Electric Potential and Capacitance

NOTE
P H Y S I C S
ELECTROSTATICS
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
What you already know What you will learn
• Electric flux through the face of a cube • Scalar and vector fields
• Electric flux through the curved surface • Conservative and non-conservative
of a cylinder and a container forces
• Applications of Gauss’s law • Electric potential
• Electric potential due to a point charge
• Electric potential for a system of charges
NEET
Application of Gauss’s Law
Electric field due to a solid non-conducting uniformly charged sphere
Let us consider a uniformly charged solid non-conducting sphere of radius R with volume charge
density ρ. Also, the total charge Q is distributed uniformly throughout the sphere.
1. Electric field inside the sphere at a distance r from the centre (r < R)
In this case, we can assume a sphere of radius r as a Gaussian surface. The angle between the
area vector and the electric field is 0° throughout the periphery of the Gaussian surface, i.e.,
θ = 0°. Thus, the magnitude of the electric flux at every point on the periphery of the Gaussian
surface is the same.
The net flux through the Gaussian surface is given by,
  θ = 0°
φnet = ∫ E . dA E E θ = 0°
R
∫ E dA cos θ
⇒ φnet = dA dA
r qinside
⇒
= φnet ∫ E dA cos 0° ρ=
V
E ∫ dA
⇒ φnet = dA
 ⇒φnetq= E 4π r 2( ) E θ = 0°
∫ E .The
dA = en
ε o charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is given by,
net
4
qen = ρV = ρ × π r 3
(
⇒ E 4π r 2 = )
3
εo
ρr
⇒E =
3ε o
© 2020, BYJU'S. All rights reserved

02
By applying Gauss’s law, we get,

  qen
∫ . dA =
E
εo
4
ρ × π r3
(
⇒ E 4π r 2 ) =3
εo
ρr
⇒E =
3ε o
2. Electric field outside the sphere at distance r from the centre (r > R)
Similarly, in this case, we can assume a sphere of radius r as a Gaussian surface. The angle
between the area vector and the electric field is 0° throughout the periphery of Gaussian
surface, i.e., θ = 0°. Thus, the magnitude of the electric flux at every point on the periphery of
the Gaussian surface is the same.
The net flux through the Gaussian surface is given by,
  θ = 0°
φnet = ∫ E . dA E E θ = 0°
dA dA
r
∫ E dA cos θ
⇒ φnet =
R qinside
⇒
= φnet ∫ E dA cos 0° ρ=
V
E ∫ dA
⇒ φnet =
dA
⇒ φnet =
E 4π r 2 ( ) E θ = 0°
The net charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is given by,
qen = Q
By applying Gauss’s law, we get,
  qen
∫ . dA =
E
εo
Q
(
⇒ E 4π r 2 = ) εo
Q
⇒E = 2
4πε or
kQ  1 
=⇒E  Where, k
= 
r 2
 4πε o 
For the electric field at any point outside the uniform spherical symmetric charge distribution, it
behaves as if all its charge is concentrated at the centre.

03
Electric field (E) vs distance (r) graph
E ∝r
R
1
E∝ 2
r
1 Q
E=
4Eπε∝o rR 2
E ∝r 1
E∝ 2
1 r
E∝ 2 1 Q
O r E= r
r<R r > 4Rπε o R 2
1 r Q= R
E=
4πε o R 2
Field
A region in space where every point is characterized by a physical quantity is known as a field.
Scalar field
If the physical quantity associated with a field is a
T1 > T2 > T3
scalar quantity, then the field is known as the scalar
field, i.e., a scalar field is a function that gives us
a single value of some variable for every point in
space.
Example: Temperature field
Let us consider a heat source. The intensity of heat T1
energy at different points around the heat source will
T2
be different as shown in the figure. Therefore, heat
energy is a scalar quantity and the field associated
with this is known as temperature field. T3
Vector field
If the physical quantity associated with a field is a
vector quantity, then the field is known as the vector 
 E
field.    
E E
Example: Electrostatic field
E
   q1   A rA rB rC
rrA rrBC rrC rA rB rC
A B C E
Consider a point charge +q1 placed in space. The   
rA rB rC
magnitude of the electric field at different points
that are radially equidistant from the point charge B 
E
is the same, but the direction of the electric field is   
different for each of them as shown in the figure. rA rB rC

04
Conservative Forces and Non-Conservative Forces
Conservative forces C
1. The work done by a conservative force is independent
I
of the path taken. It only depends on the initial and III h
final positions.
II
Examples: m
Gravitational force: To move a body of mass m to a A B
height h, many paths can be taken, but the work done
on each path will remain the same.
(Wg)I = (Wg)II = (Wg)III = –mgh
Path I
lectrostatic force: Electrostatic force is a conservative
E
force as the work done to move a charge from A to B
Path II
is independent of the path taken to move the charge.
A B
(Wel)I = (Wel)II = (Wel)III
Therefore, conservative forces are path independent. Path III
2. A force is conservative if the work it does around any

closed path is zero. I
Examples:
Gravitational force: If a block of mass m is raised up to h
a height h by following path I and is brought back to II
the initial position following path II, then the net work
done in the closed cycle is zero.
(Wg)I + (Wg)II = 0 A B
3. Potential energy can only be defined for conservative force fields.
Non-conservative forces
1. The work done by a non-conservative force depends on the path of the object. Non-conservative
forces are path functions.
Example: Friction force
2. Non-conservative forces are also known as dissipative forces because they dissipate mechanical
energy into other forms.

05
BOARDS
Electric Potential (V)

The electric field in a region of space is described by assigning a vector quantity ( E ) at each point.
  described
Pictorially, it is represented by electric lines of force. The same electric field can also 
rA be
rB rC
by assigning a scalar quantity (V) at each point known as electric potential.
Electric potential difference
The electric potential difference between two points is defined as the work done by an external
agent in moving a unit positive charge from one point to another.
Suppose a positive charge +qo is brought from point B to point A. Thus, the potential difference
between VA and VB is as follows:
Wext
VA − VB = B→A qo
qo
Wext B→A +
V − V = W
If the unit charge
A B is, +q = +1 C, A W B
qo
ext B→ A
o ext
Wext ∞→A
VA =
V − VB = Wext B→A
A
qo W
IfV − W
Vassume
ext B→ A
that point B is at infinity and V∞ = 0, then the electric potential at point A can be
VAAwe B =
ext ∞→ A
=W ext ∞→ A q
definedqoas Wext the amount of work done by an external agent in moving a unit positive charge from
o
VAA = WBext ∞→A ext B→A A.

V −
infinityV =
to Wpoint B→ A
qo
Wext ∞→A
VAA − = VB = Wext B→A
qo qo
Wext ∞→A
IfVAthe
= Wunit
ext ∞→charge
qo A is, +qo = +1 C, ∞ B
+
A Wext
VA = Wext ∞→A
The SI unit of electric potential is JC–1 or Volt.
1. The work done by the external agent is to be considered while calculating electric
potential at a point.
2. The work done by the external agent is against the electric field.
3. Since electrostatic force is a conservative force, the work done by the electrostatic
force is independent of its path.
Electric potential due to a point charge Q
Consider a point charge Q and a positive test charge qo that is brought from infinity to point A by
an external force. Let us assume that the test charge is brought very slowly without any change
in velocity, such that, at any given instant, there is no acceleration. So, the net force acting on it at
any point is zero.

06
qo qo qo
+ Q + + +
Fext A Felec ∞
r dx
x
Therefore, the electrostatic force is equal to the external force but in the opposite direction.
 
Fext = Felec
Wext∞→Athe
Since Wext A→∞
= −electrostatic force is a conservative force and its magnitude is equal to the external force,
we can consider the external force as the conservative force. The work done by the external force
for
 moving the positive charge from A to infinity and infinity to A will be opposite to each other but
F
equal
ext = F
inelecmagnitude.
Wext∞→A = − Wext A→∞
While moving the positive charge from A to infinity, consider that the positive test charge is x
distance away from charge Q at an instant. If the charge moves a small distance dx, then the work
done by the external force is given by,
∞  
Wext A→∞ = ∫ Fext . dx
r
∞ 
Wext A→∞
⇒= ∫
r
Fext dx cos 180°
∞     kQqo 
− ∫ Felec dx
⇒ Wext A→∞ =  Fext =
Felec =
r
 x 2 
∞ kQq
−∫
⇒ Wext A→∞ = o
dx
r x2
∞
− kQqo ∫ x −2dx
⇒ Wext A→∞ =
r
∞
 1  xn + 1 
∫
n
⇒ Wext A→∞ =
− kQqo  −   Using x dx = 
 x r  n + 1
 1  1 
⇒ Wext A→∞ =
− kQqo  − −  −  
 ∞  r 
kQqo
⇒ Wext A→∞ =
−
r
kQqo
⇒ Wext∞→A =
− Wext A→∞ =
r
At point A, the electric potential is given by,
Wext∞→A Since V is a scalar quantity, the charge should
VA =
qo be substituted along with its sign. This means
that a positive and a negative charge will have a
kQqo kQ positive and a negative potential, respectively, at
⇒ VA= =
rqo r all points.

07
Potential Due to a System of Point Charges
q1 +
If charges q1, q2, –q3, –q4, …., qn are placed in space at distance q2
+ r1
r1, r2, r3, r4, …, rn, respectively, then the value of the electric r2
potential at point P is given by, P
– r3
kq1 kq2 k ( −q3 ) k ( −q4 ) kq q3
VP = + + + + ... + n r4 rn
r1 r2 r3 r4 rn
–q
4
+q n
–Q –q
A – – B
Four point charges, –Q, –q, 2q, and 2Q are placed at each
corner of a square. What is the relation between Q and q for x O
which the potential at the centre of the square will be zero?
D + + C
1 2Q 2q
Q= −
q
1 1
(A) Q = –q (B) Q = − (C) Q = q (D) Q =
q q
1
Q=
q
Solution
In a square, all the diagonals are of the same length. Therefore,

OA = OB = OC = OD = x
The value of the electric potential at the centre is given by,
k ( −Q ) k ( −q ) k ( 2Q ) k ( 2q )
VO = + + +
x x x x
−kQ kq 2kQ 2kq
⇒ VO = − + +
x x x x
k
⇒ VO = Q +q
x
Since the potential at O is 0, we get,
0=Q+q
⇒ Q = –q
Thus, option (A) is the correct answer.

NOTE
P H Y S I C S
ELECTROSTATICS
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL-2
• Applications of Gauss’s law • Null potential points due to two point

• Scalar and vector field charges
• Conservative and non-conservative forces • Electric potential due to extended charges,
ring, and disc
• Electric potential
• Electric potential energy for two-charge
• Electric potential due to a point charge and three-charge systems
• Electric potential for a system of charges
Null Potential Points Due to Two Point Charges
The point where the net potential is zero is known as a null potential point. In a system of two like
charges, at all the points in space near the vicinity of the charges, the potential is either positive or
negative. Hence, null potential points are not possible.
System of two unlike charges
Let us consider two unlike charges, +q1 and −q2, where, |q1| > |q2|. Let the distance between the
charges be d.
There are two points along the line joining the charges at which the potential will be zero. A null
potential point will be possible near the smaller charge on either side of the line joining the two
unlike charges. Let us divide the space around them into three zones, zone 1, zone 2, and zone 3,
as shown in the figure. Thus, two null potential points will be possible, one in zone 1 and the other
in zone 2.
q1 q2
Zone 3 Zone 1 Zone 2
Null point (P1) in zone 1:

Let the null point be P1, which is at a distance x from charge q2.

q1 q2
d–x P1 x
d

02
The net potential at point P1 is given by,

VP1 V+ q1 + V− q2
=
kq1 k ( −q2 )
⇒V
= +
P1
(d − x ) x
kq1 kq
⇒V
= − 2
P1
(d − x ) x
For the net potential to be zero,
kq1 kq2
⇒V= − = 0
P1
(d − x ) x
⇒ q1 x = q2 ( d − x )
d
⇒x=
q1
+1
q2
Null point (P2) in zone 2:

Let the null point be P2, which is at a distance x from charge q2.
q1 q2
x P2
d+x
d
The net potential at point P2 is given by,
VP2 V+ q1 + V− q2
=
kq1 k ( −q2 )
⇒V
= +
P2
(d + x ) x
kq1 kq
⇒V
= − 2
P2
(d + x ) x
For the net potential to be zero,
kq1 kq2
⇒V= − = 0
P2
(d + x ) x
⇒ q1 x = q2 ( d + x )
d
⇒x=
q1
−1
q2
The general relation for null potential points along the line joining the two unlike charges is,
d
x =
q1
±1
q2

03
Electric Potential Due to Extended Charges
Let us consider an extended body of area A and charge Q is distributed uniformly over the area. Let
us consider a small element of the body having area da and charge dq.
dq
Q
da
The steps for obtaining the potential due to the extended charge systems are given as follows:
Step 1: Step 2: Step 3: Step 4:

Find the small Find the electric Substitute the Integrate the potential
charge (charge of the potential due to the value of dq in dV. dV with proper limits to
element) according to small charge dq. obtain the net electric
the surface taken for k dq potential due to the
study. dV = extended charge
r
Q system.
dq = da
A
Electric Potential Due to a Uniformly Charged Rod at an Axial Point
Consider a uniformly charged rod of length L and charge Q. To find the electric potential at point P,
which is at a distance r from one end of the rod, let us consider a small element dx having a small
charge dq at a distance x from point P as shown in the figure.
L r
dq P
x
dx
The small charge on the elemental length can be written as follows:
Q
dq = dx
L

04
The potential due to the small charge dq at point P is given by,

kk dq
dq
dV
dV == x ((ii))
x
By
By substituting
substituting the
the value of dq
value of dq in equation ((ii)),, we
in equation we get,
get,
kQ
kQdxdx
dVdV == Lx
Lx
Integrating
Integratingbothboth thethe sides,we
sides,we get,
get,
kQ
kQ dx dx
∫∫dV
dV == L ∫∫ x
L x
The of xx will
The limits of
limits willbe from xx== rr to
be from toxx== rr ++ LL..
kQ r + L dx
VV == kQ ∫ r + L dx
LL ∫rr xx
kQ
kQ[ ln x ]rr ++LL
⇒ ⇒VV = = LL [ ln x ]rr
kQ
kQ ( r + L ) − ln r 
=
⇒
= ⇒VV L ln ln ( r + L ) − ln r
L
kQ
kQ ln rr ++ LL
⇒ ⇒ VV == LL ln  rr 
Electric Potential Due to a Uniformly Charged Ring
Consider a uniformly charged ring of radius R and charge Q. To find the electric potential along the
axis of the ring at point P, which is at a distance x from the centre of the ring, let us consider a small
element of the ring having length dx charge dq at a distance r from point P as shown in the figure.
dq
Q
r
R
The potential due to the small charge dq at point P is given by,

k dq
dV =
r

05
⇒ dV =
x +R
k dq
2 2 ( r = x 2 + R2 )
Here, x 2 + R 2 is a constant at every element of the ring.
By integrating both the sides, we get,
k
∫ dV = x 2 + R2 ∫ dq
kQ
⇒V =
x + R2
2
At centre, x = 0,
kQ
VC =
R
BOARDS
Electric Potential Due to a Uniformly Charged Disc
Consider a uniformly charged disc of radius Ro and charge Q. The disc is the combination of
infinitesimally thin coaxial rings. To find the electric potential along the axis of the disc at point P,
which is at a distance x from the centre of the disc, let us consider an element of the disc, which is
nothing but an infinitesimally thin ring of radius R, having thickness dr and charge dq at a distance
r from point P as shown in the figure.
Ro =r x 2 + R2
R P
dq
The charge of each thin infinitesimal ring is given by,

Q
dq = 2π R dR
π Ro2
The potential at point P due to charge dq is given by,
k dq
dV =
r
⇒ dV =
x +R
k dq
2 2 ( r = x 2 + R2 ) ... ( i )

06
By
By substituting
substituting the
the value of dq
value of dqin equation ( ii) ,, we
in equation we get,
get,
kQ22ππRR dR
kQ dR
⇒ dV
⇒ dV = =2 2
ππRRoo2 xx 2 ++ RR22
By
By integrating
integratingboth both thethe sides,
sides, we
we get,
get,
kQ
kQ 22RR dR dR
∫ dV
dV == 22 ∫ 2
RRoo xx 2 ++ RR22
The
The limits of RR will
limits of will be =
=
be from
from RR 00=
to RR RRoo..
=
to
kQ
kQ RRoo 22RR dR
dR
VV == 22 ∫ ....( iiii)
....
RRoo 00 xx22 ++ RR22
Take 2
(
Take xx 2 ++ RR 2 =
2
PP
= ) ....( iii
.... iii)
By differentiating
By differe ntiatingpartially
partially with
with respect
respect to to RR,, we
we get,
get,
22RR dR
dR == dP
dP ....( iv
.... iv)
By
By substituting equations ( iii
substituting equations iii) and
and ( iv
iv) in equation ( iiii) ,, we
in equation we get,
get,
kQ
kQ RRoo dP dP
22 ∫0
VV ==
RRoo 0
11
PP22
kQkQ RRoo
⇒ VV =
⇒ =22 22 PP 

