Automotive (Automotive Service Technician L3) Class 9th Text Book

Automotive Service
Technician
(Job Role)
Qualification Pack: Ref. Id. ASC/Q1401

Sector: Automotive
Textbook for Class IX
2019-20
Prelims.indd 1 13-Mar-19 5:11:35 PM

ISBN 978-93-5292-123-2
First Edition ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

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2019-20

Foreword
The National Curriculum Framework–2005 (NCF–2005) recommends

bringing work and education into the domain of the curricular, infusing it in
all areas of learning while giving it an identity of its own at relevant stages.
It explains that work transforms knowledge into experience and generates
important personal and social values such as self-reliance, creativity and
cooperation. Through work one learns to find one’s place in the society. It is
an educational activity with an inherent potential for inclusion. Therefore,
an experience of involvement in productive work in an educational setting
will make one appreciate the worth of social life and what is valued and
appreciated in society. Work involves interaction with material or other
people (mostly both), thus creating a deeper comprehension and increased
practical knowledge of natural substances and social relationships.
Through work and education, school knowledge can be easily linked
to learners’ life outside the school. This also makes a departure from
the legacy of bookish learning and bridges the gap between the school,
home, community and the workplace. The NCF–2005 also emphasises
on Vocational Education and Training (VET) for all those children who
wish to acquire additional skills and/or seek livelihood through vocational
education after either discontinuing or completing their school education.
VET is expected to provide a ‘preferred and dignified’ choice rather than a
terminal or ‘last-resort’ option.
As a follow-up of this, NCERT has attempted to infuse work across
the subject areas and also contributed in the development of the National
Skill Qualification Framework (NSQF) for the country, which was
notified on 27 December 2013. It is a quality assurance framework that
organises all qualifications according to levels of knowledge, skills and
attitude. These levels, graded from one to ten, are defined in terms of
learning outcomes, which the learner must possess regardless of whether
they are obtained through formal, non-formal or informal learning.
The NSQF sets common principles and guidelines for a nationally
recognised qualification system covering Schools, Vocational Education
and Training Institutions, Technical Education Institutions, Colleges
and Universities.
It is under this backdrop that Pandit Sunderlal Sharma Central
Institute of Vocational Education (PSSCIVE), Bhopal, a constituent of
NCERT has developed learning outcomes based modular curricula for
the vocational subjects from Classes IX to XII. This has been developed
2019-20

under the Centrally Sponsored Scheme of Vocationalisation of Secondary
and Higher Secondary Education of the Ministry of Human Resource
Development.
This textbook has been developed as per the learning outcomes based
curriculum, keeping in view the National Occupational Standards (NOS)
for the job role and to promote experiential learning related to the vocation.
This will enable the students to acquire necessary skills, knowledge and
attitude.
I acknowledge the contribution of the development team, reviewers
and all the institutions and organisations, which have supported in the
development of this textbook.
NCERT would welcome suggestions from students, teachers and
parents, which would help us to further improve the quality of the material
in subsequent editions.
Hrushikesh Senapaty
Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
June 2018 Research and Training
(iv)
2019-20

About the Textbook
Our country has been witnessing growth in the automotive sector

with new developments taking place in all components of automobiles.
The automotive manufacturing industry comprises the production of
commercial vehicles, passenger cars, three ‑ and two - wheelers, etc. We
need trained manpower to carry out the various activities in sales, service
and production of automotive products.
Automotive Service Technician Level III is an important job role
involving repairing and servicing of automobile vehicle and accessories.
An Automotive Service Technician is responsible for installation, minor
repair, maintenance and servicing of vehicles. The person should be
able to work independently, perform laborious tasks, should be a good
listener, good at taking and following instructions, a good team player and
result‑oriented, with a positive attitude. Automotive Service Technician
Level III is a beginner-level course. On completion of this course, a student
can take up an intermediate-level course for a job role in the automotive
sector, such as Automotive Service Technician Level IV in Class XI and
Class XII.
This textbook for the job role of Automotive Service Technician has
been developed to impart knowledge skills through hands-on learning
experience, which forms a part of the experimental learning. The textbook
has been developed with the contribution from the subject experts,
vocational teachers and industry experts and academicians for making it a
useful and inspiring teaching-learning resource material for the vocational
students. Adequate care has been taken to align the contents of the
textbook with the National Occupational Standards (NOS) for the job role
so that the student acquires the necessary knowledge and skills as per
performance criteria mentioned in the respective NOS of the Qualification
Pack (QP).
2019-20

The NOS for the job role of ‘Automotive Service Technician’ covered
through this textbook are as follows:
1. ASC/N 1401: Assist in service, maintenance and repair of
the vehicle
2. ASC/N 0001: Plan and organise work to meet expected outcomes
3. ASC/N 0002: Work effectively in a team
4. ASC/N 0003: Maintain a healthy, safe and secure working environment
Unit 1 of the textbook gives the history and evolution of automobiles.
Unit 2 focusses on various types of automobiles used in the automobile
sector. Unit 3 covers the major systems and components of automobiles.
Unit 4 deals with road safety, while Unit 5 deals with automobiles and
the environment. Unit 6 gives an introduction to vehicle maintenance and
servicing and Unit 7 deals with innovation and development in automobiles.
Some model names of vehicles have been discussed in the textbook
with the purpose of creating awareness among the students.
Saurabh Prakash
Professor
Department of Engineering and Technology
PSSCIVE, Bhopal
(vi)
2019-20

Textbook Development Team
Members
A.C. Deb, Lecturer (Auto), Pusa Polytechnic Pusa, New Delhi
A.P. Verma, Professor (Retd), Department of Engineering and Technology,
PSSCIVE, Bhopal, M.P.
Deepak Shudhalwar, Associate Professor, Department of Engineering and
Technology, PSSCIVE, Bhopal, M.P.
Dhrendra Chandra, General Manager (Retd.), UT Roadways, Haldwani,
Uttarakhand
Nagendra D. Kore, Vice Principal and Head, Automobile Technology Section,
P.W. Higher Secondary School, Khorlim, Mapusa, Goa
Sudhir Vishwakatma, Consultant, CRISP, Shyamala Hills, Bhopal, M.P.
Sunil K. Chaturvedi, CEO, Automotive Skills Development Council, India
Habitat Centre, Lodhi Road, New Delhi
Vikas Gautam, Vocational Trainer, Sarvodaya Bal Vidyalaya (SBV), Mori
Gate, No.1, Delhi
Member‑coordinator
Saurabh Prakash, Professor, Department of Engineering and Technology,
PSSCIVE, Bhopal, M.P.
2019-20

Acknowledgements
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)

expresses its gratitude to all members of the Project Approval Board (PAB)
and officials of the Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD),
Government of India, for their cooperation in the development of this
textbook. The Council also extends gratitude to all the contributors for
sharing their expertise and valuable time by positively responding to the
request for the development of this textbook. The Council expresses it
gratitude towards Rajesh Khambayat, Joint Director, PSSCIVE, Bhopal, for
providing support and guidance in the development of this textbook. We are
thankful to the course coordinator Saurabh Prakash Professor, Department
of Engineering and Technology, PSSCIVE, NCERT, Bhopal, for his untiring
efforts towards solely developing the content for this textbook and also
providing photographs used in the textbook. The images used other than
these are under Creative Commons License. Kuber Singh Patel, Junior
Project Fellow and Avinash Singh, Consultant, Department of Engineering
and Technology, PSSCIVE, Bhopal, are also duly acknowledged for their
contribution in the development of this textbook for vocational skills.
The Council is grateful to Saroj Yadav, Professor and Dean (Academic),
NCERT, and Ranjana Arora, Professor and Head, Department of Curriculum
Studies, for evaluating and giving suggestions for the improvement of
this book and its finalisation. The Council acknowledges the copy editing
and valuable contribution of Madhavi Ratnaparkhi, Assistant Editor
(Contractual), Shilpa Mohan, Assistant Editor (Contractual) and Garima
Syal, Proofreader (Contractual) in shaping this book. The efforts of Pawan
Kumar Barriar, DTP Operator, and Haridarshan Lodhi, DTP Operator
(Contractual), Publication Division, Akhilesh Kashiv, Computer Operator,
Vikas Kumar Koge, Graphic Artist (Contractual), and Pinki Tiwari, Graphic
Designer (Contractual) and PSSCIVE, NCERT, for flawless layout design
are also acknowledged. The Council is also grateful for the support by
Automotive Skill Development Council, New Delhi.
2019-20

