
refrigerator, or a Carnot heat pump.
Any

Reversible
These are the highest coefficients of performance that a
refrigerator or a heat pump operating between the temperature
limits of TL and TH can have.

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KEY CONCEPTS AND FORMULAS

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