RRoo 00
kQkQ  RRoo
⇒ VV
=
⇒
= 22 xx22 ++ RR22
RRo2o2  00
kQkQ 
⇒ VV
=
⇒
= 22 xx22 ++ RRo2o2 −− 22xx
RRo2o2  
22kQ
kQ 
⇒ VV
=
⇒
= xx22 ++ RRo2o2 −− xx
RRo2o2  
Electric Potential Energy (U)
Recall what we have learnt about potential energy till now. We cannot define absolute potential
energy. However, what we can define is the change in potential energy.
The change in potential energy is the negative of the work done by the conservative force, as
the system changes from the initial to the final configuration. Mathematically, the change in the
potential energy is defined as, ΔU = Uf − Ui = (−Wconservative force )i → f
Let us consider that two charges +q1 and −q2 are initially separated by some distance, and are finally
brought close to each other as shown in the figure.
Initial configuration Final configuration
q1 q2 q1 q2
Ui Uf

07
Thus, the change in potential energy of the system is given by,

ΔU = Uf − Ui = (− Wconservative force)i → f
Now, suppose that those two charges are brought close to each other because of the work done
(Wext) by some external agent. According to the work-energy theorem,
Wext + Wel = Δ(K.E.)
Assuming that the charges are brought very slowly without changing their speeds, it can be said
that, Δ(K.E.) = 0.
Therefore,
Wext + Wel = 0
⇒ Wext = −Wel
Thus, the change in potential energy of the system is given by,
ΔU = Wext, if and only if Δ(K.E.) = 0
It is very important to note that potential energy can be defined only for conservative force fields.
Thus, the change in potential energy of a system in a conservative force field does not depend on
the path through which the system changes from the initial to the final configuration. It is because
the change in potential energy is not a path function but a state function, i.e., it depends only on
the initial and final states of the system.
Definition
q1
Electric potential energy is defined as the amount of work done
in assembling a system of charges against the electric forces of
the system by bringing individual charges from infinity to their qn q2
respective positions in the system.
That is, initially, all these charges are at the infinite separation
between them, and finally they are brought to the required
q4 q3
configuration shown in the figure.
Electric Potential Energy of a Two-Charge System
A B
q1 r q2
Let us consider two like charges +q1 and +q2. Initially, they are infinitely separated and are finally
brought to the configuration as shown in the figure, i.e., charges +q1 and +q2 are separated by a
distance r. Let us assume that the electric potential energy at infinity is zero, i.e., Ui = 0
For bringing the first charge +q1 from infinity to point A, there is no charge present near the vicinity.
So, the work done against the electrostatic force is zero.
q1
W∞→ A = 0
We know that due to a point charge, at all the points in space near the vicinity of the charges,
the potential is either positive or negative. Thus, at point B, the potential due to +q1 is given by,
kq1
VB = .
r

08
For bringing the second charge q2 from infinity to point B, which is at a distance r from point A, the
work done is given by,
W∞q2→ B = q2VB
kq1q2
⇒ W∞q2→ B =
r
We know that the change in electric potential energy is given by,
q1 q2
∆U = U f − U i = W∞→ A + W∞→ B
kq1q2
⇒Uf − 0 = 0 +
r
kq q
⇒ U f =1 2
r
Electric Potential Energy of a Three-Charge System
Let us consider three like charges +q1, +q2, and +q3. Initially, they are infinitely separated and are
finally brought to the configuration as shown in the figure. Let us assume that the electric potential
energy at infinity is zero, i.e., Ui = 0.
q2
B
a
c
q1
A
b q3
C
For bringing the first charge +q1 from infinity to point A, there is no charge present near the vicinity.
So, the work done against the electrostatic force is zero.
q1
W∞→ A = 0
We know that due to a point charge at all the points in space near the vicinity of the charges, the
potential is either positive or negative. Thus, at point B, the potential due to +q1 is given by,
kq1
VB =
a
For bringing the second charge +q2 from infinity to point B, which is at a distance a from point A, the
work done is given by,
q2
W∞→ B = q2VB
q2 kq1q2
⇒ W∞→ B =
a

09
For bringing the third charge +q3 from infinity to point C, which is at distance b and c from +q1 and
+q2, respectively, the work done is given by,
q3
W∞→ C = q3VC
q3  kq1 kq2  kq1q3 kq2q3

⇒ W∞→ C = q3  + = +
 b c  b c
The change in the electric potential energy is given by,
q1 q2 q3
∆U = U f − Ui = W∞→ A + W∞→ B + W∞→C
kq1q2 kq1q3 kq2q3

⇒ Uf − 0 = 0 + + +
a b c
kq1q2 kq1q3 kq2q3
⇒ U=
f + +
a b c
From the given relation, it is clear that the potential energy of a system is the sum of the potential
energies of all the possible pairs of charges in the system (without repeating).
For a system having n charges, the number of pairs are given by,
n ( n − 1)
N =
2
The work done in moving a charge between two points having the same potential is zero.
W = q∆V = 0 (since ∆V = 0)
4 A
+q
Three charges, each +q, are placed at the

corners of an isosceles triangle ABC of sides BC
and AC as 2a. D and E are the midpoints of BC E
and CA. Find the work done in taking a charge
Q from D to E.
+q +q
B C
D
3qQ 3qQ qQ
(A) (B) (C) (D) Zero
πε oa 8πε oa 4πε oa

10
Solution A
+q
Due to the symmetric charge configuration,
a
Potential at D = Potential at E
VD = VE
E
The change in the potential energy is given by,
∆U = U E − U D = WExt D→E
a
⇒ U E − U D= Q (VE − VD )= 0 +q +q
Q
⇒ WExt D→E =
0 B C
D
Thus, option (D) is the correct answer.
4 y
(0, a)
As per the diagram, a point charge +q is A
placed at the origin O. Find the work done −Q
in taking another point charge −Q from
point A [coordinates (0, a)] to another point B
[coordinates (a, 0)] along the straight path AB.
q (a, 0)
x
O B
 qQ 1   −qQ 1   qQ 1  a
(A) Zero (B)  2 
2a (C)  2 
2a (D)  2 
 4πε o a   4πε o a   4πε o a  2
Solution NEET
kq
The potential at point A is given by, VA = .
a
kq
The potential at point B is given by, VB = .
a
⇒ VA = VB
The change in the potential energy is given by,
∆U = U B − U A = WExt A→B
⇒ U B − U A= Q (VB − VA )= 0
⇒ WExt A→B =
0

11
4 Charges +q and −q are placed at points

A and B, respectively, which are at a
R
distance 2L from each other. C is the

q −q
midpoint between A and B. Find the work
done in moving a charge +Q along the A C B D
semicircle CRD.
2L
qQ qQ −qQ qQ
(A) (B) (C) (D)
2πε o L 6πε o L 6πε o L 4πε o L
Solution NEET
The potential at point C due to both the charges is given by,

kq kq
VC = − =0
L L
The potential at point D is given by,
kq kq kq
VD = − = −2
3L L 3L
q
⇒ VD = −
6πε o L
The net work done by the external force is given as follows:
∆U = U D − UC = WExt C →D
⇒ WExt C →D = U D − UC = Q (VD − VC )
 q 
⇒ WExt C →D =−
Q − 0
 6πε o L 
qQ
⇒ WExt C →D =
−
6πε o L
Thus, option (C) is the correct answer.

01
NOTE
P H Y S I C S
ELECTROSTATICS
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL - 3
• Null potential points due to two point • Relation between electric field and
charges electric potential
• Electric potential due to extended • Calculation of electric potential from
charges, rings, discs electric field and vice versa
• Electric potential energy for two and • Electric potential due to a uniformly
three charge systems charged sphere and concentric shells
Relation between Electric Field and Electric Potential
Let us consider a point charge +q1. Now, take a point P at a distance r from the charge.
q1 E
P  kq 
+ E = 31 r
A B C D r
r
At point P, the value of the electric field is given by,
 kq 
E = 31 r
r
The direction of the electric field is away from the point charge.
Also, at point P, the value of the electric potential is given by,
kq
V= 1
r
Since it is a scalar quantity, it does not have any direction. We can observe that the electric potential
is inversely proportional to the distance from the charges.
Let us take three points A, B, and C, where A is near to charge +q1 and C is far away from the charge
along the line joining the charge and point P.
The electric potential at the three q1 
A B C E
points is different as they are present at + r1
different distances from +q1. Also, as the
distance increases, the electric p
otential r2
decreases. r3
Therefore,
VA > VB > VC
kq1 kq1 kq1
> >
r1 r2 r3

02
Hence, we can conclude that the electric potential decreases along the direction of the electric
field.
Case 1: When the electric field is uniform
Let us consider that a point charge +q1 is placed in a

uniform electric field. Thus, it experiences electrostatic
force qE along the direction of the electric field. It B qE A
is moved from point A to point B in the electric field
Fext + +
very slowly without changing its speed by applying an q1 ∆r 
external force equal in magnitude, which is opposite in E
direction as shown in the figure. While moving charge
+q1 from point A to point B for the entire path, the
change in kinetic energy is zero (ΔKE = 0).
The value of the external force is equal to the electrostatic force but is opposite in direction.
 
Fext = − qE
The potential difference between points A and B is given by,
Wext
VB − VA = A→B ...…(i)
q1
The work done by the external force is given by,
 
Wext A=
→B Fext . ∆r
 
⇒ Wext A→B = − q1 ( E . ∆r )
Wext A→B  
⇒ − ( E . ∆r ) ...... ( ii )
=
q1
From equations ( i ) and ( ii ) ,we get,
Wext A→B  
⇒ VB − VA = = − ( E . ∆r )
q1
 
⇒ ∆V = − ( E . ∆r )
The negative sign shows that along the direction of electric field, the electric potential is decreasing.
In other words, the electric field is directed from high potential to low potential.
Case 2: When the electric field is non-uniform
In case of a non-uniform electric field, we have to divide the whole path from point A to B into small
lengths dr. For this small length dr, the electric field is almost uniform.

03

E
Therefore, the small potential difference is given by,
 
dV = − E . dr
B A
The total potential difference is given by,
B B   dr
∫ A
dV = − ∫ E . dr
A
Case 3: When the electric field is uniform but charges are moving in a random path
Consider that charge q1 is placed in a uniform electric

field. The charge is moved from A to B along an
A
arbitrary path as shown in the figure. Let the s eparation
between point A and point B be d.
dr sin θ θ dr cos θ 
The total path between A and B is broken into small dr E
  B
lengths dr . Resolve dr such that it is parallel and d
perpendicular to the electric field, i.e., dr cos θ is along
the electric field and dr sin θ is p erpendicular to the
electric field.
Thus, the electric potential is given by,
B  
VB − VA = − ∫ E . dr
A
d
− ∫ E dr cos θ
⇒ VB − VA =
0
d
⇒ VB − VA =
−E dr cos θ ∫
0

If dr cos θ is along E , then the electric potential is given by,
⇒ VB − VA =
− Ed

If dr cos θ is opposite to E , then the electric potential is given by,
⇒ VB − VA = Ed
Calculation of Potential From Electric Field
 
For calculating the value of potential, we have to take E and dr in a Cartesian coordinate system.
Let,

E = E iˆ + E ˆj + E kˆ
x y z

And, r = xiˆ + yjˆ + zkˆ

dr = dxiˆ + dyjˆ + dzkˆ
The potential difference is given by,
 
dV = − E . dr
( )(
−  E x iˆ + E y ˆj + E z kˆ . dxiˆ + dyjˆ + dzkˆ 
⇒ dV =
  )
⇒ dV =
− E x dx − E y dy − E z dz

04
Calculation of Electric Field From Potential
The potential is given in the following form:

dV =
− E x dx − E y dy − E z dz
On partially differentiating with respect to x , we get,
∂V
= − E x (dy = 0 and dz = 0)
∂x
Similarly, on partially differentiating with respect to y and z , we get,
∂V
= − E y (dx = 0 and dz = 0)
∂y
∂V
= − E z (dx = 0 and dy = 0)
∂z
The electric field is given by,

x y z
  ∂V   ∂V  ˆ  ∂V ˆ
⇒ E = −  iˆ +  −  j + − k
 ∂x   ∂y   ∂z 
Therefore,
2
 2
 ∂V   ∂V   ∂V 
2
dV = E =  − ∂x  +  − ∂y  +  − ∂z 
     
The electric field is the negative gradient of the electric potential.
The electric potential at a point (x, y, z) is given by, V = –x2y – xz3 + 4. At that point, what is the
electric field?
 
(A) E = iˆ2xy + ˆj ( x 2 + y 2 ) + kˆ (3xz − y 2 ) (B) E = iˆ z 3 + ˆj xyz + kˆ z 2
 
(C) E= iˆ ( 2xy + z 3 ) + ˆj ( xy 2 ) + kˆ (3z 2 x ) (D) E= iˆ ( 2xy + z 3 ) + ˆj ( x 2 ) + kˆ (3xz 2 )
Solution NEET
Given,
V= − x 2 y − xz 3 + 4
On partially differentiating with respect to x , y , and z , we get,
∂V
= − 2xy − z 3 + 0 = − 2xy − z 3
∂x
∂V
=− x 2 + 0 + 0 =− x 2
∂y
∂V
= 0 − 3xz 2 + 0 =− 3xz 2
∂z

x y z
  ∂V ˆ ∂V ˆ ∂V ˆ 
⇒E = i+ j+ k
−
∂x
05∂V =− x 2 + 0 + 0 =− x 2
∂y
∂V
= 0 − 3xz 2 + 0 =− 3xz 2
∂z

x y z
  ∂V ˆ ∂V ˆ ∂V ˆ 
⇒E =− i+ j+ k
 ∂x ∂y ∂z 
∂V ∂V ∂V
By substituting the values of , , and in the given equation, we get,
∂x ∂y ∂z

(( ) ( ) (
⇒ E =− −2xy − z 3 iˆ + − x 2 ˆj + −3xz 2 kˆ ) )

⇒= ( ) ( ) ( )
E iˆ 2xy + z 3 + ˆj x 2 + kˆ 3xz 2
In a region, the potential is represented by, V (x, y, z) = 6x – 8xy – 8y + 6yz, where, V is in volts
and x, y, and z are in meters. What is the electric force experienced by a charge of 2 coulombs
situated at point (1, 1, 1)?
(A) 6 5 N (B) 30 N (C) 24 N (D) 4 35 N
Solution NEET
Given,
V ( x , y , z ) = 6 x − 8 xy − 8 y + 6 yz
On partially differentiating with respect to x , y , and z , we get,
∂V
Ex = − =− (6 − 8 y )
∂x
⇒ E x |( 1 , 1 , 1 ) =
2
∂V
Ey =− =− ( 0 − 8 x − 8 + 6z )
∂y
⇒ E y|( 1 , 1 , 1 ) =10
∂V
Ez = − − (6 y )
=
∂z
⇒ E z |( 1 , 1 , 1 ) =
−6
The magnitude of the electric field is given by ,

E = E x2 + E 2y + E z2

⇒ E = 4 + 100 + 36

⇒ E = 2 35 NC −1
The electric force is given by,
 
F = q E = 2 × 2 35

⇒F = 4 35 N
06
Electric Potential Due to Uniformly Charged Spheres
In the last session, we discussed four kinds of charged spheres such as a solid conducting sphere;
a thin, hollow conducting sphere; a solid non-conducting sphere; and a thin, hollow non-conducting
sphere. Out of these four spheres, only in the solid non-conducting sphere, the charge is distributed
throughout the sphere. However, for the other three types, the charge is distributed uniformly only
over the surface so that we can treat them as a single case. Due to similar charge distribution, they
will have the same electric fields and electric potentials at equal distances.
Potential due to solid conducting sphere; thin, hollow conducting sphere; thin, hollow
non-conducting sphere
Here, we can take any of the three types of spheres, i.e., solid conducting, hollow conducting, or
hollow non-conducting. For our study, we are taking a thin, hollow conducting sphere.
Case 1: Outside the sphere (r > R)
Let us consider a thin, hollow conducting sphere
of radius R, having a charge Q uniformly distributed
on it. Now, consider point P outside the sphere at a Q ++ ++++
+
distance r from the sphere.
+
++
R
+++++
We know that an electric field at any point outside

++++++
the uniform spherical symmetric charge d istribution ∞
r P
++
behaves as if all its charge is concentrated at its

+
centre.
+
+ ++
+++++
Therefore, the electric field at P is given by,
kQ
EP = 2
r
The electric potential difference is given by,
r  
VP − V∞ = − ∫ E . dr
∞
r kQ
⇒ VP − 0 =− ∫ dr
∞ r2
kQ
⇒ VP =
r
Case 2: On the surface of the sphere (r = R)

The potential difference at the surface of the sphere
is given by,
R 
Q ++ +++
 + +
VP − V∞ = − ∫ E . dr
+
∞
R
+++++
++
kQ R
⇒ VP − 0 =− ∫ 2 dr
+++++
∞
∞ r r
++
kQ
⇒ VP =
+
+ ++
+++++
R