Contents
Foreword iii
About the Textbook v
Unit 1: History and Evolution of Automobiles 1
Session 1: Invention of Wheel 2
Session 2: Wheel Cart 6
Session 3: Invention of Automobiles 8
Session 4: Invention of Automobiles(Post World War II) 14
Unit 2: Various Types of Automobiles 21
Session 1: Two-wheelers and Three-wheelers 22
Session 2: Passenger Vehicles and Commercial Vehicles 26
Session 3: Agricultural Vehicles 29
Session 4: Construction Equipment Vehicles 31
Session 5: Special Vehicles 35
Unit 3: Major Systems and Components of an Automobile 39
Session 1: Chassis and Auto Body 40
Session 2: Engine and Its Components 44
Session 3: Lubrication System 58
Session 4: Cooling System 60
Session 5: Fuel Supply System 63
Session 6: Transmission System 66
Session 7: Front and Rear Axle 71
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Session 8: Steering and Suspension System 74
Session 9: Wheel, Tyre and Brake 81
Session 10: Electrical or Electronic and Air Conditioning Systems 89
Session 11: Active and Passive Safety 94
Unit 4: Road Safety 98
Session 1: Importance of Road Safety 99
Session 2: Safe and Responsible Driving 104
Session 3: Road Signs 109
Session 4: Driving Rules and Registration 130
Session 5: Driving License 138
Unit 5: Automobile and Environment 142
Session 1: Air Pollution 143
Session 2: Auto Emissions and EU/BS Standards 147
Sesion 3: PUC Certification 152
Unit 6: Introduction to Vehicle Maintenance and Servicing 156
Session 1: Importance of Vehicle Maintenance and Servicing 156
Session 2: Tips to Extend the Life of a Vehicle 162
Session 3: Introduction to Vehicle Service Procedure 165
Unit 7: Innovation and Development in Automobiles 169
Session 1: Innovation and Development 170
Answer Key 179
Glossary 183
List of Credits 186
(x)
2019-20

Unit
1 History and Evolution
of Automobiles
INTRODUCTION
You must have heard the word automobile. The meaning
of automobile can be an auto car, motor car or car. It is
a wheeled motor vehicle used for transporting goods or
passengers, which also carries its own engine or motor.
The word automobile comes from the ancient Greek
word αὐτός (autós, meaning ‘self’) and the Latin word
mobilis (movable), therefore automobile means a vehicle
that moves itself. The alternative name, ‘car’ is believed
to have originated from the Latin word carrus or carrum
(wheeled vehicle), or the Middle English word carre
(cart) (from Old North French). These words in turn are
said to have originated from the Gaulish word karros (a
Gallic chariot).
Most definitions of the term specify that automobiles
are designed to run primarily on roads, have seating
for one or more people, typically have four wheels and
are constructed principally for the transport of people
and goods.
In this Unit, you will understand the concept of a
wheel and the role of a wheel cart. You will also learn
the various stages of development over several hundred
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Unit 1.indd 1 13-Mar-19 9:43:10 AM

years that made possible the invention of an automobile
as we know it today.
SESSION 1: INVENTION OF WHEEL

The wheel is considered as one of the most important
mechanical inventions of all times. The wheel has been
used by man since the beginning of civilisation. Most
primitive technologies since the invention of the wheel
have been based on its principles.
The invention of the wheel perhaps happened in
the late Neolithic age. It is likely that along with other
technological advancements, it gave rise to the early
Bronze Age.
4500 BC: Invention of the potter’s wheel,
Chalcolithic (Ubaid period)
4500–3300 BC: Chalcolithic, earliest wheeled vehicles,
domestication of the horse
3300–2200 BC: Early Bronze Age
2200–1550 BC: Middle Bronze Age, invention of the
spoked wheel and the chariot
Since the Industrial Revolution, the wheel has been
a basic element of nearly every machine constructed by
mankind. While the exact time and place of the invention
of the wheel has been disputed, its beginnings can be
seen across ancient civilisations.
History tells us that wheel was most likely invented
Fig.1.1: Wooden wheel
in Mesopotamia (modern day Iraq) around 3500 BC.
This means that the wheel (Fig.1.1) is about 5500
years old!
The first use of the wheel for transportation was in
Mesopotamian chariots in 3200 BC. There are many
references to wheeled chariots in Indian mythology
also, dating to around 3000 BC. It is interesting to
note that wheels may have been used in industrial
or manufacturing applications before they were
used on vehicles. Egyptians started using wheel with
spokes, first in chariots around 2000 BC and use
of wheels is believed to have started in Europe by
1400 BC.
AUTOMOTIVE SERVICE TECHNICIAN – CLASS IX

2
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Unit 1.indd 2 13-Mar-19 9:43:12 AM

Wheel and Its Structure
It is hard to imagine any mechanised system that would
be possible without a wheel or a idea of a symmetrical
component moving in a circular motion about an axis.
From tiny watch gears to automobiles, jet engines and
computer disk drives, the principle is the same.
Early wheels were simple wooden disks with a hole
for the axle. Due to the structure of wood, a horizontal
slice of a tree trunk is not suitable, as it does not have Fig.1.2: Wheel with spokes
the structural strength to support weight without
collapsing; rounded pieces of longitudinal boards
are required.
The oldest known example of a wooden wheel and
its axle was found in 2003 in the Ljubljana Marshes
some 20 km south of Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia.
According to the radiocarbon dating, it is between 5100
and 5350 years old. It has a diameter of 72 centimetres
(28”) and is made of ash wood, whereas its axle is made
of oak.
The spoked wheel (Fig. 1.2) was invented much
recently, and allowed the construction of lighter and
swifter vehicles. Some noteworthy artefacts belonging
to the Harappan civilisation of the Indus Valley and
North Western India are toy-cart wheels made of clay
with spokes painted or in relief, and the symbol of the
spoked wheel in the script of the seals.
The earliest known examples of wooden spoked
wheels are in the context of the Andronovo culture,
dating to circa 2000 BC. Soon after this, horse cultures of
the Caucasus region used horse-drawn spoked-wheel war
chariots for the greater part of three centuries. They moved
deep into the Greek Peninsula where they joined the
existing Mediterranean people to give rise, eventually, to
classical Greece after the breaking of Minoan dominance
and consolidations led by pre-classical Sparta and
Athens. Celtic-chariots introduced an iron rim around
the wheel in the first millennium BC. The spoked wheel
was in continued use without major modification until
the 1870s, when wire wheels and pneumatic tires
were invented.
HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF AUTOMOBILES

3
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Unit 1.indd 3 13-Mar-19 9:43:12 AM

The invention of the wheel has also
been important for application in
the water wheel, the cogwheel, the
spinning wheel and the astrolabe or
torquetum. More modern descendants
of the wheel include the propeller, the
jet engine, the flywheel (gyroscope) and
the turbine. Therefore, we see that a
wheel is a circular component (Fig.1.3)
that can rotate on its centre. Wheels,
in conjunction with axles, allow moving
heavy objects with ease. The wheel is the
main component of the wheel and axle
assembly. Wheel and axle were used in
the first carriages. We shall learn about
Fig. 1.3: Wheel — a circular component
these later.
A wheel greatly reduces friction by
facilitating motion by rolling together
with the use of axles. In order for wheels to rotate, a
push is needed to rotate the wheel about its axis.
The wheel is a device that enables efficient movement
of an object across a surface where there is a force
pressing the object to the surface. Common examples
are a cart pulled by a horse and the rollers on an aircraft
flap mechanism.
The low resistance to motion (compared to dragging)
is explained as follows.
• The normal force at the sliding interface is the
same.
• The sliding distance is reduced for a given distance
of travel.
• The coefficient of friction at the interface is
usually lower.
The classic spoked wheel with hub and iron rim
was in use from about 500 ACE (Iron Age Europe) until
the twentieth century AD. We can see the importance
of wheel in various places and its role in our day-to-
day life. Our national flag also has a circle signifying
a wheel with spokes.

4
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NOTES
Practical Exercises
Activity 1
List the items where wheel is used as a part of machinery.
S.No. Items No. of wheels
Activity 2
Identify any two types of wheels and draw their diagrams.
Check Your Progress

A. Fill in the blanks
1. _________________is considered as one of the most

important mechanical inventions of all times.
2. Wheel was invented in __________________ in around
3500 BC that is __________ years ago.
3. A wheel is a _________ component that can rotate on its
centre.
4. Wheel is a ________ that enables efficient movement of
an ___________ across a surface where there is a force
pressing it to the surface.
5. The coefficient of friction at the interface of wheel is
usually ________.

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Unit 1.indd 5 13-Mar-19 9:43:12 AM

B. Multiple choice questions
1. How many years ago was the wheel invented?

(a) 2500 years
(b) 3500 years
(c) 5000 years
(d) 6000 years
2. Spoked wheel is used for which category of vehicle?
(a) Light
(b) Medium
(c) Heavy
(d) None of the above
3. Axle of wheel is fitted in the wheel in the _________.
(a) top
(b) bottom
(c) centre
(d) side
C. Short answer questions
1. Define a wheel’s structure.