07
Case 3: Inside the sphere (r < R)

The electric field inside the sphere due to uniform
distribution is given by, Q++ +++
+ +
EP = 0
+
R
+++++
++
The electric field is zero inside as well as on the
+++++
surface of the sphere, i.e., the potential is constant ∞
inside as well on the surface of the sphere. r
++
Therefore, the electric potential difference at any
+
+ ++
+++++
point inside the sphere is given by,
kQ
VP =
R
Electric potential (V) vs distance (r) graph
kQ Constant
R
1 kQ
V∝ VP =
r r
O
Inside R Outside r
Potential due to a solid non-conducting sphere
For a solid non-conducting sphere, the charge is distributed throughout the material so that the
potential inside the conductor does not become zero.
Case 1: Outside the sphere (r > R)
Let us consider a solid non-conducting sphere of radius R, having a charge Q uniformly distributed
throughout the material. Consider point P outside the sphere at a distance r from the sphere.
We know that the electric field at any point outside the uniform spherical symmetric charge
distribution behaves as if all its charge is concentrated at its c entre.
Therefore, the electric field at P is given by,
kQ
EP = 2
r
The electric potential difference is given by,
R  
VP − V∞ = − ∫ E .dr Q
∞ + +
+ + +
R kQ
R +
+ + +
⇒ VP − 0 =− ∫ 2 dr + ∞
∞ r + + + r P
+ + +
kQ + +
⇒ VP = + ++
R

08
Case 2: On the surface of the sphere (r = R)

The potential difference at the surface of the sphere is given by,
R  
− ∫ E .dr
VP − V∞ =
∞
R kQ
⇒ VP − 0 =− ∫ dr
∞ r2
kQ
⇒ VP =
R
Case 3: Inside the sphere (r < R)

Since the charge is distributed throughout the sphere, i.e., inside the sphere as well, the electric
field inside the sphere is non-zero.
The electric field inside the sphere is given by,
kQr
E inside = 3
R
The electric potential difference is given by, Q
VP r + +
+ + R++
∫V dV = − ∫R Einside dr + + + + P+ S
s ∞
r
+ + r +
Qr + +
⇒ VP − Vs = −∫ dr + +
R
4πε oR 3 + +
r
Q
4πε oR3 ∫R
⇒ VP − Vs =
− r dr
r
r2  Q
⇒ VP − Vs =
−  
4πε oR3  2  R
Q  r 2 R2 
⇒ VP − Vs =
−  − 
4πε oR3  2 2
Q r2  1 Q Q  Q 
⇒ VP − =
−  +  Vs = 
4πε o R 4πε oR3  2  2 4πε oR  4πε oR 
Q 3 1 r2 
⇒VP
=  − 
4πε o R  2 2 R 2 
1 Q  r2 
⇒VP = 3 − 
2 4πε oR  R2 
At centre, r = 0,
3 3 Q
∴ VC = VS =
2 2 4πε o R
Therefore, potential difference inside the sphere is given by,
kQ  r2 
VP
= 3 − 
2R  R2 

09
Electric potential (V) vs distance (r) graph
3kQ
3 kQ V
2R
2 R
kQ
kQ
R
R
O r
Inside R Outside
A conducting sphere of radius R is given charge Q. Find the electric potential and the electric
field at the centre of the sphere, respectively.
Q Q Q Q
(A) Zero and (B) and Zero (C) and (D) Both are zero
4πε oR 2
4πε oR 4πε oR 4πε oR 2
Solution NEET
For a conducting sphere, the charge is distributed uniformly only on the surface of the sphere. Due
to symmetric and uniform charge distribution, the net electric field at any point inside the sphere is
zero.
Therefore, the electric field at centre is given by,
E=0
Since it is a solid conducting sphere, we know that a conductor is an equipotential surface. Thus,
the electric potential is the same inside as well as on the surface of the conductor.
Therefore, the electric potential at the centre is given by,
kQ Q
V=P =
R 4πε oR
Thus, option (B) is the correct answer.
Two metallic spheres of radii 1 cm and 3 cm are given charge of –1 × 10–2 C and 5 × 10–2 C,
respectively. If these spheres are connected by a conducting wire, then what is the final
charge on the bigger sphere?
(A) 2 × 10-2 C (B) 3 × 10-2 C (C) 4 × 10-2 C (D) 1 × 10-2 C
Solution NEET
We know that the charge is conserved. The net charge in the system remains the same. If the two
charged conductors are made to come in contact, the charges transfer from one conductor to
another until they reach a common potential. Once their potential becomes equal, no more charge
transfer happens.
Qnet = Q1 + Q2 = (–1 × 10–2 C) + (5 × 10–2 C) = 4 × 10–2 C …..(i)
Given, the spheres are charged and are connected by a conducting wire. Hence, they will attain a
common potential. Thus, the potential of both spheres will become equal.
10
V1 = V2
kQ1 kQ2
⇒ =
R1 R2
Q1 R1 1
⇒ = =
Q2 R2 3
Q2
⇒ Q1 =
3
By substituting the value of Q1 in equation ( i ) , we get,
Q2
+ Q2 =4 × 10−2
3
⇒ 4Q2 = 3 × 4 × 10−2
⇒ Q2 =3 × 10−2 C
Potential Due to Concentric Shells

Q, R
Consider three concentric hollow spheres, A, B, and C, with
A B 2Q, 2R
charges Q, 2Q, and 4Q, respectively. The electric potential at any
point on the surface of any sphere will be the sum of all the
C 4Q, 4R
potential that occurs due to all the shells.
Potential on shell B is due to its charge d
istribution on its surface itself and due to charge d
istribution
on shell A and charge distribution on shell C.
The electric potential at any point on the surface of shell B is given by,
VBsurface = VA + VB + VC
kQ 2kQ 4kQ
⇒ VBsurface = + +
2R 2R 4R
5kQ
⇒ VBsurface =
2R
Potential on shell C is due to its charge distribution on its surface itself and due to charge distribution
on shell A and charge distribution on shell B.
VC surface = VA + VB + VC
kQ 2kQ 4kQ
⇒ VC surface = + +
4R 4R 4R
7kQ
⇒ VC surface =
4R

NOTE
P H Y S I C S
ELECTROSTATICS
POTENTIAL DUE TO DIPOLE AND
EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES
• Null potential points due to two point • Potential due to dipole

charges • Potential due to dipole in a uniform
• Electric potential due to extended charges, electric field
ring, disc • Equipotential surface and its properties
• Electric potential energy for two charge
and three charge system
σ, a
Three concentric spherical shells having radii a, b, and c –σ, b

(a < b < c) and have surface charge densities σ, –σ, and σ, A
σ, c
respectively. If VA, VB, and VC denote the potentials of the B
three shells, then, for c = a + b, we have,
C
(A) VC = VB ≠ VA (B) VC ≠ VB ≠ VA (C) VC = VB = VA (D) VC = VA ≠ VB
Solution NEET
The charge on the shell a, b, and c is,
qA= σ × 4π a2
qB= σ × 4π b2
qC= σ × 4π c 2
The potential on the surface of shell A is due to all the charges in the system, and it is given by,
VAsurface = VA + VB + VC
kqA kqB kqC

⇒ VAsurface = − +
a b c
1  qA qB qC 
⇒ V= − + 
4πε o  a
Asurface
b c 
By substituting the value of qA , qB , and qC , we get,

kq kq kq
⇒ VAsurface = A − B + C
02 a b c
1  qA qB qC 
⇒ V= − + 
4πε o  a
Asurface
b c 
1  σ × 4π a2 σ × 4π b2 σ × 4π c 2 
⇒
= VAsurface  − + 
4πε o  a b c 
σ
⇒ VAsurface
= (a − b + c )
εo
σ
⇒ VAsurface
= ( a − b + a + b ) ( c =
a + b)
εo
σ
⇒ VAsurface =(2a ) ..... ( i )
εo
Similarly, the potential on the surface of shell B is given by,
VBsurface = VA + VB + VC
kqA kqB kqC

⇒ VBsurface = − +
b b c
1  qA qB qC 
⇒ V= − + 
4πε o  b
Bsurface
b c 
1  σ × 4π a2 σ × 4π b2 σ × 4π c 2 
⇒
= VBsurface  − + 
4πε o  b b c 
σ  a2 
⇒ VB=  − b + c
εo  b
surface

σ  a2 
⇒ VBsurface =  − b + a + b  ( c = a + b )
εo  b 
σ  a2 
⇒ VBsurface =  + a  ..... ( ii )
εo  b 
The potential on the surface of shell C is given by,
VC surface = VA + VB + VC
kqA kqB kqC

⇒ VC surface = − +
c c c
1  qA qB qC 
⇒ V= − + 
4πε o  c
C surface
c c 
1  σ × 4π a2 σ × 4π b2 σ × 4π c 2 
⇒
= VC surface  − + 
4πε o  c c c 
σ  a2 b2 
⇒ VC =  − + c
surface
εo  c c 
o

03
1  σ × 4π a2 σ × 4π b2 σ × 4π c 2 
⇒ VC surface
=  − + 
4πε o  c c c 
σ  a2 b2 
⇒ VC surface
=  − + c
εo  c c 
σ  a2 − b2 
⇒ VC surface
=  + c
εo  c 
σ  a2 − b2 
⇒ VC surface =  + ( a + b )  ( c =a + b )
ε o  ( a + b ) 

σ
⇒ VC surface
= (a − b + a + b)
εo
σ
⇒ VC surface =(2a ) ..... ( iii )
εo
From equations ( i ) , ( ii ) , and ( iii ) , we get,
V=
C VA ≠ VB
Potential Due to Dipole
1. On the axis of the dipole

Let us consider an electric dipole of length O M
– +
2l. On the axial line (axis) of the dipole, let us l l x
consider a point M at a distance x from the
centre of the dipole, as shown in the figure.
(x + l)
–q +q
The point M is at a distance of x – l and x + l from O M
– +
positive and negative charges, respectively.
l l x (x – l)
The net potential at point M due to the dipole is given by,

(Vnet =
)M V+ q + V− q
kq kq
⇒ (Vnet )M = −
(x − l) (x + l)
kq ( 2l )
⇒ (Vnet )M =
x 2 − l2 ( )
kp
⇒ (Vnet )M = ( p =
q × 2l )
( x − l2
2
)
If l << x ,
kp
⇒ (Vnet )M =
x2 ( )
04
2. On the perpendicular bisector of the dipole or on the equatorial line

Let us consider an electric dipole of length 2l. On M
the perpendicular bisector of the dipole, let us
consider a point M at a distance x from the centre of
the dipole, as shown in the figure.
x 2 + l2 x 2 + l2
The point M is at a distance of x + l from both 2 2
x
positive and negative charges, respectively.
(Vnet =
)M V+ q + V− q
– +
kq kq l O l
⇒ (Vnet )M = − = 0 –q +q
x +l2 2
x +l
2 2
M
V=0
(For the whole plane)
Since every point on the perpendicular bisector of the
dipole (equatorial line) is equidistant from both the
positive and negative charges. The potential at any
point on the perpendicular bisector of the dipole will x
be zero. If we consider a plane that is perpendicular
to the dipole axis and passes through the equatorial
line of the dipole as shown in the figure, the net – +
potential due to the dipole on the whole plane is l O l
zero. This plane is known as “Equatorial plane”.
3. The potential at any general point

Let us consider an electric dipole of length 2l.
Consider any general point M, neither on the axial
line nor on the equatorial line of the dipole. Point M (x, θ)
M at a distance x from the centre of the dipole. The
line joining the centre of the dipole (O) and point M

makes an angle θ with the dipole moment vector p
as shown in the figure. Since we know the electric
potential on the axial point and on the equatorial
point of a dipole, let us resolve the dipole moment p cos θ
p of the dipole into two components, one along the
l O θ l
line joining the centre of the dipole and point M,
– +
and another one is perpendicular to the line joining p
the centre of the dipole. As a consequence, point p sin θ
M becomes the axial point of the dipole p cos θ and
the equatorial point of the dipole p sin θ.

05
So, the potential at point M due to p cos θ is given by,

kp cosθ
Vp cosθ
= ( if l << x )
x2
For p sin θ, the point M is an equatorial point, and we know that the electric potential at an
equatorial point is zero.
Vp sinθ = 0
So, the net electric potential at point M due to the dipole is given as follows:
kp cosθ
(V=
net ) M Vp sinθ + V=
p cos θ ( if l << x )
x2
Potential Energy Due to Dipole in a Uniform Electric Field
Consider an electric dipole placed in a uniform

electric field at an angle θ1 with the electric field. Due
to the electric field, both positive and negative charge
  
experience an electrostatic force equal in magnitude τ= p × E
but opposite in direction. Therefore, the net force +
qE
on the dipole is zero. But due to the two equal and
  
opposite forces with different lines of action forms a θ1 τ= p × E
couple. The couple generates a clockwise non-zero p
torque about the COM of the dipole, which rotates the
dipole to align it in the direction of the electric field. –
qE
The torque acting on the dipole is given as follows:
  
τ= p × E
Now, let us consider an external torque is given to the
dipole to rotate the dipole from an angle θ1 to angle
θ2, as shown in the figure. The external torque is given
in such a way that there is no change in the kinetic   
energy of the system. + τ=ext p × E
According to the work-energy theorem, +
θ2 qE
Wext + Wel = Δ(K.E.)   
θ1 τ= p × E
Since there is no change in kinetic energy of the
p
dipole, Δ(K.E.) = 0
Wext + Wel = 0
–
⇒ Wext = – Wel qE
–
We know that, ΔU = –Wel
Thus, ΔU = Wext, if and only if Δ(K.E.) = 0
Therefore, we can say, Wexternal = Welectrical

06
The work done by the external torque is given by,

θ2
Wext = ∫ τ ext dθ
θ1
 
Also, τ=ele τ=ext pE sin θ
θ2
∫ pE sin θ dθ
⇒ Wext =
θ1
θ2
pE ∫ sin θ dθ
⇒ Wext =
θ1
− pE [cos θ ]θ2
θ
⇒ Wext =
1
− pE [cos θ2 − cos θ1 ]
⇒ Wext =
The change in potential energy is given by,
∆U = U f − Ui = Wext
⇒ ∆U = − pE [cos θ2 − cos θ1 ]
When θ = 90° , we can assume that the potential energy is zero. That means we choose θ = 90° as
the reference point.
∆U =Uθ2 − Uθ1 =− pE [cos θ2 − cos θ1 ]
Let θ1 =
90° and Uθ1 =
0
⇒ Uθ2 − 0 =− pE [cos θ2 − cos 90°]
− pE [cos θ2 ]
⇒ Uθ2 =
Therefore, for any general angle θ the potential energy is given by,
− pE cos θ
⇒ Uθ =
 
⇒ Uθ =
− p.E
Some important cases
Case 1:
  
When dipole moment τ= p ×makes
E an angle θ = 90° with
the electric field, the net force acting on the dipole is +
given by, qE
Fnet = 0
  
The net torque acting is given by, 90° τ= p × E
 p
=τ pE = sin 90° pE

⇒ τ is maximum
qE
The potential energy is given by, –
Uθ = − pE cos 90° = 0

07
Case 2:
  
the electric field, the net force acting on the dipole is
given by,
Fnet = 0
–
The net torque acting is given by,   
0° τ= p × E
 p
+
=τ pE =sin 0° 0 qE qE
The potential energy is given by,
Uθ = − pE cos 0° = − pE
In this case, both the net torque and the net force acting
on the dipole are zero, therefore, we can say that the
dipole is in equilibrium. Also, the potential energy at this position is minimum, so the equilibrium
will be a stable equilibrium.
Case 3:
  
the electric field, the net force acting on the dipole is
given by,
Fnet = 0
–
  
The net torque acting is given by, 180° τ= p × E

+
=τ pE =sin 180° 0 qE p qE
The potential energy is given by,

Uθ = − pE cos 180° = pE
In this case also, both the net torque and the net force
acting on the dipole are zero. Therefore, we can say
that the dipole is in equilibrium. Also, the potential energy at this position is maximum, so the
equilibrium will be an unstable equilibrium.
 
An electric dipole of the dipole moment p is lying along a uniform electric field E . What is the
work done in rotating the dipole by 90°?
pE
(A) pE (B) 2pE (C) (D) 2pE
2
Solution NEET
     
τ= p ×isElying along a uniform electric
It is given that, initially the dipole of the moment τ= field
p × E i.e., θ =
0° and it is rotated from 0° to 90°.

08
Therefore,
θ1 = 0°
+
qE
and θ=
2 90°
–
The work done in rotating the dipole is given as   
90° τ= p × E
+
follows: p
− pE [cos θ2 − cos θ1 ]
⇒ Wext =
⇒ Wext = − pE [cos 90° − cos 0°] qE

–
⇒ Wext =
pE
Equipotential Surfaces
Equipotential surface
Consider a positive charge +q, due to which an electric

field is generated in space. If we consider points that
are radially equidistant from the charge +q, the electric
potential at all those points will be the same, and if
we connect those all points, it forms spherical shells.
Similarly, there can be a number of shells in the electric
field of a point charge. Thus, every point on each   
+q τ= p × E
of the shells has equal potential i.e., these shells are
considered as surfaces with the same potential that is
also known as equipotential surfaces.
A surface on which the potential is the same at every
point is known as an equipotential surface.
The properties of equipotential surfaces

Equipotential surface
1. The work done in displacing a charge between any
two points on an equipotential surface is zero. A
If a charge is moved from point A to B, then the work qo
+
done is given as follows:
The potential on every point on the equipotential
surface is the same. Therefore,
W = qo(VB – VB)
W=0 B
2. The equipotential surfaces are always perpendicular
to the electric field lines.
+
3. The two equipotential surfaces can never intersect
each other.

09
  
τ= field
4. In the uniform electric p × E, the equipotential Plane equipotential surfaces
surfaces will be as shown in the figure.
1 2 3 4 5 6
We know that the electric potential decreases
along the direction of the electric field or
in other words, the direction of the electric
field is from a higher potential to lower 
 
potential. Therefore, equipotential surfaces τ= p × E
in the direction of the electric field will be in
descending order of electric potential. Thus,
the electric potential on surface 1 is greater
than surface 2 i.e., V1 > V2 > V3 > V4 > V5 > V6.
However, individually, the potential on each
surface will be constant.
20 V
40 V
20 V
40 V
20 V
40 V
30 V
30 V
30 V
10 V
10 V
10 V
The given A
diagrams show A B A B A B 10 V B
equipotential 20 V
30 V
region.
40 V
(a) (b) (c) (d)
(A) The maximum work is required to move q in figure(c).

(B) In all four cases, the work done is the same.
(C) The minimum work is required to move q in figure (a).
(D) The maximum work done is required to move q in figure (b).
Solution
20 V
40 V
30 V
10 V
Work done for

(a) W = q(ΔV)
W = q(Vf – Vi)
A B
W = q(40 – 10)
W = 30q
(a)

10
20 V
40 V
30 V
10 V
(b) W = q(ΔV)
W = q(Vf – Vi)
A B
W = q(40 – 10)
W = 30q
(b)
20 V
40 V
30 V
10 V
(c) W = q(ΔV)
W = q(Vf – Vi)
A B
W = q(40 – 10)
W = 30q
(c)
(d) W = q(ΔV)
A B
W = q(Vf – Vi)
10 V
W = q(40 – 10) 20 V
W = 30q 30 V
40 V
(d)

S1: Introduction to Capacitors
➢ Capacitance
➢ Electrostatics ➢ Combination of mercury drops
➢ Electric field and potential ➢ Types of capacitor
➢ Induction of charge ➢ Parallel plate capacitors
➢ Dielectric medium ➢ Energy stored in capacitor
Capacitors
A random shaped, isolated, uncharged conductor is placed in
a dielectric medium (say, air). Though the conductor is
neutral, it has enormous number of free electrons.
𝑉
The small dipoles that are shown in the figure are the dipoles
of the dielectric medium at the surroundings of the
conductor.
If the conductor is connected to the positive terminal of a
battery of potential difference V, the free electrons of the
conductor are pulled towards the battery.
The left out positions of the electrons are known as holes

(positive charges). As the electrons flow to the ground
𝑉
through battery, the number of holes (positive charges) on
the conductor increases. Since it is an isolated conductor, the
electric field needs to be zero inside the conductor. Thus, all
the positive charges reside on the surface of the conductor.
Capacitors
The local charge density on the surface of the conductor is
inversely proportional to the local radius of curvature of the
conductor.
1 𝜎: Surface charge density +𝑄

𝜎∝ 𝑟: Radius of curvature 𝑉
𝑟
As the voltage of the battery is increased, more electrons will

be pulled by the battery and hence, the amount of induced
positive charge on the surface of the isolated conductor will
increase.
Consequently, the electric field due to it also increases. Because of this electric field, the negative charges of
the electric dipoles in the surrounding dielectric medium experience an electrostatic attraction and hence,
they accumulate near the surface of the conductor, as shown in the figure. As a result, the negative charge
and the positive charge of each dipole experience an equal and opposite electrostatic force.
Capacitors
At a certain voltage, the electric dipoles in the medium cannot sustain more electrostatic force and breaks
into free positive and negative charges and hence, electric sparks originate, as shown in the figure.
Due to electrostatic attraction, the negative charges of the

broken dipoles attract towards the conductor and nullify
the net positive surface charge of the conductor. As a
result, the charge of the conductor decreases.
𝑉 +𝑄
The positive charges that become free from the dipoles
are known as the “Leakage charge” and the potential that
is responsible for this whole scenario is known as the
“Leakage potential” or “Breakdown potential”. After the
breakdown takes place, no more charge can be added to
the conductor no matter how much we increase the
battery's potential.
Capacitors
Capacitance of a conductor:
The capacitance of a conductor can be defined as the amount of charge required to increase
the potential of the conductor by 1 V.
When the charge is given to an isolated conductor, its potential increases, i.e.,
𝑄 ∝ 𝑉
⇒ 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
Where 𝐶 is the constant, known as the capacity or capacitance of the conductor.
Capacity is the ratio of the charge stored to the potential at the surface of the conductor and it
determines the capacity of the conductor to hold an electric charge..
𝑄
𝐶=
𝑉
Capacitors
Capacitance of isolated spherical conductor:
Consider an isolated charged spherical conductor of charge +𝑄 and radius 𝑅 as shown in the figure.
Capacitance of the spherical conductor, Potential at the surface,

+𝑄
𝑄
𝐶 = = 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑅 𝑅
𝑉
Where, 𝜖0 is a constant known as permittivity
of free space and it signifies the capability of
free space to permit electric fields.
Capacitance of the spherical conductor in any medium having permittivity 𝜖 is given by,
𝐶𝑚𝑒𝑑 = 4𝜋𝜖𝑟 𝜖0 𝑅 (∵ 𝜖 = 𝜖𝑟 𝜖0 )
The capacitance of a spherical conductor only depends on its radius R and the nature of the
medium.
Capacitors
Notes on capacitance
Capacitance determines the capacity of system to hold electric charge.
Capacitance only depends on the dimensions of the conductor and

the nature of medium
Capacitance is Independent of charge 𝑄 and voltage 𝑉
The SI unit of capacitance is 𝐹(𝐹𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑑)

Energy stored in Capacitors
Consider an uncharged spherical conductor present in a medium.
Status of the conductor at different time Capacitance = 𝐶
interval is as follows: 𝑞
𝑡 = 0 Charge = 0 Potential = 0 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉0 ⇒ 𝑉0 =
𝐶
𝑡 = 𝑡 Charge = 𝑞 Potential = 𝑉0
If an external agent brings some more charge dq to the

surface of the conductor to make net charge 𝑄 , the
required work done by the external agent is 𝑑𝑊 against
the existing electrostatic force is given by,
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑉0 𝑑𝑞
Energy stored in Capacitors
Work done = 𝑑𝑊 = 𝑉0 𝑑𝑞
At t = ∞
Charge = 𝑄 Potential = 𝑉
At ∞
Work done = Energy stored

𝑄2 𝐶𝑉 2
𝑊=𝐸= = (∵ 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉)
2𝐶 2
Combination of mercury drops
Let us consider 𝑛 number of small mercury drops each of radius r.
The electric charge 𝑞0 , electric potential 𝑉0 , electrostatic potential energy 𝑈0 , and
capacitance 𝐶0 . Each of the drops can be considered as a spherical conductor.
The capacitance of the small mercury drops is given by,
𝐶0 = 4𝜋𝜖0 𝑟 +
+ + + 2𝑟
The potential of the small mercury drops is given by,
𝑞0 + + +
𝑉0 = +
𝐶0 + +
The potential energy of the small mercury drops is given + +
+
by, 1
𝑈0 = 𝐶0 𝑉02 𝑞0
2
𝑄
+ + + + 2𝑟
+ + +
+
+ +
+ +
+
𝑞0
2𝑅
When all the small drops coalesce to form a large drop of radius 𝑅 and charge 𝑄, the net volume
will remain constant. Therefore,
Volume of larger drop = 𝑛 × Volume of smaller drops
Capacitance of the large drop, 𝑄 = 𝑛𝑞0
1
𝐶= 𝑛3 (𝐶0 )
2
𝑉= 𝑛3 𝑉0
1
𝑅= 𝑛3 𝑟
5
2𝑅 𝑈= 𝑛3 𝑈0
Potential of the large drop,
Potential energy of the large drop,
Capacitors
Capacitance of a capacitor
It is the ratio of magnitude of the charge supplied to the potential difference
between the conductors.
𝑄
𝐶= Note : Δ𝑉 is usually written as 𝑉
Δ𝑉
where, 𝑉 = 𝑉+ − 𝑉−
𝑉+ = Potential of the positively charged conductor
𝑉− = Potential of the negatively charged conductor
Note : It is defined in this way so that Δ𝑉 > 0 and 𝐶 > 0

Capacitors
To store or add more charges to an isolated conductor connected to a battery, we have to reduce
its potential. It will be possible by bringing another isolated conductor in the vicinity of it, as
described in different cases below.
Case : 1
Consider an isolated charged conductor
(conductor 1) having charge Q, and a neutral
conductor (conductor 2) separated by a small
distance, as shown in the figure. +𝑄
Since the neutral conductor (Conductor 2) is 1 2
placed in the field of the charged conductor
(Conductor 1), it gets polarised and hence,
some of the dipoles in the medium are
attracted to it.
As a result, the potential on the surface of conductor 1 decreases. Hence, some more charges can
be stored or added to it.
Capacitors
Case : 2
Consider two equal and oppositely charged conductors separated by a small distance as shown in
the figure.
Due to equal and opposite charges of the 𝑉1 𝑉2
conductors, the net potential on the surface of each
conductor decreases. Hence, some more charges can
be stored or added to the charged conductor.
Let the charge and the electric potential on the
conductors be +Q, − Q and V1, V2, respectively. So,
the capacitance of the conductor having charge +Q
is given by,
𝑄 𝑄
𝐶= =
𝑉1 − 𝑉2 𝑉
Capacitors
Case : 3
The conductor connected with the positive terminal of the battery gets positively charged
(say, +𝑄), and the other conductor connected to the negative terminal gets negatively charged
(say, −𝑄), as shown in the figure.
The phenomenon of depositing the charges on the
+𝑄 𝑉1
plates of the capacitor is known as charging of the
capacitor. This charge transfer continues until the 𝑉
potential difference between these two conducting −𝑄 𝑉2
plates equals the potential of the battery. This is known
as a steady state of the capacitor.
At a steady state, let the potential of the plates be V1 and V2, respectively. The capacitance of
the system is given by,
𝑄 𝑄
𝐶= = 𝑉 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉2
𝑉1 − 𝑉2 𝑉
Types of Capacitor
Parallel plate Capacitor Spherical Capacitor Cylindrical Capacitor

Parallel plate capacitor
Consider a parallel plate capacitor having area A. The separation between the plates d is such that d <<
A. The conducting plates are treated as infinitely large plates having surface charge densities +𝜎 and
− 𝜎.
Area, 𝐴
The surface charge density of the positive and negative 𝜎 = 𝑄/𝐴
plate is given by, 1
𝜎 = 𝑄/𝐴 −𝜎 = −𝑄/𝐴
Because of this surface charge on the plates, a 𝐸 𝑑 𝑑≪𝐴
uniform, non-zero electric field exists in between the
parallel plates of the capacitor, as shown in the figure. 2
We know that the electric field due to an infinite plate −𝜎 = −𝑄/𝐴
𝜎
of area A and surface charge density +𝜎 is .
2𝜀0 1
Therefore, the net electric field between the plates is
given by, 𝐸1
𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝑄
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 = + 𝐸 𝑛𝑒𝑡 = = 𝐸2
2𝜀0 2𝜀0 𝜀0 𝐴𝜀0
2
Potential difference and capacitance: 1
The potential difference between the two plates is
𝐸1
given by,
𝑑
𝑄𝑑 𝐸2
𝑉 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑑 =
𝐴𝜀0
2
The capacitance of the capacitor is given by,
𝑄 𝑄
𝐶= =
𝑉 𝑄𝑑/𝐴𝜀0
𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑
Energy stored in capacitor:
The energy stored in a parallel plate capacitor is given by the work done by an external agent,
which in this case is a battery, to raise the charge to 𝑄 and the potential to 𝑉. Thus, it will be
stored as the electric potential of the system.
𝑑𝑞
At some instant, the charge, the potential, and
the capacitance on the capacitor are 𝑞, 𝑉0 , and 𝐶, 1
respectively. The small work done in raising the
charge of the capacitor by 𝑑𝑞 amount is given by,
𝑉 𝑞, 𝑉
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑉0 𝑑𝑞
By integrating from 𝑞 = 0 to 𝑞 = 𝑄, we get, 2
𝑄
𝑊 = න 𝑉0 𝑑𝑞
0
𝑄 𝑄 2 𝑄
𝑞 1 1 𝑞 𝑄2 𝑄2
𝑊=න 𝑑𝑞 = න 𝑞 𝑑𝑞 = = 𝑊=
0 𝐶 𝐶 0 𝐶 2 0
2𝐶 2𝐶
Energy stored in capacitor:
𝑄2
𝑊=
2𝐶
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
𝐶𝑉 2
𝑈=
2
𝐶 = 𝑄/𝑉
𝑄𝑉
𝑈=
2
𝑄2
𝑈=
2𝐶
Session -2 : Redistribution of charges
• Capacitors • Energy density of parallel-plate capacitors

• Capacitance of a spherical conductor • Work done by the battery
• Energy stored in a capacitor • Force between the plates of parallel-plate
• Different types of capacitor capacitors
• Parallel-plate capacitor • Spherical and cylindrical capacitors
• Redistribution of charges
• Combination of capacitor
Recap
Capacitance of a conductor: Capacitance of isolated spherical conductor:
Capacity of system to hold electric
charge.
𝐶 = 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅
Energy stored
𝑄
∫ 𝑑𝑊 = න 𝑉0 . 𝑑𝑞
0
t=0 Charge=0 Potential=0
𝑄 𝑄2 𝐶𝑉 2 Charge=𝑞 Potential=𝑉0
𝐶= 𝐸= = t=𝑡
𝑉 2𝐶 2
t=∞ Charge=𝑄 Potential=𝑉
Work done = Energy 𝑄2
𝑊=
stored 2𝐶
Recap
Capacitance
𝑄 𝑄
𝐶= =
𝑉1 − 𝑉2 𝑉
Types of capacitors
Recap
Electric field, potential difference, and capacitance of parallel plate capacitor
𝜎 𝑄 𝑄𝑑 𝜀0 𝐴
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = = 𝑉 = 𝐸𝑑 = 𝐶=
𝜀0 𝐴𝜀0 𝐴𝜀0 𝑑
Electric stored in capacitor

Energy density
1 1
𝑈 = 𝐶𝑉 2 :
2
𝜀0 𝐴
Where C = and V = 𝐸𝑑 𝐸 𝑑
𝑑 𝑉
1 𝜀0 𝐴
𝑈= × × 𝐸𝑑 2
2 𝑑 2
1
𝑈 = × 𝜀0 𝐴𝑑𝐸 2
2
In above equation A is the area and d is the distance between the plate, volume = A*d
We can write as Energy per volume as
𝑈 Energy 1
= = Energy density (𝑈𝑑 ) 𝑈𝑑 = 𝜀0 𝐸 2
𝐴𝑑 Volume
2
+𝑄 −𝑄
Work done by the battery
Work done by the battery is given by

𝑊𝑏 = 𝑄(𝑉)
𝑊𝑏 = 𝐶𝑉 2 ∵ 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
Energy stored in the capacitor,
𝑉
𝑄 𝑄
1 2
𝑈 = 𝐶𝑉
2
Heat generated = 𝑊𝑏 − 𝑈
1 2 1 2
𝐻= 𝐶𝑉 2 − 𝐶𝑉 𝐻 = 𝐶𝑉
2 2
Force between the plates:
Let us consider a fully charged capacitor of capacitance C and charge Q. Since both the plates
are oppositely charged they mutually attract each other with the same force F.
𝐹
𝐸1 = 𝜎/2𝜀0 𝐸2 = 𝜎/2𝜀0 𝜎 𝑄
𝐹 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = =
𝜀0 𝐴𝜀0
2
𝑄
Attractive Force on plate 2: 𝐹21 = 𝑄𝐸1 = 𝑄 × 𝐹21 = 𝐹12
2𝐴𝜀0
𝑄2
𝐹=
2𝐴𝜀0
Spherical Capacitor
❖A spherical capacitor consists of two concentric spherical shells
of different radii, a and b, respectively.
❖The inner shell is connected to the positive terminal of the
battery and the outer shell is connected to the negative terminal
of the battery.
2
1
𝑏
𝑎
+𝑄
−𝑄
Spherical Capacitor
2
𝑘𝑄 𝑘𝑄
𝑉1 = −
𝑎 𝑏 1
𝑏
𝑎
+𝑄
𝑘𝑄 𝑘𝑄
𝑉2 = − =0 −𝑄
𝑏 𝑏
𝑄 𝑄 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑎𝑏
𝐶= = ⇒ 𝐶=
𝑉1 − 𝑉2 𝑘𝑄 − 𝑘𝑄 𝑏−𝑎
𝑎 𝑏
Cylindrical Capacitor
A cylindrical capacitor consists of two concentric cylinders with
charge Q and having capacitance C
𝑟2
𝑟1
+𝑄 −𝑄
𝑄 𝜎 = 𝑄/𝐴
𝐶=
𝑉+ − 𝑉−
1 2 Gauss’s law
𝑞surface
𝜙cylinder =
𝜀0
𝑥 𝐸 𝑞surface = 𝜎𝐴𝑠 = 𝜎2𝜋𝑅𝐿
𝜎2𝜋𝑅𝐿
𝐸 = 𝜎𝑟1 /2𝜀0 𝑥 = 𝐸2𝜋𝑟𝐿
𝜀0
𝑄 We know that:
𝐶= 𝑟2
𝑉+ − 𝑉− 𝑟1
+𝑄 −𝑄
𝜎 = 𝑄/𝐴
1 2
𝑥 𝐸
𝐸 = 𝜎𝑟1 /2𝜀0 𝑥
𝑄
𝐶=
𝑉+ − 𝑉− 𝑟2
𝑟1
𝑟1 𝑟1
𝜎𝑟1 +𝑄
𝑉+ − 𝑉− = − න 𝐸𝑑𝑥 = − න 𝑑𝑥 −𝑄
𝑟2 𝑟2 2𝜀0 𝑥
𝜎𝑟1 𝑟1 𝜎𝑟1 𝑟2 𝜎 = 𝑄/𝐴