2. List the different types of wheel used in transport
with examples.
SESSION 2: WHEEL CART

Wheel cart is a vehicle designed for transport, using two
wheels. A handcart is pulled or pushed by one or more
people. However, history tells us that animals, instead
of men, were used for pulling the carts, as they were
more powerful. Normally, a cart was pulled by a pair of
draught animals. The draught animals used for carts
could be horses or ponies, mules, oxen, water buffalo
or donkeys, or even smaller animals, such as goats or
large dogs.
Carts have been mentioned in literature as far
back as the 2nd millennium BC. The Indian epic
Mahabharata, which depicts Lord Krishna as the
saarathi (the charioteer of the rath) and the chariot
(Fig.1.4) carrying Pandava prince Arjuna in the
battlefield of Kurukshetra, are some of the examples.
Fig.1.4: Chariot In the Mahabharata war, all the leaders used a rath
for fighting in the war.

6
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Types of Cart
Carts have been in
continuous use since
the invention of the
wheel in 3500 BC. Carts
may be named after the
animal that pulls them,
such as horse-cart
or ox-cart. In present
times, horse-carts are
used in competitions.
A dog-cart, however, is
usually a cart designed
to carry hunting dogs.
It is an open cart with
two cross-seats back
to back; the dogs can Fig. 1.5: Bullock-cart
be penned between the
rear-facing seat and the back end.
A bullock-cart or ox-cart (Fig.1.5) is a two-wheeled
vehicle pulled by oxen (draught cattle). It is a means of
transportation used since ancient times in many parts
of the world. They are used even today in places where
modern vehicles are too expensive or the infrastructure
does not favour them.
Carts are used especially for carrying goods.
Bullock-cart is pulled by one or two bullocks. The
cart is attached to a bullock team by a special chain
attached to yokes, but a rope may also be used for one
or two animals. The driver and any other passenger
can sit on the front of the cart, while the load is placed
at the back.
Horse Power
How many men would be needed to equal the power of
a horse?
After conducting some experiments, it was found
that, on an average 10–12 men were needed to equal
the power of one horse. This is the reason why mankind
thought of using horses for pulling carts. This led to the
development of a horse carriage.

7
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Practical Exercises
Activity 1
List the different types of cart you have seen in your locality.
S.No. Types of carts No. of wheels
Check Your Progress

1. Carts are driven by_____________.

2. In Mahabharata, the chariot was pulled by_____________.
3. A bullock-cart or ox-cart is a __________ pulled by
oxen(draught animal).
4. An average _____________ men are needed to equal the
power of one horse.
B. Short answer questions
1. How does a wheel cart help the farmer?

2. Why were wheel carts used during Mahabharata?
3. List the different types of carts.
4. Define horsepower.
SESSION 3: INVENTION OF AUTOMOBILES

Till now, we have learnt how the wheel was used in
carts and about horse carriages for transportation of
goods and people. Engineers kept improving the horse
carriage design bit by bit. At the same time, people
were working on a system that could be self-propelled,

8
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Unit 1.indd 8 13-Mar-19 9:43:13 AM

meaning that the system could be run
without any man or animal force required
for moving it.
In the year 1672, the very first such
model (Fig.1.6) was developed in the form
of a toy. This was actually a steam engine,
in which the power of steam was used to
provide momentum to the toy.
Further improvements continued in
various parts of the world. Then in the year
Fig.1.6: Cugnot Steam trolley
1806, the first car (Fig. 1.7) powered by
an internal combustion engine appeared.
The fuel used for running this was ‘fuel
gas’ instead of ‘steam’. The process of
using fuel gas is different from that of
steam. Steam engine requires ‘external
combustion’, whereas fuel gas uses
the principle of ‘internal combustion’.
We shall study this in detail later.
Meanwhile, engineers continued to
improve designs till the year 1885 when
the first modern gasoline-or petrol-
fueled engine was developed in Europe.
It is important to note that inventions in
science and technology cannot often be
used immediately by general public. One Fig.1.7: First practical car model
reason is that the cost of developing new
technology is very high. Also, the first
models usually do not have any comfort
features. However, when more people
raise demand for the new models, the cost
starts to come down. More features can
also be added for making it attractive to
general consumers.
Karl Benz, a German engineer
designed and patented the first practical
model (Fig.1.8) in 1885. This model used
internal combustion engine and was
called Motorwagen. Although several
other German engineers (including Fig. 1.8: Photograph of the original Benz Patent—
Gottlieb Daimler, Wilhelm Maybach and Motorwagen, first built in 1885

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Siegfried Marcus) were working on the problem at about
the same time, Karl Benz generally is acknowledged
as the inventor of the modern automobile.
Karl Benz built an automobile powered by his own
four-stroke cycle gasoline engine in Mannheim, Germany
in 1885 and was granted a patent in
January of the following year, under the
auspices of his major company, Benz
& Cie., which was founded in 1883.
It was an integral design, without the
adaptation of other existing components
and included several new technological
elements to create a new concept. Benz
began to sell his production vehicles
in 1888.
In 1879, Benz was granted a patent
for his first engine, designed in 1878.
Many of his other inventions made the
use of the internal combustion engine
feasible for powering a vehicle. His
first motor wagon was built in 1885,
and he was awarded the patent for this
invention, based on his application
on 29 January 1886. Benz began
promotion of the vehicle on 3 July
1886, and about 25 Benz vehicles were
Fig. 1.9: Bertha Benz
sold between 1888 and 1893, when his
first four-wheeler was introduced along with a model
intended for affordability. They were also powered
with four-stroke engines of his own design. Emile
Roger of France, already producing Benz engines
under licence, also added the Benz automobile to his
line of products. Since France was more open to the
early automobiles, therefore, in the initial period more
automobiles were built and sold in France through
Roger, than Benz sold in Germany.
In August 1888, Bertha Benz, (Fig. 1.9) wife of Karl
Benz, undertook the first roadtrip by car, to prove the
road-worthiness of her husband’s invention (Fig. 1.9).
During the last years of the nineteenth century, Benz
was the largest automobile company in the world with
572 units produced in 1899.

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Towards the end of nineteenth century, many
automobile companies came up in Europe and America.
They started producing different models. But these
automobiles were expensive and only a few rich people
could afford them like kings, queens and rajas in India.
An average person could not afford to own
a car. Many attempts were made in Europe
and America for reducing the costs. The
large-scale, production-line manufacturing
of affordable automobiles was started by
Ransom Olds at his Oldsmobile factory
in 1902, based on the assembly line
techniques pioneered by Marc Isambard
Brunel at the Portsmouth Block Mills,
England in 1802. The assembly line style
of mass production and interchangeable
parts had been pioneered in the U.S.
Fig.1.10: Car Ford Model T
by Thomas Blanchard in 1821, at
the Springfield Armory in Springfield,
Massachusetts. This concept was greatly
expanded by Henry Ford, beginning in
1914. With the introduction of this new
manufacturing process, Ford Motor
company launched the first large-scale
production of their Model T. (Fig. 1.10). In
1914, an assembly line worker could buy a
Model T with four months’ pay.
In Europe the same happened. Morris
set up its production line at Cowley in 1924
and soon outsold Ford, while beginning in Fig. 1.11: 1926 Austin 7 Box
1923 to follow Ford’s practice of vertical
integration. Morris bought Hotchkiss (engines),
Wrigley (gearboxes), and Osberton (radiators). In
1925, Morris had 41 per cent of the total British
car production. Most British small-car assemblers,
from Abbey to Xtra, had failed. Citroën, a French
automobile manufacturer, started building motor cars
in 1919 and employing mass production techniques,
within a year, was manufacturing 100 cars a year.
Renault’s 10CV and Peugeot’s 5CV, produced 550,000
cars in 1925, and Mors, Hurtu and others could not
compete. Germany’s first mass-manufactured car,

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the Opel 4PS Laubfrosch (Tree Frog), came off the line
at Russelsheim in 1924, soon making Opel the top
car builder in Germany, with 37.5 per
cent of the market.
In 1926, Austin 7 Box was an economy
car produced by Austin company (see
Fig. 1.11).
Between the World Wars I and II,
a lot of attention of the automobile
industry went towards development of
Fig.1.12: Mark V Tank
defence vehicles. As a result, several
new vehicles like battletanks and jeeps
were developed. The tank (Fig. 1.12)
became very popular in the war field. It
is a very versatile vehicle which can run
in any road conditions, i.e., in cross-
country terrain, hills, deserts, trenches,
etc.
However, during this period, there
were some very interesting designs
in the passenger segment also.
Volkswagen in Germany developed
a car in 1930s, which looked like a
crawling creature and was therefore
Fig.1.13: Jeweled one-millionth VW Bettle called ‘Beetle’ (Fig. 1.13). This model
had the engine at the back and the
front bonnet was used as the luggage
compartment. The car was very
convenient to drive and looked stylish.
It became popular in Europe.
By 2002, over 21 million Volkswagen
Type 1s (Fig. 1.14) had been produced,
but by 2003, the annual production
had dropped to 30,000 from a peak
of 1.3 million in 1971. Volkswagen
announced the end of production in
June 2003. However, the opinion in
the U.S. was not very good, perhaps
because of the characteristic differences
Fig.1.14: Volkswagen type is model car
between the American and European
car markets. Henry Ford II, the grandson of Henry Ford,
once described the car as ‘a little box’.