𝑉+ − 𝑉− = − ln 𝑥 𝑟2 = ln
2𝜀0 2𝜀0 𝑟1
𝑄 𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑉+ − 𝑉− = × ln
2𝜋𝑟1 𝑙 𝜀0 𝑟1 1 2
𝑄
𝐶= 𝑟
(𝑄 × ln 2 )/2𝜋𝜀0 𝑙
𝑟1 𝐸
𝑥
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑙
𝐶= 𝐸 = 𝜎𝑟1 /2𝜀0 𝑥
ln 𝑟2 /𝑟1
Redistribution of charges
When two charged conductors are joined together through a conducting
wire, charge begins to flow from one conductor to another from higher
potential to lower potential until both conductors attain a common
potential.
Same Potential
Initial Final
𝑄1 , 𝐶1 , 𝑉1 𝑄2 , 𝐶2 , 𝑉2 𝑄1′ , 𝐶1 , 𝑉 𝑄2′ , 𝐶2 , 𝑉
𝑞𝑖 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2
𝑞𝑖 = 𝐶1 𝑉1 + 𝐶2 𝑉2 ∵ 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
Similarly,
𝑞𝑓 = 𝑄1′ + 𝑄2′
Initial 𝑄1 , 𝐶1 , 𝑉1 𝑄2 , 𝐶2 , 𝑉2
𝑞𝑓 = (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 )𝑉 ∵ 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
Final 𝑄1′ , 𝐶1 , 𝑉 𝑄2′ , 𝐶2 , 𝑉
From Law of conservation of charge

𝑞𝑖 = 𝑞𝑓 ⇒ 𝐶1 𝑉1 + 𝐶2 𝑉2 = 𝐶1 𝑉 + 𝐶2 𝑉
Common Voltage
𝐶1 𝑉1 + 𝐶2 𝑉2
𝑉=
𝐶1 + 𝐶2
New charge:
𝑄1 + 𝑄2 = 𝑄1′ + 𝑄2′ = 𝑄 (1)
𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑄1′ 𝐶1
′ =
∵ 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
𝑄2 𝐶2
Capacitance of spherical conductors is
Initial 𝑄1 , 𝐶1 , 𝑉1 𝑄2 , 𝐶2 , 𝑉2 𝐶 = 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
so,
Final 𝑄1′ , 𝐶1 , 𝑉 𝑄2′ , 𝐶2 , 𝑉 𝐶1 = 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1
𝐶2 = 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2
𝑄1′ 𝐶1 𝑟1
∴ ′ = = (2)
𝑄2 𝐶2 𝑟2
New charge: 𝑄1′ 𝐶1 𝑟1
𝑄1 + 𝑄2 = 𝑄1′ + 𝑄2′ = 𝑄 ′ = =
𝑄2 𝐶2 𝑟2
𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑟2 𝑟1
𝑄2′ =𝑄 𝑄1′ =𝑄
𝑟1 + 𝑟2 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
Initial 𝑄1 , 𝐶1 , 𝑉1 𝑄2 , 𝐶2 , 𝑉2
Final 𝑄1′ , 𝐶1 , 𝑉 𝑄2′ , 𝐶2 , 𝑉

Energy Loss:
Potential Energy 1 1
Before Redistribution 𝑈𝑖 = 𝐶1 𝑉1 + 𝐶2 𝑉22
2
2 2
1 1
𝑈𝑖 = 𝐶1 𝑉1 + 𝐶2 𝑉22
2
1 𝐶1 𝑉1 + 𝐶2 𝑉2 2
2 2 𝑈𝑓 =
2 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
After redistribution
1 Δ𝑈 = 𝑈𝑖 − 𝑈𝑓
𝑈𝑓 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝑉 2
2
2
1 𝐶1 𝑉1 + 𝐶2 𝑉2
𝑈𝑓 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
2 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
1 𝐶1 𝑉1 + 𝐶2 𝑉2 2
𝑈𝑓 =
2 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
Energy Loss:
When two charged conductors are connected with
each other by a conducting wire, the charges start
to flow through the wire from higher potential to
lower potential.
When the charges flow, they collide with the atoms Initial 𝑄1 , 𝐶1 , 𝑉1 𝑄2 , 𝐶2 , 𝑉2
of the material of the wire, and thus, energy is lost.
Final 𝑄1′ , 𝐶1 , 𝑉 𝑄2′ , 𝐶2 , 𝑉
Energy is lost during

Always +ve
transfer of charges
𝐶1 & 𝐶2 +ve
𝑉1 − 𝑉2 2 𝐶1 𝐶2
𝐶1 & 𝐶2 +ve 𝑈𝑖 − 𝑈𝑓 =
2 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
𝑈𝑖 − 𝑈𝑓 is always +ve ∴ 𝑈𝑖 > 𝑈𝑓

Question
Two conducting spherical bodies of capacitance, 𝐶1 = 10 𝐹 and 𝐶2 = 100 𝐹 are given
Q = 100 𝐶 charge each. They're then linked together with a conducting wire. Find
the common voltage attained as well as loss in energy in the transfer.
10
a 𝑉, 348 𝐽
11
100 𝐶 100 𝐶
20
b 𝑉, 368 𝐽
11
𝐶1 𝐶2
c 5 𝑉, 400 𝐽
d 4 𝑉, 400 𝐽
Solution
𝑄 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 2 𝐶1 𝐶2
𝑉= 𝑈𝑖 − 𝑈𝑓 =
𝐶 2 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
100
𝑉1 = = 10 𝑉 10 − 1 2 × 10 × 100
10 𝑈𝑖 − 𝑈𝑓 = ≈ 368 𝐽
2 10 + 100
100
𝑉2 = =1𝑉 Energy loss = 368 𝐽
100
𝐶1 𝑉1 + 𝐶2 𝑉2
𝑉𝑓 =
𝐶1 + 𝐶2
10 × 10 + 100 × 1 20
𝑉𝑓 = = 𝑉
10 + 100 11
20
Common voltage = 𝑉
11
Combination of Capacitors
Series combination:
When a group of capacitors are joined end to end they are said to
be connected in series. 𝐶 𝐶
1 2
𝐴 𝐵
Parallel combination:
When a group of capacitors are joined such that one plate of all
capacitors are connected to +𝑣𝑒 terminal and second plate of all
capacitors are connected to −𝑣𝑒 terminal. 𝐶1
𝐴 𝐵
𝐶2
Series combination:
Isolated system ⇒ conservation of charge
❖Let us consider first isolated
system, the charge on the 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
𝐶1 , 𝑄 −𝑄 𝐶2 , 𝑄 −𝑄 𝐶3 , 𝑄 −𝑄
second plate of the capacitor 𝐴 𝐵
C1 is -Q then the charge on
the first plate of the capacitor +𝑄 − +𝑄 +𝑄
+ + − + −
C2 must be +Q . This is
because of conservation of
charges
❖When the capacitors are 𝑉

connected in series then the
charge on each capacitor is
the same.
Series combination:
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
𝑉1 = 𝑉2 = 𝑉3 =
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
Same charge 𝑄
𝐶1 , 𝑄 𝐶2 , 𝑄 𝐶3 , 𝑄
𝐴 𝐵
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + − + − + −
1 1 1
𝑉1 : 𝑉2 : 𝑉3 = : :
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
𝑉
Series combination:
Same charge 𝑄
𝐶𝑒𝑞
𝐶1 , 𝑄 𝐶2 , 𝑄 𝐶3 , 𝑄
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 𝐴 𝐵
𝐴 𝐵
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉3 + −
𝑄
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
= + +
𝑄
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
=
𝑄 𝑉
𝑉=
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝑉
Equivalent circuit
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝐶1 𝐶2
Series combination: 𝐵
𝐴
For 2 capacitors
1 1 1
= +
𝐶𝑒 𝐶1 𝐶2
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶 𝐶
𝐶𝑒𝑞 =
𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝐴 𝐵
𝐶1 = 𝐶2 = 𝐶
𝐶
𝐶𝑒𝑞 =
2
Question
Three capacitors, each of capacitance 𝐶 and of breakdown voltage 𝑉, are joined
in series. The capacitance and breakdown voltage of the combination will be
𝐶 𝑉
a ,
3 3
𝑉
b 3𝐶,
3
𝐶
c , 3𝑉
3
d 3𝐶, 3𝑉
Solution
Three capacitors, each of capacitance 𝐶 and of breakdown voltage 𝑉, are joined in

series. The capacitance and breakdown voltage of the combination will be
1 1 1 1 3
= + + = 𝐶, 𝑉 𝐶, 𝑉 𝐶, 𝑉
𝐶𝑒 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶
⇒
𝐶
𝐶𝑒𝑞 =
3
𝑉𝑒𝑞 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3
𝑉𝑒𝑞 = 𝑉 + 𝑉 + 𝑉 = 3𝑉
⇒ 𝑉𝑒𝑞 = 3𝑉
S3: Combination of capacitors-1
➢ Energy density of parallel plate ➢ Combination of capacitors
capacitor ➢ Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)
➢ Work done by a battery ➢ Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)
➢ Force between the plates of a parallel ➢ Equivalent capacitance using Kirchhoff’s
plate capacitor laws
➢ Redistribution of charges
Recap
Energy density in a parallel plate capacitor: Work done by the battery:
1 1 2
𝑈𝑑 = 𝜀0 𝐸 2 𝐻 = 𝐶𝑉
2 2
Recap
Capacitance of a spherical capacitor: Capacitance of a cylindrical capacitor:
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑎𝑏 2𝜋𝜀0 𝑙
𝐶= 𝐶=
𝑏−𝑎 ln 𝑟2 /𝑟1
Recap
When two isolated charged conductors of different potential are braught in
contact by a conducting wire, due to potential difference, charge transfer
happens between them and it continues until they attain a common
potential.
Co m m on p o t enti a l : E n ergy l o s s :
𝐶1 𝑉1 + 𝐶2 𝑉2 𝑉1 − 𝑉2 2 𝐶1 𝐶2
𝑉= 𝑈𝑖 − 𝑈𝑓 =
𝐶1 + 𝐶2 2 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
F i nal c harge o n t w o c onduct ors:
𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑄1′ = 𝑄 𝑄2′ = 𝑄
𝑟1 + 𝑟2 𝑟1 + 𝑟2
Recap
Series Combination:
Same charge Q flows through the capacitors in series.
The sum of potential difference across capacitors is

equal to emf of the battery.
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3
1 1 1 1
= + +
Parallel combination: 𝐶1 , 𝑄1
In a parallel combination, a group of capacitors are joined such that one
plate of all the capacitors is connected to the positive terminal and the
𝐶2 , 𝑄2
other plate of all the capacitors is connected to the negative terminal. 𝑄 𝐵
𝐴 𝑄 𝑄2 = 𝐶2 𝑉
The potential drop across the capacitors that are in parallel will be the same. 𝑉 0
𝐶3 , 𝑄3
The net charge flows through the circuit will be the sum of the current
flowing through each branch. Therefore,
𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝑉
𝐴 𝐵
If 𝐶𝑒𝑞 is the equivalent capacitance of those three capacitors as shown in
the figure, then,
+𝑄 −
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3
𝑉
Equivalent circuit
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) 𝐴 is a node
Node or Junction : It is a point in a circuit at which more than two 𝐶3

conductors meet.
Part of a bigger circuit 𝐴
𝐶1
𝐶2
𝐶4
Statement : In a node/junction of an electrical network, the sum

of charges/currents entering a node is equal to the sum of −𝑄3
charges/current leaving it. 𝐶3
𝑄3 𝑄3
On applying KCL at 𝐴, −𝑄1 −𝑄2
𝑄1 𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑄2
𝑄1 + 𝑄2 = 𝑄3 + 𝑄4 𝐴
𝐶1 𝐶2
𝑄4
Note: KCL is based on conservation of charge 𝐶4
−𝑄4
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
Mesh or loop : It is any closed path in an electrical network. 𝐶1 𝐶2
𝐶3
S i g n c on v ent i on :
𝐹 𝐸 𝐷
To write the KVL equation, we can go around a loop or a mesh in 𝑉1 𝑉2
the clockwise or the anticlockwise direction.
For a cell:
▪ If we move from the positive terminal of the battery to the negative 𝑉 𝑉
terminal, then the potential difference (i.e., decreasing direction of
potential) is written as –V.
▪ If we move from the negative terminal of the battery to the positive
terminal, then the potential difference (i.e., increasing direction of potential)
−𝑉 +𝑉
is written as +V.
.
For a capacitor:
▪ If we move from the positive plate to the negative plate of the capacitor,
𝐶 𝐶
then the potential difference across the capacitor (i.e., decreasing direction 𝑄 −𝑄 𝑄 −𝑄
𝑄
of potential) is written as Δ𝑉 = − 𝐶 .
▪ If we move from the negative plate to the positive plate of the capacitor,
then the potential difference across the capacitor (i.e., increasing direction 𝑄
𝑄 𝑄
of potential) is written as Δ𝑉 = 𝐶 . Δ𝑉 = − Δ𝑉 =
𝐶 𝐶
Statement : In a loop or mesh of an electrical network, the sum
of voltages across the components and the emf’s of the sources
is always zero.
𝑄1 −𝑄1 𝑄2 −𝑄2
On applying KVL to 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐸𝐹𝐴 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝑄3
𝑄1 𝑄2 𝐶1 𝐶2
− − + 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 = 0
𝐶1 𝐶2 −𝑄3
𝐶3
Note: KVL is based on conservation of energy 𝐹 𝐸 𝐷

𝑉1 𝑉2
Steps to find 𝐶𝑒 using Kirchhoff’s law −𝑄1 −𝑄1
+𝑄1 +𝑄1
1. Consider imaginary cell between the points (say, AB)across which the 𝐴 𝑉 0 𝐵
equivalent capacitance is needed to find. 𝐶1 𝐶2
+𝑄2 −𝑄2
2. Distribute the charges in different branches (Here, 𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 )
𝐶3
3. Apply Kirchhoff's loop law in a chosen loop [In this case, we’ve chosen
𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
the green loop and we get, σ ∆𝑉 = − 𝐶1 − 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 = 0]
1 2 3
+𝑄
𝑉
4. Find charges in each capacitor
5. Choose one closed path from +𝑣𝑒 to −𝑣𝑒 terminal of cell (Here, 𝐴 +𝑄1 +𝑄1
𝑉 𝐶1 𝐶2 0 𝐵
we’ve chosen the loop coloured in red).
−𝑄2
6. Calculate σ ∆𝑉, then equate σ ∆𝑉 = ±𝑄/𝐶𝑒𝑞
+𝑄2
𝐶3
𝑄1 𝑄1 𝑄
෍ ∆𝑉 = − − =−
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶𝑒𝑞
𝑉
Question
A capacitor of capacity 𝐶1 is charged up to 𝑉 volt and then connected to an uncharged capacitor of
capacity 𝐶2 . The final potential difference across each will be
A 𝐶2 𝑉 𝐶1 𝑉 𝐶2 𝐶2
B C 1+ 𝑉 D 1− 𝑉
𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝐶1 𝐶1
Solution 𝐶1 , 𝑉, 𝑄
Since capacitor of capacity 𝐶1 is charged, charge stored in 𝐶1 is given by,

𝑄 = 𝐶1 𝑉
Since 𝐶2 is uncharged, initially the charge stored in 𝐶2 is 𝑄2 𝑖 = 0 and
then it is connected in parallel to 𝐶1 .
𝑉
As the connection is parallel, they will attain a common potential and let 𝐶1 , 𝑉𝑐 , 𝑄1
𝑉𝑐 be the common potential across each capacitor. Therefore,
𝑄1 𝑄2
𝑉𝑐 = =
𝐶1 𝐶2
⇒ 𝑄2 𝐶1 = 𝑄1 𝐶2 ……..(i)
𝐶2 , 𝑉𝑐 , 𝑄2
Discussion
Owing to conservation of charge, we get,
𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2
⇒ 𝑄2 = 𝑄 − 𝑄1
By substituting the value of 𝑄2 in equation (i), we get,
⇒ (𝑄 − 𝑄1 )𝐶1 = 𝑄1 𝐶2
⇒ 𝑄𝐶1 = 𝑄1 (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 )
𝑄𝐶1
⇒ 𝑄1 =
𝐶1 + 𝐶2
(𝐶1 𝑉) 𝐶1
⇒ 𝑄1 = (since 𝑄 = 𝐶1 𝑉)
𝐶1 +𝐶2
The final potential difference across each will be given by,

𝑄1 𝐶1 𝑉
𝑉𝑐 = =
𝐶1 𝐶1 + 𝐶2

Question
Three capacitors each of capacity 4 𝜇𝐹 are to be connected in such a way that effective capacitance is
6 𝜇𝐹. This can be done by
A Connecting all of them in series B Connecting all of them in parallel
C Connecting two in series and one in parallel D Connecting two in parallel and one in series
Solution
When all three capacitors are connected in series, the equivalent 4 𝜇𝐹 4 𝜇𝐹 4 𝜇𝐹
capacitance becomes, 𝐴 𝐵
1 1 1 1 4
= + + ⇒ 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝜇𝐹
𝐶𝑒𝑞 4 4 4 3
4 𝜇𝐹
Thus, option (A) is incorrect.
When all three capacitors are connected in parallel, the equivalent 4 𝜇𝐹
capacitance becomes, 𝐴 𝐵
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 4 + 4 + 4 = 12 𝜇𝐹 4 𝜇𝐹
Thus, option (B) is incorrect.
Discussion
When two capacitors of 4 𝜇𝐹 are connected in series, the equivalent
4 𝜇𝐹 4 𝜇𝐹
capacitance of this series connection 𝐶𝑆 becomes,
1 1 1 1
= + = 𝜇𝐹
𝐶𝑆 4 4 2
𝐴 𝐵
⇒ 𝐶𝑆 = 2 𝜇𝐹 4 𝜇𝐹
Now, if a third capacitor of 4 𝜇𝐹 is joined in parallel with the series
connection,the equivalent capacitance will be given by,
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶𝑆 + 4 = 2 + 4 = 6 𝜇𝐹
⇒ 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 6 𝜇𝐹
Thus, option (C) is the correct answer.
Session 4 : Combination of capacitors
➢ Combination of capacitors ➢ Wire connection problems
➢ Kirchhoff’s current law ➢ Infinite capacitor network
➢ Kirchhoff’s voltage law ➢ Balanced Wheatstone bridge
➢ Equivalent capacitance using
Kirchhoff’s law
Recap
Parallel combination: 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝑉
When the capacitors are 𝐴 𝐵

connected in parallel, the potential
difference across each capacitor +𝑄 −
will be the same
Equivalent capacitance of the
given circuit is given by, 𝑉
Equivalent circuit
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) :

Definition : In a node/junction of an electrical network, the sum of
charges/currents entering a node is equal to the sum of charges/current
leaving it.
On applying KCL at 𝐴, 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 = 𝑄3 + 𝑄4
Note: KCL is based on conservation of charge

Recap
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) :
Sign convention : 𝐶
𝐶
𝑄 −𝑄 𝑄 −𝑄
𝑄 𝑄
−𝑉 +𝑉 Δ𝑉 = − Δ𝑉 =
𝐶 𝐶
Definition : In a loop or mesh of an electrical network, the sum of voltages across the components and
the emf’s of the sources is always zero.
On applying KVL to 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐸𝐹
𝑄1 𝑄2
− − + 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 = 0
𝐶1 𝐶2
Note: KVL is based on conservation of energy

Question
A network of four capacitors of capacities equal to; 𝐶1 = 𝐶 , 𝐶2 = 2𝐶,
𝐶3 = 3𝐶, and 𝐶4 = 4𝐶, are connected to a battery as shown in the figure. 𝐶2
The ratio of the charge on 𝐶2 and 𝐶4 is 𝐶1 𝐶3
𝐶4
A 22/3 B 3/22 C 7/4 D 4/7
Solution 𝑉
Method : 1 𝑄1
Consider Q charge is coming out from the positive terminal of the battery and
gets splitted into two parts, as shown in the figure. 𝐶2
𝑄1 𝐶1 𝐶3 𝑄1
Since the potential difference across the capacitor 𝐶4 is 𝑉, the net charge flowing 𝐶4
𝑄1 𝑄4
through 𝐶4 is given by,
𝑉 0
𝑄4 = 𝐶4 𝑉 = 4𝐶𝑉 𝑄 𝑄4
𝑉
Discussion
Here, capacitors 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 and 𝐶3 are in series combination and the potential
difference across this series combination is also 𝑉. 𝑄1
If 𝐶𝑆 is the equivalent capacitance for the series
combination of 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 and 𝐶3 , then,
𝐶2
1 1 1 1
= + + 𝑄1 𝐶1 𝐶3 𝑄1
𝐶𝑆 𝐶 2𝐶 3𝐶
1 11 𝑄1 𝐶4
⇒ = 𝑄4
𝐶𝑆 6𝐶 𝑉 0
6𝐶 𝑄
⇒ 𝐶𝑆 = 11 𝑄4
As 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , 𝐶3 are in series combination, the charge flowing through
them will be same, i.e., 𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 𝑄3 =
6𝐶𝑉 𝑉
11
6𝐶𝑉
𝑄 3
The ratio of the charge on 𝐶2 and 𝐶4 is given by, 2 = 11 =
𝑄4 4𝐶𝑉 22
Discussion
Method : 2 𝑄1
Consider Q charge is coming out from the positive terminal of the battery
and gets splitted into two parts, as shown in the figure.
Since the potential difference across the capacitor 𝐶4 is 𝑉, the net charge 𝐶2
flowing through the given by,
𝑄1 𝐶1 𝐶3 𝑄1
𝑄4 = 𝐶4 𝑉 = 4𝐶𝑉
From the adjacent figure, It is easily seen that 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 and 𝐶3 all these three 𝑄1 𝐶4
capacitors are in series combination and the potential difference across this 𝑄4
𝑉 0
series combination is also 𝑉.
𝑄
If 𝐶𝑆 is the equivalent capacitance for the series 𝑄4
combination of 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 and 𝐶3 , then,
1 1 1 1 1 11 6𝐶 𝑉
= + + ⇒ 𝐶 = 6𝐶 ⇒ 𝐶𝑆 = 11
𝐶𝑆 𝐶 2𝐶 3𝐶 𝑆
Now, 𝐶𝑆 and 𝐶4 form parallel combination. So, if 𝐶𝑒𝑞 is the

equivalent capacitance, then,
6𝐶 50𝐶
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶𝑆 + 𝐶4 = + 4𝐶 =
11 11
Discussion
So, total 𝑄 charge flows through the equivalent capacitor of capacitance 𝐶𝑒𝑞 . Since potential difference
across this equivalent capacitor remains 𝑉, total charge 𝑄 is given by,
𝑄1
50𝐶
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝑉 = 𝑉
11
We know that,
50𝐶 𝐶2
𝑄4 = 𝐶4 𝑉 = 4𝐶𝑉 and 𝑄 = 𝐶 𝑒𝑞 𝑉 = 𝑉
11
𝑄1 𝐶1 𝐶3 𝑄1
From the figure, it is easily seen that, 𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄4
Therefore, 𝑄1 𝐶4
𝑄4
𝑄1 = 𝑄 − 𝑄4 𝑉 0
50𝐶 6𝐶𝑉 𝑄
⇒ 𝑄1 = 𝑉 − 4𝐶𝑉 = 𝑄4
11 11
As 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , 𝐶3 are in series combination, the charge flowing through 𝑉
6𝐶𝑉
them will be same, i.e., 𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 𝑄3 =
11
6𝐶𝑉
𝑄 3
The ratio of the charge on 𝐶2 and 𝐶4 is given by, 2 = 11 = Thus, option (B) is the correct answer.
𝑄4 4𝐶𝑉 22
Wire connection problem
Consider that there are three capacitors connected between point A and B, and two conducting wires of
zero resistance are also connected between these point points, as shown in the figure.
It is very important to remember that since the
conducting wires are assumed to have zero resistance, if
we go along a circuit having various nodes or junctions
the potential doesn’t change until we encounter a 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
capacitor or a battery.
𝐴 1 3 𝐵
Now, the following steps have to be followed to solve 4
2
this type of problems:
1 Imaginary cell to be connected between two end

points (Here, A and B)
2 Find voltage in each junctions
3 Redraw the circuit

Obeying the given steps, we can obtain the following
conclusions:
❑ Since two ends of first conducting wire i.e., point 1
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
𝐴 1 0 3 0 𝐵
and 3 are connected with the positive terminal of the
𝑉 2 𝑉 4
battery and no capacitor is there in this path, the
potential at point 1 and 3 is V, as shown in the figure,
❑ Since two ends of the second conducting wire i.e.,
point 2 and 4 are connected with the negative
terminal of the battery and no capacitor is there in
this path, the potential at point 2 and 4 is 0, as 𝑉 0
shown in the figure,
Since all three capacitor are connected at the ends which has potential 0 and V, the connection can be
modified as shown in the following figure: 𝐶1
This turns out that the capacitors are in parallel combination
and hence, the equivalent capacitance of this circuit between (1,3) 𝐶2 (2,4)
point 𝐴 and 𝐵 is given by, 𝐴 𝐵
𝑉 0
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 𝐶3
Question
Find equivalent capacitance between 𝐴 and 𝐵.
𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶
3𝐶 4𝐶 2𝐶 3𝐶 𝐴 𝐵
A B C D
4 3 3 2
Solution
Consider that point A and B are connected
with the positive and negative terminal of the
battery, respectively. Hence, the potential at 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶 𝐶
point A is assumed as V and the potential at 𝐴 1 3 5 6 𝐵
𝑥 𝑥
point B is 0. 𝑥
𝑉 2 𝑉 4 0
Since point 1 and 3 are connected by a
conducting wire, the potential at point 1 and
3 is V.
Consider that unknown voltage at junction is x.
Since point 2, 4 and 5 are also connected by a conducting wire, the potential at these points is x.
Discussion
From the figure on the previous page, we can conclude the followings:
➢ There are three capacitors of capacitance 𝐶 which have potential 𝑉 and 𝑥 at its two ends.
➢ There are two capacitors which have same potential 𝑥 at its two ends.
➢ There is one capacitor which has potential 𝑥 at one end and potential 0 at the other end connected
with point 𝐵.
Since the capacitor that is connected between same potential points becomes ineffective, therefore
two capacitors which have same potential 𝑥 at its two ends have no contribution to the equivalent
circuit.
𝐶
The equivalent circuit will be as shown in the adjacent figure.
The equivalent capacitance of the parallel combination will be
given by, 𝐶𝑝 = 3𝐶 (1,3) 𝐶 (2,4,5)
Therefore, net equivalent capacitance of the circuit is given by, 𝑉 𝑥 0
1 1 1 𝐴 (6) 𝐵
= +
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶𝑝 𝐶 𝐶
3𝐶 × 𝐶 3𝐶
⇒ 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = =
3𝐶 + 𝐶 4
𝐶
Iinfinite capacitor network 𝐶2 𝐶2 𝐶2 𝐶2
In this kind of infinite network, a particular pattern of 𝐴 𝑉
the capacitors keeps repeating till infinity. Therefore,
to create a closed circuit between 𝐴 and 𝐵 we have
to find the equivalent capacitance of the repetitive
𝐶1 𝐶1 𝐶1 𝐶1 ∞
pattern leaving the first combination of 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 . 𝐵
0
The repetitive pattern leaving the first combination of
𝐶1 and 𝐶2 of the circuit is shown in the figure below.
𝐶2 𝐶2 𝐶2 𝐴
𝑉
𝑉
𝐴
𝐶1 𝐶𝑒𝑞
𝐶1 𝐶1
∞
𝐵 𝐵
0 0
Let’s assume that the equivalent capacitance of the repetitive circuit is 𝐶𝑒𝑞 .
Iinfinite capacitor network: 𝐶2
𝑉
Finally, the overall circuit takes the form as shown in the adjacent 𝐴
figure.
Since in this circuit 𝐶2 and 𝐶𝑒𝑞 are in series combination and 𝐶1 𝐶1 𝐶𝑒𝑞
forms a parallel combination along with this series combination,
the equivalent capacitance of this circuit is given by, 𝐵
0
𝐶2 𝐶𝑒𝑞
𝐶′ = 𝐶1 +
𝐶2 + 𝐶𝑒𝑞
Since the parent repetitive circuit was an infinite circuit, 𝐶𝑒𝑞 is a large capacitance. Hence, adding any
capacitance to it will not affect much. Therefore, the net capacitance 𝐶′ of the circuit can also be
written as 𝐶𝑒𝑞 . Therefore, the equivalent circuit and its capacitance becomes as the following:
𝑉
𝐴
𝐶2 𝐶𝑒𝑞
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶𝑒𝑞
𝐵 0
Question
Find equivalent capacitance between 𝐴 and 𝐵. 𝐶1 = 𝐶2 = 2 𝜇𝐹
𝐶2 𝐶2 𝐶2 𝐶2
A 1 + 5 𝜇𝐹 B 2 + 3 𝜇𝐹 𝐴
C 2 + 12 𝜇𝐹 D 2 𝜇𝐹
𝐶1 𝐶1 𝐶1 𝐶1
∞
𝐵
Solution 𝐶2 𝐶2 𝐶2 𝐶2
The repetitive network of the given circuit is 𝐴
shown by the shaded portion in the adjacent
figure.
Let the equivalent capacitance of the repetitive
𝐶1 𝐶1 𝐶1 𝐶1 ∞
network be 𝐶𝑒𝑞 . 𝐵
Discussion
Therefore, the given network takes the form as shown in the figure. 𝐶2
It is seen from the figure that 𝐶2 and 𝐶𝑒𝑞 are in series. Therefore, 𝐴
the equivalent capacitance of this series network is given by,
𝐶2 𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶𝑒𝑞
𝐶𝑠 =
𝐵
Now, 𝐶𝑠 and 𝐶1 are in parallel combination. Therefore, the equivalent
capacitance is given by,
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶𝑠
𝐶2 𝐶𝑒𝑞
∴ 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 +
It is given that 𝐶1 = 𝐶2 = 2 𝜇𝐹. Therefore,

Discussion
Let a quadratic equation has the following form:

𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0
Therefore, the roots of this equation is given by,
− 𝑏 ± 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥=
2𝑎
By applying the Quadratic formula, we get,

2 ± 22 − 4 −4
𝐶𝑒𝑞 =
2
2 + 20 2 − 20
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = Or 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = = −𝑣𝑒 term
2 2
Therefore,
2 + 20
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = = 1 + 5 𝜇𝐹
2
Wheatstone bridge: 𝐶1 𝐶2
The capacitive network of the form as shown in the
𝐶5
adjacent figure is known as the Wheatstone bridge circuit. 𝐴 𝐵
Depending upon the voltage across the capacitor having
𝐶3 𝐶4
capacitance 𝐶5 , this bridge can be classified in two categories:
1. Balanced Wheatstone bridge
2. Unbalanced Wheatstone bridge
Balanced Wheatstone bridge: 𝐶1 , 𝑄1 𝐶2 , 𝑄1

The Wheatstone bridge becomes balanced when the potential 𝑥
at both ends of the capacitor of capacitance 𝐶5 becomes same. 𝑄1
𝑄
Let’s connect the bridge with an external battery having 𝐴 𝑉 0 𝐵
potential difference V and consider voltage across both end 𝑄2 𝐶3 , 𝑄2 𝐶4 , 𝑄2
of 𝐶5 becomes 𝑥.
𝑥
Since we know that when the potential at both ends of a
capacitor is same it becomes ineffective, the capacitor of
capacitance 𝐶5 becomes ineffective in this bridge. 𝑉 0
Balanced Wheatstone bridge
Let a total charge Q gets divided into two parts at point 𝐶1 , 𝑄1 𝐶2 , 𝑄1
A, as shown in the figure.
𝑥
Let 𝑄1 charge flows through the series combination of 𝑄1
𝐶1 and 𝐶2 , and 𝑄2 charge flows through the series 𝐴 𝑄 𝑉 0 𝐵
combination of 𝐶3 and 𝐶4 .
𝑄2 𝐶3 , 𝑄2 𝐶4 , 𝑄2
Since point A is positive terminal of the battery, the potential at
point A is V. Therefore, the potential across the capacitor having 𝑥
the capacitance 𝐶1 and 𝐶3 is given by,
𝑉 0
By equating these two equations, we get, By equating these two equations, we get,
By combining equation (iii) and (iv), we get,

Therefore, the potential across the capacitor
having the capacitance 𝐶2 and 𝐶4 is given by,
𝐶1 𝐶2
=
𝐶3 𝐶4
This is the condition for balanced Wheatstone bridge.