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Practical Exercises
Activity 1
Make a list of the automobile vehicles developed in the past.
S.No. Type of vehicle Model
Check Your Progress

1. In the year __________ the very first model of a self-

propelled system was developed in the form of a toy.
2. In year 1806, the first cars powered by ___________________
appeared.
3. _______________, a German engineer, designed and
patented the first practical model of an engine in 1885.
4. Volkswagen developed a car in the 1930s which looked like
a crawling creature and was therefore called _________.
1. In which year was the first vehicle invented?

(a) 1885 (b) 1650
(c) 1806 (d) None of the above
2. Who was the inventor of the first patented car?
(a) Karl Benz (b) Ratan Tata
(c) Mohandas Singh (d) None of the above
3. Which of these is Germany’s first mass-manufactured
car?
(a) Opel 4PS Laubfrosch (b) Volkswagen
(c) Ambassador (d) None of the above
C. Assignment
1. Make a list of the important manufacturers of cars
in India.

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NOTES SESSION 4: INVENTION OF AUTOMOBILES
(POST WORLD WAR II)
Till now we have studied about the developments in the
automotive sector before World War II.
Post World War II, the automotive industry showed
rapid modernisation in the 1950s and 1960s. Many new
car models were introduced like Edsel, Chevrolet, etc.
In the U.S., road network was built after the World
War II. This road network was quite modern with long
highways stretching across the length and breadth of
the country. It is noteworthy that U.S. has a large
landmass and vast geography, which allows open and
wide roads to be built. On these roads models like the
Beetle do appear very tiny!
The Big Three of the car industry, namely General
Motors, Ford and Chrysler set about to design big
fast-moving cars for the American roads. Edsel, Buick,
Pontiac Firebird, Chevrolet Impala, etc., were some of
the big cars that came on American highways in the
1950s and 1960s.It may also be noted that these models
used large amounts of petrol or gasoline as it is called
in the U.S. But, petrol consumption was not a grave
concern in those days. So, each car maker competed
with the others in making bigger and better designs with
more luxuries added for comfort. All this made owning
and maintaining a car quite costly. However, more
and more Americans bought these models. One very
popular model from Ford was named ‘Mustang’.
However, things changed after 1973. This was the
year of the first ‘Oil Crisis’. Petrol started becoming
costlier as all the Arab nations got together in an
alliance. Now, suddenly even Americans started looking
for more economical designs.
Meanwhile, quietly but with determination, Japan
was developing cars for marketing worldwide, mainly in
the U.S. Actually, after the devastation of their country
during World War II, several Japanese companies came
into existence like Toyota, Mazda, Mitsubishi, Suzuki,
etc. Some of these like Mazda, were using American
technology. But these companies were also developing
their own research capabilities. As a result, when the

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1973 oil crisis occurred, these companies were very NOTES
well positioned to roll out smaller, compact, economical
models in the U.S.
Since then, companies like Toyota, Honda have been
steadily increasing their market presence worldwide.
There are some technical and design aspects that
differentiate modern cars from antiques. The modern
era has been one of increasing standardisation, platform
sharing and computer-aided design.
(i) Toyota Corolla (1966–present) — a simple small
Japanese saloon/sedan that has come to be the
best-selling car of all time.
(ii) Range Rover (1970–present) — the first take on
the combination of luxury and four-wheeled drive
utility, the original ‘SUV’. Such was the popularity
of the original Range Rover Classic that a new
model was not brought out until 1994.
(iii) Mercedes-Benz S-Class (1973–present) — features
like electronic anti-lock braking system, supplemental
restraint airbags, seat belt pretensioners and
electronic traction control systems made their debut
in the S-Class. These features later became standard
throughout the car industry.
(iv) BMW 3 Series (1975–present) — the 3 Series has
been on the Car and Driver magazine’s annual Ten
Best list 17 times, making it the longest running
entry in the list.
(v) Honda Accord (1977–present) — this Japanese sedan
became the most popular car in the U.S. in the
1990s, pushing the Ford Taurus aside, and setting
the stage for today’s upscale Asian sedans.
(vi) Dodge Aries and Plymouth Reliant (1981–89) —
the ‘K-cars’ that saved Chrysler as a major
manufacturer. These models were some of the
first successful American front-wheel drive, fuel-
efficient compact cars.
(vii) Chrysler minivans (1983–present) — the two-
box minivan design nearly pushed the station
wagon out of the market, and presaged today’s
crossover SUVs.

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NOTES (viii) Renault Espace (1984–present) — first mass
one-volume car of non-commercial MPV class.
(ix) Ford Taurus (1986–present) — this mid-sized
front-wheel drive sedan with modern computer-
assisted design dominated the American market in
the late 1980s, and created a design revolution in
North America.
(x) Pontiac Trans Sport (1989–99) — it was one of the
first one-box cars.
(xi) Toyota Prius (1997–present) — launched in the
Japanese market, it reached a worldwide cumulative
sales of 2 million units in September 2010, becoming
the most iconic hybrid electric vehicle in the world.
(xii) Ford Focus (1998–present) — one of the most
popular hatchbacks across the globe, which is also
one of Ford’s best-selling world cars.
(xiii) Tata Nano (2008-present) — it is an inexpensive
(`1,00,000), rear-engine, four-passenger city car
built by an Indian company, Tata Motors, and is
aimed primarily at the Indian domestic market.
(xiv) Nissan Leaf and Chevrolet Volt (2010–present) —all
these electric cars were launched in the American
and Japanese markets in December 2010, thereby
becoming the first mass production vehicles of
their kind.
Indian Automobile Scenario

The automotive industry in India started with the
import of cars for royal families, which perhaps started
in 1920s.
For many years, India did not have any manufacturing
capability of its own. Hindustan Motors is one of the initial
car manufacturers in India, founded in 1942 by B.M.
Birla. It was a leader in car sales until the 1980s, when
the industry was opened up from protection. Hindustan
Motors was the producer of the Ambassador car
(Fig. 1.15), widely used as a taxicab and as a government
limousine. This car was based on the Morris Oxford, a
British car that dates back to 1954. The production of
Ambassador stopped in 2014.

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Another Indian company, Premier Automobiles was
founded in 1944. The company first launched production
of vehicles under licence from Dodge and
Plymouth. In 1951, they began producing
versions of Fiat 500 for the Indian market.
This was followed by Fiat 1100 in 1954.
In 1973, Premier renamed the Fiat 1100
as the ‘Premier Padmini’ (Fig. 1.16).
Ambassador and Fiat/Padmini were the
two dominant models of cars on the Indian
roads till 1983.
In 1983, the Government of India
started Maruti Udyog in collaboration
with Suzuki of Japan. Maruti’s first model
called Maruti 800 (Fig. 1.17) became Fig.1.15: Ambassador car
a huge success. Within 5–6 years the
company reached an annual production
of nearly 1,00,000 cars. They launched
various models like 800, Gypsy, Omni
van, Esteem, Zen, Baleno, etc.
By the end of 1990s, several other
global multinational car makers also
started manufacturing their models in
India. Among them were General Motors,
Ford, Hyundai, etc. In just a few years the Fig.1.16: Premium Padmini car
Indian market for cars became a hotspot
of global automotive activity.
As we see, the Indian auto industry
started with the import of cars in the 1920s,
followed by manufacturing in1940s.
With continued progress many Indian
companies like Maruti, Tata, Mahindra
have become big global names. They are
not merely manufacturing European/
American or Japanese designs, but are
doing so with their own research and
development capabilities. As a result of
this, Nano model was developed by Tata Fig.1.17: Maruti 800 car
Motors, which is the cheapest car in the
world with all convenient and quality features. India
also exports nearly 12 per cent of manufactured cars to
Europe, U.S. and elsewhere in the world.