𝐶1 , 𝑄1 𝐶2 , 𝑄1
The equivalent capacitor of this bridge circuit is
given by,
𝑥
𝑄1
𝐴 𝑄 𝑉 0 𝐵
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶4
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = + 𝐶3 , 𝑄2 𝐶4 , 𝑄2
𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝐶3 + 𝐶4 𝑄2
𝑉 0
S𝟓: Combination of Capacitors- 𝟑
➢ Wire connection problem ➢ Wheatstone bridge problem

➢ Infinite capacitor network ➢ Parallel plate problems
➢ Wheatstone bridge ➢ Energy loss problem
Recap
Wire connection problem:
Note: When two points of a circuit are connected by means of a conducting wire, they attain
common potential.
Recap
Infinite capacitor network: 𝐶2 𝐶𝑒𝑞
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 +
Recap
Balanced Wheatstone bridge:
Condition for balanced Wheatstone
bridge
𝐶1 𝐶2
=
𝐶3 𝐶4
𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3 𝐶4
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = +
𝐶1 + 𝐶2 𝐶3 + 𝐶4
Question
What is the effective capacitance between points 𝑋 and 𝑌 ?
a 24 𝜇𝐹
𝐶1 = 6 𝜇𝐹
𝐶3 = 6 𝜇𝐹
𝐶5 = 20 𝜇𝐹
b 18 𝜇𝐹 𝑋 𝑌
𝐶2 = 6 𝜇𝐹
c 12 𝜇𝐹 𝐶4 = 6 𝜇𝐹
d 6 𝜇𝐹
Discussion
Consider unknown voltage at junctions

are 𝑀, 𝑁 𝐶1 = 6 𝜇𝐹
𝐶3 = 6 𝜇𝐹
𝐶5 = 20 𝜇𝐹
Redraw the circuit between different 𝑋 𝑌
𝑀 0
potential 𝑉 𝑁
𝐶2 = 6 𝜇𝐹
𝐶4 = 6 𝜇𝐹
𝑉 0
𝑉
Discussion
𝐶1 = 6 𝜇𝐹 𝐶3 = 6 𝜇𝐹
𝑁
𝐶1 = 6 𝜇𝐹
𝐶3 = 6 𝜇𝐹
𝐶5 = 20 𝜇𝐹
𝑋 𝑉 0 𝑌 𝑋 𝑀 0 𝑌
𝑁
𝐶2 = 6 𝜇𝐹
𝐶4 = 6 𝜇𝐹
𝑀
𝐶2 = 6 𝜇𝐹 𝐶4 = 6 𝜇𝐹
Since the capacitors are following the condition of balanced wheat stone bridge
capacitor 𝐶5 has no charge.
Summary
The given figure is equivalents to a 𝐶1 = 6 𝜇𝐹 𝐶3 = 6 𝜇𝐹
balance Wheatstone's bridge. 𝑁
𝐶1 𝐶3
= 𝑋 𝑉 0 𝑌
𝐶2 𝐶4 𝐶5 = 20 𝜇𝐹
The equivalent circuit can be drawn as

follows. 𝑀
𝐶2 = 6 𝜇𝐹 𝐶4 = 6 𝜇𝐹
𝐶1 𝐶3 𝐶2 𝐶4 36 36
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = + = + = 6 𝜇𝐹
𝐶1 + 𝐶3 𝐶2 + 𝐶4 12 12
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 6 𝜇𝐹
Parallel plate problem Area, 𝐴
Imagine that a cell is connected between 𝐴 and 𝐵 𝑥
𝐶1 𝑑 𝑑≪𝐴
We get three capacitors connected between 𝑉, 𝑥, 0 𝑉 𝐴
Since the area of plate and the distance between 𝐶2 𝑑 𝑉
them are equal also they are placed in same
𝑥
medium therefore all the capacitors are of same 𝐶3 𝑑
capacitance. 𝐵
0
Parallel plate problem 𝑥 1
The circuit changes to 𝑑

2 𝑉
𝐴
𝑑
(2) 𝐶 (1,3) 𝐶 (4) 3
𝐴 𝑉 𝑥 0 𝐵 𝑥
𝑑
4
0 𝐵
The equivalence capacitance :

𝐶
Question
What is the effective capacitance between points 𝐴 and 𝐵. 𝜀0 is permittivity of air.
3𝜀0 𝐴 Area, 𝐴
a
5𝑑 𝑑
6𝜀0 𝐴 𝑑
b 𝐴
5𝑑 𝑑
5𝜀0 𝐴 𝑑
c 𝐵
3𝑑
2𝜀0 𝐴
d
𝑑
Discussion
The capacitance of all the capacitors will be same.
𝐶
(3) (1,4) (5) 𝑥 1
2
𝐴 𝑉 𝑥 0 𝐵 𝑑
𝑦 2
3 𝑑 𝑉
𝐴
𝐶 𝑑
4
𝑥 𝑑
5
𝐵
0
𝐶
The equivalence capacitance :
𝐴 𝑉 𝑥 0 𝐵
3𝐶
𝐶 3𝐶 3𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 2 = ⇒
3𝐶 𝐶𝑒𝑞 =
𝐶 3𝐶 𝐶 +𝐶 5 5𝑑
𝐶+ = 2
2 2
Energy loss problems
When terminals 1 and 3 are connected
1 2
Energy stored in the capacitor 𝐶1 = 𝑈𝑖
3
𝑉
𝐶1 𝐶2
Let 𝑄 be the charge on capacitor 𝐶1
When terminals 2 and 3 are connected 1 2
1 2
3
3 𝑉
𝐶1 𝐶2
𝑉
𝐶1 𝐶2
𝑉′ 𝑉′
1
𝑈𝑖 = 𝐶1 𝑉 2
2
Let 𝑉′ be the common potential across 𝐶1 and 𝐶2
𝑄𝑖 = 𝐶1 𝑉
Let 𝑄1 and 𝑄2 be the charges on capacitor 𝐶1 and 𝐶2
By conservation of charge, we get
1 2
Total energy is given as follows:
3
𝑉
𝐶1 𝐶2
𝑄1 𝑉′ 𝑄2 𝑉′
𝑄𝑖 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2
1 2
1 2 1 3
𝑈𝑖 = 𝐶1 𝑉 2
2 𝑉
𝐶1 𝐶2
3 𝑄𝑖 = 𝐶1 𝑉
𝑉
𝐶1 𝐶2
𝑄1 𝑉′ 𝑄2 𝑉′
𝐶12 𝑉 2
𝑈𝑓 =
2 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
Question
Two identical capacitors 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 of equal capacitance are connected as shown in the
circuit. Terminals 𝑎 and 𝑏 of the key 𝑘 are connected to charge capacitor 𝐶1 using battery of
e. m. f. 𝑉 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡. Now disconnecting 𝑎 and 𝑏 the terminals 𝑏 and 𝑐 are connected. Due to
this, what will be the percentage loss of energy?
𝑘
a 25 % 𝑎 𝑐
b 75% 𝑏
𝑉
c 0% 𝐶1 𝐶2
d 50%
Discussion
Two identical capacitors 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 of equal capacitance are connected as shown in the
circuit. Terminals 𝑎 and 𝑏 of the key 𝑘 are connected to charge capacitor 𝐶1 using battery of
e. m. f. 𝑉 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡. Now disconnecting 𝑎 and 𝑏 the terminals 𝑏 and 𝑐 are connected. Due to
this, what will be the percentage loss of energy?
𝑘
𝑎 𝑐
𝑏
𝑉
𝐶1 𝐶2
Question
A capacitor of 2𝜇𝐹 is charged as shown in the diagram. When the switch 𝑆 is turned to
position 2, the percentage of its storage energy dissipated is
1 2
a 75%
𝑆
b 80% 𝑉
8𝜇𝐹
c 0% 2𝜇𝐹
d 20%
Discussion
A capacitor of 2𝜇𝐹 is charged as shown in the diagram. When the switch 𝑆 is turned to
position 2, the percentage of its storage energy dissipated is
Initial energy The energy loss is
1 2
𝑆
𝑉
8𝜇𝐹
2𝜇𝐹 Percentage loss energy loss is
Question
Two condensers one of the capacity 𝐶 and the other of capacity 𝐶/2 , are connected to a
𝑉-volt battery as shown in the figure. The work done in charging fully both the
condensers is
a 2𝐶𝑉 2
1 2 𝐶
b 𝐶𝑉 𝐶
4 𝑉 2
3 2
c 𝐶𝑉
4
d 1 2
𝐶𝑉
2
Discussion
Two condensers one of the capacity 𝐶 and the other of capacity 𝐶/2 , are connected to a
𝑉-volt battery as shown in the figure. The work done in charging fully both the
condensers is
Equivalence capacitance of the circuit :
𝐶
𝑉 𝐶
2
Word done to charge the condensers:

Question
A series combination of 𝑛1 capacitors, each of value 𝐶1 , is charged by a source of potential
difference 4𝑉. When another parallel combination of 𝑛2 capacitors, each of value 𝐶2 , is
charged by a source of potential difference 𝑉, it has the same(total) energy stored in it, as
the first combination has. The value of 𝐶2 in terms of 𝐶1 is then
2𝐶1
a
𝑛1 𝑛2
16𝑛2
b 𝐶1
𝑛1
2𝑛2
c 𝐶1
𝑛1
16𝐶1
d
𝑛1 𝑛2
Discussion
A series combination of 𝑛1 capacitors, each of value 𝐶1 , is charged by a source of potential
difference 4𝑉. When another parallel combination of 𝑛2 capacitors, each of value 𝐶2 , is
charged by a source of potential difference 𝑉, it has the same(total) energy stored in it, as
the first combination has. The value of 𝐶2 in terms of 𝐶1 is then
𝐶1 𝐶1 𝐶1
𝑉
𝐶2 𝐶2 𝐶2
4𝑉
16𝐶1
𝐶2 =
𝑛1 𝑛2
Summary
𝐶1 𝐶1 𝐶1
𝑉 𝐶2 𝐶2
𝐶2
4𝑉
𝐶1
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = ; 𝑉1 = 4𝑉 𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝑛2 𝐶2 ; 𝑉2 = 𝑉
1 𝑛1 2
1 𝐶1 2
1 2
16𝐶1
4𝑉 = 𝑛2 𝐶2 𝑉 ⇒ 𝐶2 =
2 𝑛1 2 𝑛1 𝑛2
Question
Find equivalent capacitance between 𝐴 and 𝐵.
𝐶
𝐶
6𝐶
a 𝐶
10 𝐴
𝐶
5𝐶 𝐶
b 𝐶
6
𝐶
10𝐶 𝐶 𝐶
c 𝐵
7 𝐶
6𝐶 𝐶
d 𝐶
5
Discussion
𝐶
Steps to solve this problem:
𝐶
Connect the circuit with an imaginary
𝐶
cell. 𝐴
𝐶
Find the symmetry of the circuit
𝐶
𝐶
Assume a charge of 6𝑄 is passing from 𝐴
𝐶 𝐶
Find the charges on each of the capacitors 𝐶
𝐶
𝐵
of the circuit.
Apply KVL from 𝐴 to 𝐵 𝐶
𝐶
Discussion
𝐶
Consider total charge is 6 𝑄
𝐶
𝑄
Apply KVL on any of the path from 𝐴 to 𝐵 𝐶 𝑄
𝐴 2𝑄 𝐶
6𝑄
2𝑄 𝐶
𝑄 𝐶 2𝑄
2𝑄 𝐶 𝑄 𝐶
𝐶
𝐶
𝐵
6𝑄
𝐶 2𝑄
2𝑄
𝑄 𝐶
6𝐶
𝐶𝑒𝑞 =
5
S𝟔: Dielectrics - 1
➢ Wheatstone bridge problem ➢ Dielectrics

➢ Parallel plate problems ➢ Dielectric in a capacitor
➢ Energy loss problem ➢ Partially filled dielectric
Recap
Parallel plate problem:
2𝐶 𝐶
𝐶𝑒𝑞 =
2𝐶 + 𝐶
2𝐶 𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐶 =
3 𝑑
Recap
Energy loss problems:
When terminals 1 and 3 are connected When terminals 2 and 3 are connected
1 2
1 𝐶1 𝐶2
Δ𝑈 = 𝑉2
2 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
3
𝑉
𝐶1 𝐶2
1
𝑈𝑖 = 𝐶1 𝑉 2
2 1 1 𝐶12 𝑉 2
Δ𝑈 = 𝑈𝑖 − 𝑈𝑓 = 𝐶1 𝑉 2 −
𝑄𝑖 = 𝐶1 𝑉 2 2 𝐶1 +𝐶2
Dielectrics
Insulating materials.
Transmit electric effect without conducting.
No free movement of charges.
Dipole moment is induced in the molecules.

Types of Dielectrics
Polar Dielectrics
The molecules of some dielectrics have permanent electric dipole moments. e.g., water,
ammonia
They partially align themselves in the direction of external electric field applied.
A net electric field gets generated when the molecules of the dipole get aligned.
𝐸0 𝐸′
Partial alignment
Net electric field
On
Types of Dielectrics
Non-Polar Dielectrics
The molecules acquire dipole moment by induction when placed in an external electric
field. e.g., methane, benzene
Induced dipole moment

𝐸
𝐸0 𝐸′
Dielectric Constant
Both polar and non-polar dielectrics weaken the electric field applied between them.
The ratio of electric field applied to that of weakened electric field is called Dielectric
constant.
𝐸0 For free space/vacuum

Dielectric constant 𝑘 =
𝐸
Dielectric Strength and Breakdown
If a strong electric field is applied, dielectric will break and the charges gets separated
and the dielectric acts as a conductor. This is known as Dielectric breakdown.
The maximum potential that the dielectric medium can sustain is known as Dielectric
strength of the dielectric medium.
𝑉 𝑉
Dielectric at normal voltage Dielectric at breakdown voltage

Dielectric in a capacitor
Before introducing Dielectric After introducing Dielectric
1 1
+𝜎 +𝜎
𝐸𝑖 −𝜎𝑖
𝑉 𝑑 𝑑 𝐾
𝐸0 𝐸0
−𝜎 +𝜎𝑖
2 −𝜎
2
𝜎 When a dielectric medium is

𝜀0 𝐴
𝐸0 = 𝐶0 = 𝑄0 = 𝐶0 𝑉0 introduced between the capacitors
𝜀0 𝑑 the net electric field decreases.
𝜎 1
𝐸0 = +𝜎
𝜀0 −𝜎𝑖
𝐸𝑖
𝑑 𝐾
Effect of dielectric on electric field : 𝐸0 +𝜎𝑖
−𝜎
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝐸0 − 𝐸𝑖 2
∴ Net electric field between the plates get reduced by a factor 𝐾 .

𝜎 𝐸0 1
𝐸0 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = +𝜎
𝜀0 𝐾 −𝜎𝑖
𝐸𝑖
𝑑 𝐾
Effect of dielectric on potential difference: 𝐸0 +𝜎𝑖
−𝜎
2
∴ Potential difference between the plates get reduced by a factor 𝐾 .

𝐸0 𝑉0
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑉= 𝑄0 = 𝐶0 𝑉0 1
𝐾 𝐾 +𝜎
𝐸𝑖 −𝜎𝑖
𝑑 𝐾
Effect of dielectric on capacitance: 𝐸0 +𝜎𝑖
−𝜎
2
∴ Potential difference between

the plates get reduced by a
factor 𝐾 .
Before After
Parameter 1
dielectric dielectric +𝜎
Electric field 𝐸0 𝐸0 /𝐾 𝐸𝑖 −𝜎𝑖
𝑑 𝐾
Potential difference 𝑉0 /𝐾 𝐸0
𝑉0 +𝜎𝑖
−𝜎
Capacitance 𝐶0 𝐾𝐶0 2
Charge on plates 𝑄0 𝑄0
Question
Two parallel metal plates having charges +𝑄 and −𝑄 face each other at a certain
distance between them. If the plates are now dipped in kerosene oil tank, the electric
field between the plates
a decreases.
b increases.
+𝑄 −𝑄
c becomes zero.
d doesnt change.
Discussion
Two parallel metal plates having charges +𝑄 and −𝑄 face each other at a certain
distance between them. If the plates are now dipped in kerosene oil tank, the electric
field between the plates
𝜎
Electric field in vacuum, 𝐸0 =
𝜀0
𝜎
Electric field in medium, 𝐸 =
𝜀0 𝑘
+𝑄 −𝑄 Since 𝑘 of kerosene is > 1
𝐸 < 𝐸0
∴ Electric field decreases

Question
A parallel plate condenser with oil between the plate (dielectric constant of oil 𝑘 = 2)
has a capacitance 𝐶. If the oil is removed, then capacitance of the capacitor becomes
𝐶
a
2
b 2𝐶 𝑘
c 2𝐶
𝐶
d
2
Discussion
Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with dielectric medium between the plates is
given by,
𝜀0 𝑘𝐴
𝐶=
𝑑
Now, when the dielectric medium is removed, the capacitance becomes,
𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶′ =
𝑑
Since, 𝑘 = 2
𝐶
𝐶′ =
2
Question
Two thin dielectric slabs of dielectric constants 𝑘1 and 𝑘2 (𝑘1 < 𝑘2 ) are inserted
between plates of a parallel plate capacitor as shown in the figure. The variation of
electric filed 𝐸 between the plates with distance d as measured form plate 𝑃 is correctly
shown by
𝐸 𝐸
a c
𝑑 𝑑
𝐸 𝐸
b d
𝑑 𝑑
Discussion
Summary
Electric field inside parallel plate capacitor having
𝑄
charge 𝑄 at place where dielectric is absent is 𝐸0 =
𝐴𝜀0
Electric field inside parallel plate capacitor at place
𝑄
where dielectric is present is 𝐸 =
𝑘𝐴𝜀0
𝐸
𝑘1 < 𝑘2
𝐸1
𝐸2 Electric field at the first dielectric is more than the
second dielectric.
𝑑
𝐸1 > 𝐸2
Partially filled Dielectric
1
𝐸𝐴
𝐸𝐵
𝑑
𝐾 𝑡
2
1
The potential inside the capacitor
𝐸𝐴
𝐸𝐵
𝑑
𝐾 𝑡
Capacitance of the partially filled capacitance

1
𝑄 𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶= = 𝑡
𝑉 𝑑−𝑡+ 𝐸𝐴
𝐾 𝑑
𝐸𝐵 𝑡
𝐾
Extreme cases:
2
Case 1 : When 𝑡 = 0
Case 1 : When 𝑡 = 𝑑
1
𝑄 𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶= = 𝑡
𝑉 𝑑−𝑡+ 𝐸𝐴
𝐾 𝑑
𝐸𝐵 𝑡
𝐾
Series Combination:
2
Capacitance of the partially filled capacitance