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The automotive industry in India is one of the largest in
the world and one of the fastest growing globally.
According to the Society of Indian Automobile
Manufacturers, annual vehicle sales were projected to
increase to 5 million by 2015 and more than 9 million
by 2020. By 2050, the country is expected to top the
world in car volumes with approximately 611 million
vehicles on the nation’s roads.
The majority of India’s car manufacturing industry
(Fig. 1.18) is based around three clusters in the south,
west and north. The southern cluster near Chennai is
the biggest with 40 per cent of the revenue share. The
western hub near Pune is 33 per cent of the market. The
northern cluster is primarily Haryana with 32 per cent.
Chennai is also referred to as the ‘Detroit of India’ with
the Indian operations of Ford, Hyundai, Renault and
Fig. 1.18: India's Car Manufacturing Industry

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Nissan headquartered in the city and BMW having an
assembly plant on the outskirts. Chennai accounts
for 60 per cent of the country’s automotive exports.
Gurugram and Manesar in Haryana form the northern
cluster where the country’s largest car manufacturer
Maruti Suzuki is based. The Chakan corridor near Pune,
Maharashtra is the western cluster with companies like
General Motors, Volkswagen, ŠKODA, Mahindra and
Mahindra, Tata Motors, Mercedes Benz, Land Rover,
Fiat and Force Motors having assembly plants in the
area. Aurangabad with Audi, ŠKODA and Volkswagen
also forms part of the western cluster. Another emerging
cluster is in the state of Gujarat with manufacturing
facility of General Motors in Halol and further planned
for Tata Nano at Sanand. Ford, Maruti Suzuki and
Peugeot-Citroen plants are also set to come up in
Gujarat. Kolkata with Hindustan Motors, Noida with
Honda and Bengaluru with Toyota are some of the other
automotive manufacturing regions around the country.
Practical Exercises
Activity 1
List five models of cars of different companies.
S.No. Name of model
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Check Your Progress

1. A very popular model from Ford was named ___________.

2. The Big Three of the car industry, namely General Motors,
Ford and Chrysler set out to design big fast, moving cars
for the __________ roads.

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3. The first cars imported in India were in ___________.
4. _______________and ___________ were the two dominant
models of cars on the Indian roads till 1983.
5. In 1983, the Government of India started Maruti Udyog in
collaboration with ____________ of Japan.
6. The first Indian car which is cheapest in the world is
__________.
1. In which year was the first car imported in India?

(a) 1920
(b) 1942
(c) 1970
2. Which of these is the first car manufactured in India?
(a) Ambassador
(b) Fiat
(c) Nano
(d) Padmini
3. Which city is referred to as the “Detroit of India”?
(a) Pune
(b) Gurugram
(c) Chennai
(d) Delhi
4. In which year was the India company Premier Automobiles
founded?
(a) 1940
(b) 1944
(c) 1960
(d) 1970

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Unit
2 Various Types of
Automobiles
INTRODUCTION
The Indian automotive industry is one of the biggest
in the world and growing rapidly globally. The Indian
automobile industry produced 2,90,75,605 vehicles
including passenger vehicles, commercial vehicles,
three-wheelers, two-wheelers and quadricycle in
April-March 2018 as against 2,53,30,967 in
April-March 2017, registering a growth of 14.78 per cent
over the same period last year. In terms of the global
ranking in manufacturing output, India is the second
largest in two-wheelers, eighth largest in commercial
vehicle, sixth largest in passenger cars and the largest
in tractors.
The automobile segment comprises the following
four broad categories of vehicles.
• Two-wheelers and three-wheelers
• Passenger vehicles
• Commercial vehicles
• Special application vehicles
Two-wheelers, being the most popular means of
personal transport, account for about 80 per cent
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(as per 2015-16 data) of the total automobile production
in India, while passenger vehicles account for nearly
16 per cent of the production. However, owing to their
lower price, two-wheelers account for only around
32 per cent of the sales in terms of value, while passenger
vehicles account for around 62 per cent of sales.
In this Unit, we will study the different types of
vehicles used in our country viz., two-wheeler, three-
wheeler, passenger vehicles, commercial vehicles,
agricultural vehicles, construction equipment vehicles
and special application vehicles.
SESSION 1: TWO-WHEELERS AND THREE-WHEELERS

Two-wheelers
As the name suggests, two-wheeler refers to vehicles
that run on two wheels (see Fig. 2.1). Two-wheelers are
used all over the world. In developed, rich countries,
two-wheelers are used more for recreational purpose,
whereas in our country it is an important means of
transportation of passengers, both in urban as well
as rural areas. India has the largest population of
two-wheelers. More than 5.4 million two-wheelers
are produced in our country every year. Motorcycles,
scooters and mopeds are the categories of two-wheelers
used in our country. Motorcycles account for about 78
per cent in the two-wheeler segment. Remaining 22 per
cent comprise scooters and mopeds.
India is the second largest manufacturer of
two-wheelers in the world. In the last few years, the
Indian two-wheeler industry has seen massive growth.
The country stands next to China and Japan in terms
of production and sales, respectively.
Majority of Indians, especially the youngsters, prefer
motorcycles over cars. Holding a large share in the two-
wheeler industry, motorcycles and scooters cover major
areas, in terms of usage. Large varieties of two-wheelers
are available in the market that adopt latest technology
and provide enhanced mileage.
Benefits of Two-wheelers
A motorcycle is a motor-powered two-wheeler, similar
in construction to bicycles.
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Two-wheelers are the most popular and highly
sought after medium of transport in India, as they offer
many benefits, like —
(i) Economical price
(ii) Safety
(iii) Fuel-efficiency
There is an increasing trend of owning high-
performance imported motorcycles like Suzuki Hayabusa,
Kawasaki Ninja, Suzuki Zeus and Honda Unicorn.
Identification of Two-wheelers
You must have seen various types of two-wheelers in
your locality or on the roads. Every two-wheeler has a
sticker of its model type and name of the manufacturer.
You can identify the make of the two-wheeler by
the sticker or logo fixed on its body. Two-wheeler
manufacturers produce different models each with
different specifications. Popular brands of two-wheeler
manufacturers are Hero, Honda, Bajaj, TVS and Suzuki.
Some of their popular models include
Hero — Impulse, Splendor, CDdawn, Pleasure,
Passion Plus
Bajaj — Pulsar, Discover, Platina
TVS — Apache, Star, Scooty Streak, Scooty Pep,
Star City
Honda — Activa, Dio, Aviator
Suzuki — Access, Intruder M800, Zeus
These models vary in size, weight, dimension type
and engine capacity.
Fig. 2.1: Different types of two-wheelers
VARIOUS TYPES OF AUTOMOBILES

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Three-wheelers
A three-wheeler is a vehicle (Figs 2.2 and 2.3) with three
wheels, either ‘human - or people-powered vehicles’ (HPV
or PPV) or motored vehicles in the form of a tri-motorcycle,
all-terrain vehicle (ATV) or automobile.
Autorickshaws (often called auto) are common
all over India, and provide cheap and efficient
transportation. Autorickshaws are found in villages,
cities and in the countryside. The new autorickshaws
operate on CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) and are
environment-friendly. The average mileage of an
Indian-made autorickshaw is around 35 kilometres
per litre of petrol. Many major nationalised banks in
India offer loans to self-employed individuals seeking
to buy autorickshaws. Important autorickshaw
manufacturers in India are Mahindra & Mahindra,
Fig. 2.2: Autorickshaw
Piaggio Ape, TVS Motors, Bajaj Auto, Kerala Auto
Limited and Force Motors (previously Bajaj Tempo).
Mostly, two types of autorickshaws are used in
India — the older versions in which the engine is fitted
below the driver’s seat, and the newer versions in
which the engine is fitted in the rear portion. These
autorickshaws run well on petrol, CNG and diesel. A
three-wheeler autorickshaw can accommodate four
persons including the driver. Some parts of Maharashtra
have six-seater rickshaws. In cities and towns across
India, autorickshaw is the backbone of city transport.
Fare rates of these autorickshaws are controlled by
government agencies.
Several types of three-wheelers run with the support
of motorcycle-based fitted machines, which are called
trikes. These trikes have a front single wheel, the
mechanics are quite similar to that of a motorcycle and
the rear axle is similar to that of a car. Many times,
Fig. 2.3: Battery - powered these vehicles are constructed by local mechanics using
Three-wheeler a portion of the rear engine.
Similarly, many trikes including All Terrain Vehicles
(ATVs) are specially constructed for off-road use. Mostly
three-wheeled vehicles have either one wheel at the
back and two at the front, or one wheel at the front and
two at the back.