1
𝑄 𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶= = 𝑡 𝐶1
𝑉 𝑑−𝑡+
𝐾 𝑑
𝐶2 𝑡
𝐾
Series Combination:
2
1 1 1 𝑑−𝑡 𝑡
= + = +
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝜀0 𝐴 𝐾𝜀0 𝐴
1 1 𝑡
= 𝑑−𝑡+
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝜀0 𝐴 𝐾
𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝑡
𝑑−𝑡+
𝐾
N-Dielectrics between plates:
𝐾1 , 𝑡1 1
𝐾2 , 𝑡2 2
𝑑
𝐾𝑁 , 𝑡𝑁 𝑁
𝜀0 𝐴
𝐶=
𝑡1 𝑡2 𝑡
𝑑 − 𝑡1 + 𝑡2 + ⋯ + 𝑡𝑁 + + + ⋯+ 𝑁
𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾𝑁
S𝟕: Dielectrics- 𝟐
➢ Types of dielectric ➢ Combination of dielectrics

➢ Dielectric strength and ➢ Insertion of dielectric
breakdown ➢ Force on dielectric
➢ Partially filled dielectric
Recap
Before After 1
Parameter
dielectric dielectric +𝜎
Electric field 𝐸0 𝐸0 /𝐾 𝐸𝑖 −𝜎𝑖
Potential difference 𝑉0 /𝐾 𝑑 𝐾
𝑉0 𝐸0 +𝜎𝑖
Capacitance 𝐶0 𝐾𝐶0 −𝜎
Charge on plates 𝑄0 𝑄0 2
N-Dielectrics between plates:

𝐾1 , 𝑡1 1
𝜀0 𝐴 𝐾2 , 𝑡2 2
𝐶= 𝑑
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
𝑑 − 𝑡1 + 𝑡2 + ⋯ + 𝑡𝑁 + 1 + 2 + ⋯+ 𝑁
𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾𝑁
𝐾𝑁 , 𝑡𝑁 𝑁
Question
An insulator plate is passed between the plates of a capacitor. Then current in outer
circuit
A Always flows from 𝐴 to 𝐵.
B Always flows from 𝐵 to 𝐴. 𝐴 𝐵
C First flows from 𝐴 to 𝐵 then from 𝐵 to 𝐴.
D First flows from 𝐵 to 𝐴 then from 𝐴 to 𝐵.
𝑉
Discussion
Consider three situations as shown in the figure.
Since at situation 1 and 3 the insulator is not in between the plates of the
parallel plate capacitor, so we can consider both the situations are same.
Let’s assume at situation 1 and 3, the potential difference between point A
and B is 𝑉0 , charged stored in the plates is 𝑄0 and capacitance is 𝐶0 .
Therefore, the charge, 𝑄0 = 𝐶0 𝑉0 , and it will be flowing from A to B from 𝐴 𝐵
both situations 1 and 3.
Now at situation 2, the insulator plate is in between the plates of the
capacitor and hence, its capacity increases to 𝐶′ = 𝐾𝐶0 .
Since the battery is connected all the time throughout the whole
process, the potential difference between A and B is still 𝑉0 .
Therefore, in situation 2, charge in the plates will be given by,
𝑄′ = 𝐶′𝑉0
⇒ Q’ = K𝐶0 𝑉0
⇒ Q’ = K𝑄0 𝑉
Hence, increase of charge in the plates, ∆𝑄 = 𝑄 ′ − 𝑄 = (𝐾 − 1)𝑄0
Discussion
Since we know that the direction of flow of current is same as the direction of
flow of positive charge, the current in the outer circuit should flow 𝐵 to 𝐴 in
order to increase the positive charge on plate 𝐴 by ∆𝑄. 𝐴 𝐵
Conclusion:
• When the insulator plate is in between the plates of the capacitor, the
current in the outer circuit flows from 𝐵 to 𝐴 (Anti-clockwise).
• When the insulator plates slips out, the current in the outer circuit flows
from 𝐴 to 𝐵 (Clockwise). 𝑉
Series combination of dielectrics
1 𝐴
For this type of arrangement of two different dielectrics
within a parallel plate capacitor, it can be assumed that
there are two capacitors of different capacitance 𝐾1 𝐶1 𝑡1
connected in series.
𝑑
Equivalent circuit for the combination can be drawn as the 𝐾2 𝐶2 𝑡2
following diagram:
𝐶1 𝐶2
2
Assuming the cross sectional area of the plates to be A,

the capacitance of two imagined capacitor can be
written as,
Series combination of dielectrics
1 𝐴
For combination of 2 dielectrics :
1 1 1 𝑡1 𝑡2 𝐾1 𝐶1 𝑡1
= + = +
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐾1 𝜀0 𝐴 𝐾2 𝜀0 𝐴 𝑑
𝐾2 𝐶2 𝑡2
1 1 𝑡1 𝑡2
⇒ = +
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝜀0 𝐴 𝐾1 𝐾2
2
For combination of 𝑛 dielectrics :
1 1 𝑡1 𝑡2 𝑡𝑛
= + + ⋯+
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝜀0 𝐴 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾𝑛 𝐶1 𝐶2
Equivalent circuit for the combination

Parallel combination of dielectrics
For this type of arrangement of two different dielectrics 𝐴1 1 𝐴2
within a parallel plate capacitor, it can be assumed that
there are two capacitors of different capacitance
connected in parallel. 𝐶1 𝐶2
Equivalent circuit for the combination can be drawn as the
𝐾1 𝐾2 𝑑
following diagram:
2
𝐶1
Assuming the cross sectional area of the dielectrics to
be 𝐴1 and 𝐴2 , the capacitance of two imagined
capacitor can be written as,
𝐶2
Parallel combination of dielectrics
For combination of 2 dielectrics :
𝐴1 𝐾1 𝜀0 𝐴2 𝐾2 𝜀0
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 = +
𝑑 𝑑 𝐴1 1 𝐴2
𝜀0
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐴1 𝐾1 + 𝐴2 𝐾2
𝑑
𝐶1 𝐶2
𝐾1 𝐾2 𝑑
For combination of 𝑛 dielectrics :
2
𝜀0
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐴1 𝐾1 + 𝐴2 𝐾2 + ⋯ + 𝐴𝑛 𝐾𝑛
𝑑
Question
A parallel plate capacitor has two layers of dielectrics as shown in the figure. This
capacitor is connected across a battery, then the ratio of potential difference across the
dielectric layers is
4 𝑑 2𝑑
A
3
1
B
2
𝑘1 = 2 𝑘2 = 6
1
C
3
3
D
2
Discussion
From the given figure, we can easily see that it is possible 𝑑 2𝑑
to assume two capacitor connected in series.
The dielectric constant of 1st and 2nd capacitor is 𝑘1 = 2
and 𝑘2 = 6.
By assuming the cross-sectional area of the plates to be A, 𝑘1 = 2 𝑘2 = 6
we can write the capacitance of these two capacitor as
follows:
Discussion
For any capacitor having charge Q, potential difference 𝑑 2𝑑
between plates V and capacitance C, we know that
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
𝑄
⇒𝑉=
𝐶
Since for a particular arrangement of a capacitor and 𝑘1 = 2 𝑘2 = 6
battery having constant potential difference the charge on
the plates of the capacitor remains constant
1
𝑉∝
𝐶
If are the potential difference of two dielectric layers, then their
ratio becomes,
6𝐴𝜀0
𝑉1 𝐶2 2𝑑
= =
𝑉2 𝐶1 2𝐴𝜀0
𝑑
𝑉1 6 3
⇒ = = Thus, option (D) is the correct answer.
𝑉2 4 2
Question
A parallel plate capacitor of area 𝐴, plate separation d, and capacitance 𝐶 is filled with
four dielectric materials having dielectric constants 𝑘1 , 𝑘2 , 𝑘3 , and 𝑘4 as shown in the
figure. If a single dielectric material is to be used to have the same capacitance 𝐶 in this
capacitor, then its dielectric constant is given by
A 𝑘 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 + 3𝑘4
𝐴/3 𝐴/3 𝐴/3
2
B 𝑘 = (𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 ) +2𝑘4
3 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘3 𝑑/2
2 3 1
C = +
𝑘 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 𝑘4
𝑘4
1 1 1 1 3
D = + + +
𝑘 𝑘1 𝑘2 𝑘3 2 𝑘4
𝐴
Discussion
From the given figure, it is easily seen that 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 and 𝐶3 are
connected in series and 𝐶4 is parallel with this this series
connection, as shown in the figure. 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3
𝐶1
𝐶4
𝐶4
𝐶2
𝐶3
Since 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 and 𝐶3 have same cross-sectional area A/3 and have dielectric constant 𝑘1 , 𝑘2 and 𝑘3 ,
respectively, the value of the capacitances are given by,
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
𝜀0 𝑘1 𝜀0 𝑘2 𝜀0 𝑘3
3 3 3
𝐶1 = , 𝐶2 = , 𝐶3 =
𝑑/2 𝑑/2 𝑑/2
Discussion
Therefore, the equivalent capacitance of this parallel 𝐶1
combination is given by,
2𝜀0 𝐴 𝐶4
𝐶𝑃 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3 = [𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 ] 𝐶2
3𝑑
The value of the capacitance 𝐶4 is given by,
𝜀0 𝑘4 𝐴 𝐶3
𝐶4 =
𝑑/2
If 𝐶𝑆 and 𝑘 are the equivalent capacitance and equivalent dielectric constant of the whole system, then,
1 1 1 3𝑑 𝑑
= + = + 𝐶1
𝐶𝑆 𝐶𝑃 𝐶4 2𝜀0 𝐴(𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 ) 2𝜀0 𝐴(𝑘4 )
𝐶4
𝐶2
⇒
𝑑
𝜀0 𝑘𝐴
=
𝑑 3
2𝜀0 𝐴 (𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 )
+
1
𝑘4
k =
𝐶3
2 3 1
⇒ = + Thus, option (C) is the correct answer.
𝑘 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 + 𝑘3 𝑘4
Insertion of dielectric
Case 1 : Dielectric is inserted and battery is disconnected
➢ Initially the battery having potential difference 𝑉0
is connected to the parallel plate capacitor. 1
+𝜎
Because of this, let the charge on the plates be 𝑄0
−𝜎𝑖 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡
and the electric field between the plates be 𝐸0 . 𝐹
𝑉0 𝑑 𝐾
𝐸0
+𝜎𝑖
➢ If the A is the cross-sectional area of the plate,
then the surface charge density of the plate will 2 −𝜎
be,
𝑄0 Non-uniform
𝜎= electric field
𝐴 +𝑄
➢ As we partially insert a dielectric slab into the

capacitor, opposite charges get induced and due to
non-uniform electric field at the edge of the plates,
the dielectric slab gets attracted into the capacitor. -𝑄
Case 1 : Dielectric is inserted and battery is disconnected
➢ It has to be remembered that when the battery is disconnected the charge on the plates of the capacitor
remains constant.
𝑄0 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 1 +𝜎
Before insertion After insertion 𝑑 𝐾

𝑄𝑖 = 𝑄0 𝑄𝑓 = 𝑄0 −𝜎
2
𝐶𝑖 = 𝐶0 𝐶𝑓 = 𝐾𝐶0
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉0 𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉0 /𝐾
1
𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸0 𝐸𝑓 = 𝐸0 /𝐾 +𝜎
−𝜎𝑖
𝑑 𝐾
𝑄02 𝑄02 +𝜎𝑖
𝑈𝑖 = 𝑈𝑓 = −𝜎
2𝐶0 2𝐾𝐶0
2
Case 2 : Dielectric is inserted and battery remains connected
➢ It has to be remembered that when the battery is connected the voltage across the plates of the capacitor
remains constant.
𝑉0 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
1 +𝜎
𝐹 −𝜎𝑖 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡
𝑉0 𝐾
𝑑 𝐸0
+𝜎𝑖
2 −𝜎
Case 2 : Dielectric is inserted and battery remains connected
When the dielectric slab is fully inserted in between the plates of the capacitor keeping the battery
connected, the parameters before and after this insertion of the slab are tabulated as follows:
Before insertion After insertion
𝐶𝑖 = 𝐶0 𝐶𝑓 = 𝐾𝐶0
𝑉𝑖 = 𝑉0 𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉0
𝑄𝑖 = 𝑄0 𝑄𝑓 = 𝐾𝑄0
𝐸𝑖 = 𝐸0 𝐸𝑓 = 𝐸0
1 1
𝑈𝑖 = 𝐶0 𝑉02 𝑈𝑓 = 𝐾𝐶0 𝑉02
2 2
Force on the dielectric
Let the length and breadth of the plates of the
capacitor are a and b, respectively. 𝑎
𝑏
Assume that the dielectric slab having 𝑏
dielectric constant K is inserted into the
capacitor by a distance x, as shown in the 𝑉0 𝑑 𝐹 𝐾, 𝑚
figure. 𝐶1 𝐶2
This enables us to think of two capacitors of
(𝑎 − 𝑥) 𝑥
capacitance 𝐶1 and 𝐶2 connected in parallel.
The capacitance 𝐶2 is given by,
𝑏𝑥𝐾𝜀0 [where bx is the area of the portion of Therefore, the equivalent capacitance is given by,
𝐶2 = 𝐶𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2
𝑑 the plate where the slab is inserted]
The capacitance 𝐶1 is given by, 𝑏 𝑎 − 𝑥 𝜀0 𝑏𝑥𝐾𝜀0
⇒ 𝐶𝑒𝑓𝑓 = +
𝑏(𝑎 − 𝑥)𝜀0 𝑑 𝑑
𝐶1 =
𝑑 𝜀0 𝑏
Here we’ve assumed that the capacitor 𝐶1 has air in 𝐶𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑎+ 𝐾−1 𝑥
between the plates as the dielectric medium. 𝑑
Since the battery is connected, the potential
difference across the plates remains constant. 𝑎
𝑏
𝑉0 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑉0 𝑑 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐾, 𝑚
Hence, the potential energy stored is given by,
1 𝑥
𝑈 = 𝐶𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑉02
2
1 𝜀0 𝑏
⇒ 𝑈= 𝑎 + 𝐾 − 1 𝑥 𝑉02
2 𝑑
𝑏𝜀0
𝑈= 𝑎 + 𝐾 − 1 𝑥 𝑉02
2𝑑
Since the force on the dielectric is
attractive, it is given by,
𝑎
𝑑𝑈 𝑏
𝐹=−
𝑑𝑥
𝑏𝑉02 𝜀0 𝑑 𝑉0
⇒𝐹=− 𝑎+ 𝐾−1 𝑥 𝑑 𝐹 𝐾, 𝑚
2𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝐶2
𝐶1
𝑏𝑉02 𝜀0 𝑥
𝐹=− 𝐾−1
2𝑑
From the expression of the force it is easily seen that the force is constant which implies the acceleration of
the dielectric slab will also be constant.
When battery is not connected:
Although the battery is not connected, the 𝑎
combination of the capacitance can be assumed as
𝑏
the same way as previous case. Therefore, the
+𝑄0
equivalent capacitance will be,
𝑑 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐾, 𝑚
𝜀0 𝑏
𝐶𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝑎+ 𝐾−1 𝑥 −𝑄0
𝑑
Since the battery is disconnected, the change 𝑥
on the plates remains constant.
The force on the dielectric slab is given by,
𝑄0 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑈 𝑄02 𝑑 𝑑 1
Hence, the potential energy stored is given by, 𝐹=− =−
𝑑𝑥 2𝜀0 𝑏 𝑑𝑥 𝑎 + 𝐾 − 1 𝑥
1 𝑄02
𝑈=
2 𝐶𝑒𝑓𝑓 𝑄02 𝑑 𝐾 − 1
𝑄02 𝑑 𝐹= 2
⇒𝑈= 2𝜀0 𝑏 𝑎 + 𝐾 − 1 𝑥
2𝜀0 𝑏 𝑎 + 𝐾 − 1 𝑥
Question
Find the extension in spring if the system is in equilibrium.(Dielectric Constant = 2)
A 1𝑚
B 1 𝑐𝑚 𝑑 𝑑
𝑉0 = 2 𝜋 𝑘𝑉 𝑑
C 1 𝑚𝑚 1
𝑘= 𝑁𝑚−1
18
D 0.1 𝑚
Discussion
We know that when a battery of voltage 𝑉0 is connected
and a dielectric slab of dielectric constant K is inserted by 𝑑 𝑑
a distance x into the capacitor, the fore on the slab is given 𝑉0 = 2 𝜋 𝑘𝑉
by, 𝑑 𝐹 𝑘𝑥
𝑏𝑉02 𝜀0
𝐹=− 𝐾−1 1
2𝑑 𝑘= 𝑁𝑚−1
18
Let the extension in the spring is x. Thus, the spring force is,
Fs = − kx
At equilibrium, the force on the dielectric slab gets balanced
by the spring force. Therefore,
4𝜋𝜀0 1
F = Fs ⇒ 6
× 10 = 𝑥
2 18
𝑏𝑉02 𝜀0
⇒ 𝐾 − 1 = 𝑘𝑥 9 × 106
2𝑑 ⇒𝑥= = 10 −3 𝑚 = 1 𝑚𝑚
9 × 109
𝜀0 𝑑 2 𝜋 × 103 2 2−1 [Here b = breadth
⇒ = 𝑘𝑥 of the plate = d ] Thus, option (C) is the correct answer.
2𝑑

Electric Potential and Capacitance

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What you already know What you will learn

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What you already know What you will learn

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