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Practical Exercises
Activity 1
List the types of two-wheelers and three-wheelers used in
your locality.
S.No. Name of model
Check Your Progress

1. A two-wheeler refers to ___________that run on two wheels.
2. A motorcycle is a motor-powered ____________, similar in
construction to a bicycle.
3. A three-wheeler is a vehicle with ________________ either
‘human or people-powered vehicles’ (HPV or PPV) or
motored vehicles in the form of a _________ or automobile.
4. Autorickshaws are ____________ all over India, and provide
cheap and efficient __________.
5. New autorickshaws run on ___________________ and are
environment-friendly.

1. What is the typical mileage of an Indian-made
autorickshaw per liter of petrol?
(a) 25 km (b) 30 km
(c) 35 km (d) 40km
2. Trikes-based machines are fitted in ________________.
(a) 2-wheelers (b) 3-wheelers
(c) 4-wheelers (d) None of these
3. Two-and three-wheelers are run by a common fuel
known as ________________.
(a) Petrol (b) Diesel
(c) CNG (d) All of these
1. Differentiate between two-wheelers and three-wheelers.
2. List the uses of three-wheelers.

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SESSION 2: PASSENGER VEHICLES AND
COMMERCIAL VEHICLES
Passenger Vehicles
A passenger vehicle refers to a machine that can carry a
person or a group of persons. There are different types
of passenger vehicles like cars, jeeps, tempos, etc. You
must have seen various models of passenger vehicles in
your village, town or city. You must have also travelled
in these passenger vehicles.
The details of some of the popular models of cars,
buses, jeep and tempos have been illustrated below.
Car
A motor car or car is a vehicle used for transporting
passengers, which also carries its own engine or motor.
Various popular cars in India are by Maruti Suzuki,
Tata Motors, Hyundai, Honda, Mahindra, Datsun,
Volkswagen, Suzuki, etc. Nowadays, various car
manufacturers of international level have established in
our country and have started production of cars here.
Jeep
Jeep is the oldest vehicle used as an off-road vehicle.
Willys Overland produced the first Jeep. It is the
marque of the brand Chrysler. It has excellent off-road
capabilities, and although it was designed primarily to
aid military requirements, the company started producing
civilian models too by changing the design. Various
changes under different leaderships were also made. Jeep
is now part of the Chrysler Group LLC which is under
Fiat Italy. The company celebrated its 70th
anniversary in 2011. Jeep is found in many
countries around the world, and the popular
models are Jeep Grand Cherokee, Jeep Patriot,
Jeep Compass, Jeep Liberty, Jeep Commander
and Jeep Wrangler (Fig. 2.4).
Commercial Vehicles
A commercial vehicle is a type of motor
Fig.2.4: Jeep vehicle that is generally used for transporting

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goods as well as passengers.
Commercial vehicles support the
trade, commerce and industry of
a country in a major way. Vehicles
falling under this category are
mainly buses and trucks (Fig. 2.5).
They help in transportation of
goods, shipping and handling
of various commodities and so
on. The future of companies
manufacturing these vehicles
is quite bright in view of India’s Fig.2.5: Commercial vehicle (Bus)
growing commercial sector.
Trucks
Trucks (Fig.2.6) are used for
carrying goods and material in
bulk. As per size and functional
use, trucks are classified into
sub-categories — rigid trucks,
tippers, haulage, cabs, delivery
vans and trailers. The fuel
efficiency of these vehicles have
improved in the past few years.
The major truck manufacturers
in India are Ashok Leyland, Fig.2.6: Truck
Tata Motors, Eicher, and
Swaraj Mazda.
Bus
A bus is a huge commercial
vehicle, said to have originated
in France in the year 1826
designed by Stanislas Baudry
under the name of ‘Omnibus’.
The main purpose of this vehicle
is to carry the passengers as
it is a cost-effective medium
of transportation.
The major producers of buses
in India are Ashok Leyland and
Tata Motors, Swaraj Mazda, Fig. 2.7: CNG Bus

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Volvo and Hindustan Motors. These companies have
made a big name in manufacturing mini bus too. The
various sub-categories of buses like commuter buses,
school buses and electric buses are also available. In
India, CNG buses are more popular due to fuel efficiency
and being environment-friendly vehicles (see Fig.2.7).
Practical Exercises
Activity 1
List the models of passenger vehicle and commercial vehicle

used in your area.
S.No. Name of model
Activity 2
Identify two types of passenger and commercial vehicles in
your area and draw their diagrams in your notebook.
Check Your Progress

1. A passenger vehicle refers to a machine that runs on
_______________ wheels.
2. Trucks are a used for carrying _______________ in bulk.
3. ___________________ produced the first jeep.
4. A commercial vehicle is used for____________.

1. Who invented the jeep?
2. Differentiate between passenger and commercial vehicles.
3. Discuss the importance of transport vehicle in India.

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SESSION 3: AGRICULTURAL VEHICLES
Tractor
Agricultural vehicles are used for farming. They include
tractors, harvesters, etc. A tractor (Fig. 2.8) is a motor
vehicle with large back wheels and thick tyres and is
used in farms for pulling machinery at a slow speed.
Tractors are mostly used for carrying the trailer or
machinery used in agriculture or construction. It can
be said that a tractor is a farm vehicle that provides
the power and traction to mechanise agricultural
tasks, especially (and originally) tillage. Agricultural
implements are pulled behind or mounted on the tractor.
The tractor also provides power to stationary equipment
like thresher, blower, etc. Tractors are heavy vehicles
used for pulling or pushing agricultural machinery or
trailers at an extremely low speed. India is majorly an
agricultural country and tractors are used on a large
scale. Tractors are heavy vehicles and are used for
carrying out agricultural operations in a systematic way
to get more output.
Modern tractors usually employ large diesel engines
which range in power output from 18 to 575 horsepower.
The major producers of tractors in India are TAFE,
Eicher, Mahindra, Ashok Leyland, Escorts, John Deer,
Force Motors and Swaraj Enterprise. ‘Tractor’ is the
most commonly used term for the vehicle used
on farms. The farm tractor is used for plowing,
tilling, disking, harrowing, planting and similar
tasks. A variety of specialty farm tractors have
been developed for different purposes. These
include row crop tractors with adjustable
tread width to allow the tractor to pass down
rows of corn, tomatoes or other crops. Many
utility tractors are used for non-farm grading,
landscape maintenance and excavation
purposes, particularly with loaders, backhoes,
pallet forks and similar devices. Small garden
Fig. 2.8: Tractor
or lawn tractors designed for sub-urban and
semi-rural gardening and landscape maintenance also
exist in a variety of configurations. Tractors with small
horsepower are known as power tillers. The durability

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and engine power of tractors
make them very suitable for
engineering tasks.
Combine Harvester
The combine harvester (Figs 2.9
and 2.10) is a machine that
harvests grain crops. This
machine combines three
separate operations — reaping,
threshing and winnowing — into
a single process. Among the
crops harvested with a combine
Fig.2.9: Harvester
are wheat, oats, rye, barley,
corn (maize), soybeans and flax
(linseed). The waste straw left
behind on the field are dried
stems and leaves of the crop with
low nutrients. This leftover straw
is either chopped and spread on
the field or baled for feed and
bedding for livestock. Combine
harvesters are one of the most
economically important labour-
saving inventions, enabling a
small fraction of the population
to engage in agriculture.
Fig.2.10: Combine harvester loading the grain in a trolley
Practical Exercises
Activity 1
List the models of agricultural vehicles used in your area.
S. No. Name of model

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Check Your Progress
1. Agricultural ____________ may be towed behind or mounted
on the tractor.
2. An agricultural vehicle is a farm vehicle that provides
_______ and traction to _______ agricultural tasks.
3. Combines are used for _______________and _________.
4. Combines are one of the most economically important
_____________________ inventions.
B. Short answer questions

1. What are the uses of a tractor?
2. How have agricultural vehicles helped the farmers
in India?
SESSION 4: CONSTRUCTION EQUIPMENT VEHICLES

Lot of new roads, houses and industrial plants are being
built these days. You must have seen big machines
being used at the construction sites to dig earth. These
are Special Purpose Automobiles and are sometimes
called Earth Moving Equipment.
There are several types of Earth Moving or
Construction Equipment, such as
(i) Bulldozers
(ii) Road rollers
(iii) Dumpers
(iv) Excavators
As their names suggest, they are used for various types
of work like digging or excavating earth and dumping
it at a designated place. Road rollers are used for
levelling roads.
Bulldozer
It is a heavy vehicle with a large blade in the front,
used for pushing the earth and stones away and for
making the ground flat at the same time. A bulldozer is
equipped with a heavy metal plate (blade) to push large
quantities of soil, sand, rubble and other such material
during construction or conversion work.

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Bulldozers (Fig. 2.11) are generally used at sites like
mines and quarries, military bases, heavy industry
factories, engineering projects and farms.
Typically, bulldozers are large
and powerful tracked heavy
equipment. The tracks give them
excellent ground hold and mobility
through very rough terrains.
Bulldozers have great ground hold
and a torque divider that is designed
to convert the power of the engine
into dragging ability, which allows it
to use its own weight to push heavy
objects and even remove things
from the ground. The Caterpillar
Fig. 2.11: Bulldozer
D9, for example, can easily tow
tanks that weigh more than 70 tonnes. Because of
these attributes, bulldozers are used to clear areas of
obstacles, shrubbery, burnt vehicles and remains of
structures. The bulldozer’s primary tools are the blade
and the ripper.
Road Roller
Road Roller or soil compactor (Fig. 2.12) is a type of
engineering vehicle used to compact soil, gravel, concrete
or asphalt in the construction of roads and foundation.
Similar rollers are used at landfills or in agriculture. A
road roller is used for making roads. It uses the weight
of the vehicle to compress the
surface being rolled (static) or uses
mechanical advantage (vibrating).
Initial compaction of the substrate
on a road project is done using a
pad foot drum roller, which achieves
higher compaction density due to the
pads having less surface area. On
large roads, a four-wheel compactor
with pad foot drum and a blade is
used due to its heavyweight, speed
and the powerful pushing force to
Fig.2.12: Road roller
spread bulk material.

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Dumper
It is a four-wheeled heavy machine
vehicle (Fig. 2.13)designed for carrying
bulk material or transporting loose
material at construction sites. It is
also known as a dump truck. Dumpers
are operated by diesel engine. In a
dumper truck, chassis with a dump
body is mounted to the frame. The
bed is raised by a vertical hydraulic
ram mounted under the front of the
body, or a horizontal hydraulic ram
and lever arrangement between the
frame rails, and the back of the bed
Fig 2.13: Dumper
is hinged at the back of the truck.
Dumpers are also known as tippers. As per the need
and requirement, various types of dumper are being
manufactured in the country. The cost of these dumpers
varies as per size.
Fig.2.14: Excavator (JCB)
Excavator
Excavator (Fig. 2.14) is the machine that can excavate the
soil of various types forcefully and then using hydraulic
system a hydraulic force is generated and utilising this
force bucket is pulled back towards the machine. The
bucket of excavator is replaceable. If the front bucket is
exchanged with some other attachments, for example,
pile diver, hydraulic jack hammer, etc., then the
excavator can be used for multiple purposes. Excavator

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comes in numerous sizes depending on bucket size,
length of boom, length of arm and operation speed. The
performance of an excavator can be measured from the
production cycle. Production cycle is the time that an
excavator takes to load the bucket from source, swing,
dump, return back and then dig again. Therefore, faster
the operation speed, the faster one cycle will complete
and hence production cycle will increase.
Practical Exercises
Activity 1
List the construction equipment vehicles you have seen at
any construction site.
S.No. Name of model
Check Your Progress

1. A road roller is a _________ type engineering vehicle used
to compact soil, gravel, __________ or asphalt in the
____________of roads and foundations.
2. Dumper is a vehicle designed for carrying _____________.
3. Dumper is a ____________ vehicle.
4. An excavator is used for ________________.
5. Modern dumpers have payloads of up to ______________.

1. Bulldozer is known as ________________.
(a) crawler
(b) bunker
(c) road roller
(d) CB
2. Dumpers are also known as ___________.
(a) heavy equipment
(b) tippers
(c) passenger vehicle
(d) carts

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3. Which of these is not construction equipment?
(a) Dumpers
(b) Dozers
(c) Jeep
(d) Road rollers
4. Road roller is used for ___________________.
(a) lifting the soil
(b) levelling the road
(c) carrying bulk material

1. List the different types of construction equipment
vehicles.
2. Differentiate between road roller and dumper.
SESSION 5: SPECIAL VEHICLES

In the previous sessions, we have covered passenger
vehicles, commercial vehicles, agricultural vehicles and
construction equipment vehicles. Automotive technology
has several other applications also, some of which we
shall discuss in this session.
Railway locomotive is basically an automobile, but
much bigger than a car, bus or a truck. In the beginning,
trains were pulled by locomotives which were powered
by steam. Nowadays, most rail engines (Fig. 2.15) run
on diesel or electricity. In India, rail is a very important
means of transportation of goods
and passengers. As you know,
a train cannot run on roads but
runs on a railway track (see Fig.
2.16).
Another application of automotive
technology are the big machines
which have long extended arms
for reaching high-rise buildings
or the top of electric poles. These
are mounted on an automobile
and the complete machine is
called a crane. Sometimes, the
traffic police use a crane to lift
cars which are wrongly parked. Fig.2.15: Train engine

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Another interesting application
of an automobile is the forklift (Fig.
2.17). A forklift is used mostly in
industry and in large warehouses
for carrying components and
goods within the premises of
Fig.2.16: Railway track the factory or the godown or
warehouse. So, a forklift is
normally used for carrying goods
for very short distances within
the four walls of a building but
never on the outside road.
Tankers are also one of the
automobile applications, which
(Fig. 2.18) are used when liquids
like water, milk, oil, petrol, diesel,
etc., are required to be transported
to long distances. These tankers
have very big cylinders mounted
horizontally on the chassis of
a specially built automobile.
The capacity of these tankers
Fig.2.17: Forklift can vary.
Sometimes, a warning sign
‘inflammable material’ is written
on the tankers that carry volatile
fluids like petrol and diesel. This
warning is to caution people
on the road to not bring any
ignited object like matchstick
or firecrackers near the tanker.
Petrol and diesel can catch fire
very easily since their flash point
is very low and if there is any
source of intense heat or ignited
objects, the tanker can catch fire
and cause a lot of damage.
Fig. 2.18: Milk tanker It may be noted that sometimes
these tankers are also mounted
on railway trains. Also, you may have seen pictures of
tankers on a ship. Similarly on roads, trailers are used
for carrying heavy materials or containers (Fig. 2.19).
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Fig.2.19: Trailer
Practical Exercises
Activity 1
List the models of special vehicle that you have seen in
your locality.
S. No. Name of model
Check Your Progress

1. A train is pulled by __________________.
2. Rail engines run on ______________ or __________________.
3. The crane is a ____________ vehicle.
4. When liquids like water, milk, oil, petrol, diesel, etc., are
required to be transported to ______distances, it is done in
________________.
5. The tanker vehicle is used for carrying ____________.

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1. In earlier times trains were pulled by____________________.
(a) locomotives (b) car
(c) motorcycle (d) None of these
2. Tanker is used for carrying ___________________.
(a) liquid (b) water
(c) milk(d) (d) All of these
3. Rail is used for carrying _____________________.
(a) passengers (b) goods
(c) water (d) All of these
4. Which machine does the traffic police use for lifting cars?
(a) crane (b) dumper
(c) road roller (d) None of these

1. Define the role of special vehicles.
2. What is the purpose of using cranes?

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Unit Major Systems and
3
Components of an
Automobile
Introduction
In the previous Units, we learnt about the different
types of automobile. In this Unit, we will discuss the
major systems and components of an automobile. An
automobile is made of several components, assemblies
and systems. The growing automotive industry has
given rise to a growing auto component industry also.
India has emerged as a global outsourcing hub for
manufacturing of various automobile components. All
major companies like Toyota, Hyundai, Ford, Volvo,
Renault and others are now sourcing their automotive
components from Indian manufacturers.
The auto components industry is predominantly
divided into five segments.
(i) Engine parts
(ii) Drive transmission and steering parts
(iii) Suspension and brake parts
(iv) Electrical parts
(v) Body and chassis
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Global automobile manufacturers see India as a
manufacturing hub for auto components due to the
following reasons:
(i) Low-cost labour force and availability of raw
material which makes India cost competitive
(ii) An established manufacturing base in India
(iii) Setting up of the operations of major international
auto components including Delphi, Visteon, Bosch
and Meritor in India
(iv) Setting up of International Purchasing Offices
(IPOs) of automobile manufacturers and auto
component manufacturers in India
(v) Fine-quality components manufactured in India
(vi) India being a global hub for research and
development (R&D), General Motors, Diamler
Chrysler, Bosch, Suzuki, Johnson Controls, etc.,
have their research centres in India
In this Unit, you will learn about the various
components and systems that make a complete
automobile —
the engine and its parts, the body
and chassis, drive transmission and steering parts,
suspension and brake parts, electrical parts and other
systems that make running an automobile possible.
Session 1: Chassis and Auto Body

Chassis
Chassis is a French term and was initially used to
denote the frame or main structure of a vehicle. The
chassis (Fig. 3.1) contains all the major units necessary
to propel the vehicle, guide its motion, stop it and
allow it to run smoothly over uneven surfaces. It is
the main mounting for all the components including
the body. It is also known as the carrying unit.
The chassis includes the following major
Fig. 3.1: Chassis with suspension components.
and exhaust system
(i) A steel frame, which is a major part.
(ii) In case of a passenger car, the whole body is
also an integral part of the chassis. However, in
commercial vehicles like trucks and buses, the
body is not a part of the chassis. Therefore, a
chassis is almost a complete vehicle except the
Automotive Service Technician – Class IX

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body and other accessories, which are not involved
in the movement of the vehicle.

(iii)
Other major components include engine,
transmission system, front and rear axle, steering
system, suspension system, wheels, tyres
and brakes.
Functions of the chassis
The functions of the chassis includes
(i) carrying the weight of the vehicle and its passengers,
(ii) withstanding the engine and transmission torque
and thrust stresses, as well as accelerating and
braking torque,
(iii) withstanding the centrifugal force while taking a
turn and
(iv) withstanding the bending load and twisting due to
the rise and fall of the front and rear axles.
Automobile Body or Superstructure
In case of integral or frameless construction, the body is an
integral part of the chassis. But, in case of the conventional
chassis, the body or superstructure is made after receiving
the chassis from the manufacturer. The shape of the body
depends upon the ultimate use for which the vehicle
is meant.
The body of a car (Fig. 3.2) is made of a sheet of metal
or fibre glass, so that passengers can sit in it. To make
Fig. 3.2: Body of a car
Major Systems and Components of an Automobile

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the journey comfortable, cushioned seats are provided.
The body is provided on all sides with glass panes fixed
to protect the passengers from dust and rain.
The body of a bus is made of metal, like
(a) steel section pillars with steel sheet panelling,
(b) steel section pillars with aluminium panelling and
(c) all aluminium bodies, i.e., pillars, framework
and panelling made of aluminium sections and
sheets. This is because aluminium is very light in
weight compared to steel.
The body of a truck has the driver’s compartment
covered and the rest is kept open. Such bodies are
usually called load bodies. In most of the cases, it is an
open body, whereas for liquid material like water, milk
and fuel products, a tank is mounted on the chassis.
The body is fixed to the chassis with the help of I- or
U-bolts with rubber packing placed between the chassis
and body cross members.
Requirements of automobile body

The body of a motor vehicle should fulfill certain
requirements. It should
(i) be light weight.
(ii) have minimum number of components.
(iii) have long fatigue life.
(iv) have uniformly distributed load.
(v) have sufficient space for passengers and luggage.
(vi) have good access to the engine and suspension system.
(vii) have minimum vibrations when the vehicle is running.
(viii) have minimum resistance to air.
(ix) be cheap and easy in manufacturing.
(x) have clear all-round vision through glass areas.
(xi) have an attractive shape and colour.
Check Your Progress

1. A chassis is almost a complete _________ mounting body.
2. The shape of the chassis depends ______ upon the ultimate
use of the __________________.

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3. Major part of a chassis is the __________frame.
4. In commercial vehicles like trucks and buses the body is
not a _________ of the chassis.
5. In most of the cases, it is an open body, whereas for liquid
material like water, milk and fuel a __________ is mounted
on the chassis.
1. Chassis is a French term and was initially used to denote

_____________________.
(a) main structure of a vehicle
(b) fixing the automobile body
(c) transmission system, front and rear axle
(d) carrying the bolt
2. What are the functions of the chassis frame?
(a) To carry the weight of the vehicle and its passengers.
(b) To withstand the engine and transmission torque.
(c) To withstand the centrifugal force while cornering.
(d) All of the above
3. Automobile body is made of ________________.
(a) sheet metal or fibre glass
(b) iron
(c) copper
(d) gun metal
4. The body is fixed to the chassis with the help of ________
________________.
(a) I or U bolts
(b) rivet
(c) welding
(d) threaded bolt
5. Automobile body should fulfill which of the following
requirements?
(a) The body should be light.
(b) It should have a long fatigue life.
(c) Both (a) and (b)

1. Differentiate between chassis frame and automobile body.
2. Explain the use of the chassis frame.
3. How does auto body help in transport?

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Session 2: Engine and Its Components
An engine (Fig. 3.3) is complex unit in which different
components are assembled together, and fuel is burned
to produce power or energy. The engine
converts chemical energy (heat energy)
into mechanical energy, which is
then utilised for vehicular movement.
There are different processes of fuel
combustion. When the fuel is burned
within the engine, it is called an Internal
Combustion (IC) engine, and when it is
burned externally and the produced
steam is used for the mechanical
movement, it is called an External
Combustion (EC) engine. Nowadays,
automobile engines are quite economical
due to the developments taking place in
Fig. 3.3: Engine the field of internal combustion engine.
On the basis of the process of ignition,
the automobile engines are classified into spark ignition
engine (petrol or gas) and compression ignition engine
(diesel). In an IC engine, the reciprocating motion of the
piston is converted into rotary motion of the crankshaft
and the produced power is then transmitted to move
the vehicle. In case of a rotary engine or Wankel
engine, the rotor rotates and completes the process of
combustion and produces the power, which helps the
vehicular movement.
The spark ignition engine can be differentiated from the
compression ignition engine as per the following factors.
(i) The type of fuel used.
(ii) The way the fuel enters in the combustion chamber.
(iii) The way in which fuel is ignited.
Spark Ignition Engine (Petrol or Gas Engine)

The spark ignition engine uses a highly volatile fuel,
such as gasoline, which turns into vapour easily. The
fuel is mixed with air before it enters in the combustion
chamber, and forms a combustible air-fuel mixture.
This mixture then enters the cylinder and gets

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compressed with the help of a piston. An electric spark
is produced by the ignition system which ignites the
combustible air-fuel mixture. The combustible gases
burn and expand, which forces the piston downwards for
generating power.
Compression Ignition Engine (Diesel Engine)

In the compression ignition engine or diesel engine,
only fresh air enters the cylinder, which is compressed
to a very high pressure and temperature, which could
go up to 1000°F (538°C). The diesel is then injected or
sprayed into the engine combustion chamber. This
spray contains very fine and tiny particles of diesel in
an atomised form. The hot air or heat of compression
ignites the fuel and generates the power stroke.
Components of an IC Engine
1. Cylinder: The cylinder or cylinder liner of an IC
engine is fitted in the cylinder block, which is a
single casted unit and is considered to be the main
body of an engine. The block has cylinder liners.
The piston reciprocates up and down from Top
Dead Centre (TDC) to Bottom Dead Centre (BDC)
to generate power.
The cylinder liner and the cylinder block have
to withstand very high pressure (about 70 bar)
and temperature (about 700°C) during power
stroke. The material used for the cylinder block
must withstand such heat and also disperse it
effectively. The cylinder block is well-designed
with water passages to remove the excess heat
and separate oil passages are provided for the
circulation of lubricating oil. The top portion of the
cylinder block is covered by the cylinder head. The
crankcase is an integral part of the cylinder block
which houses the crankshaft and the lower portion
is dipped in an oil pan.
Nowadays, cylinder liners are made of special
alloy and internal portion is coated with material
like titanium which provides mirror finish and can
withstand the wear resistance. The upper end of

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the cylinder liner has a flange which fits well in the
cylinder block. The exterior portion of the cylinder
liner is exposed to water jacket for easy dispersion
of heat.
2. Cylinder Head: The cylinder head is also single-
casted unit and bolted to the top portion of the cylinder
block. The combustion chamber is a part of the
cylinder head, where the combustion of gases takes
place. The water passages are provided to remove
the heat from the cylinder head. In latest engines,
the cylinder head also houses the camshaft which
has the inlet and exhaust valves with supportive
valve mechanism. This provision is made to fix spark
plug in SI engines and nozzle in CI engines. The
lower portion of the cylinder head is well-machined
to ensure there is no leakage of gases. Cylinder head
gasket is usually cast as one piece and bolted to
the top of the cylinder (engine block). Copper and
asbestos gaskets are provided between the cylinder
and cylinder‑head to obtain a gas‑tight joint. The
charge enters the combustion chamber through the
inlet valve connected to the inlet manifold, and the
exhaust gases are removed through the exhaust
valves connected to the exhaust manifold.
3. Piston and Piston Rings: Piston is a cylindrical unit,
used to compress the charge during compression
stroke and to transmit the gas force to the
connecting rod and then to the crankshaft during
power stroke. The pistons of IC engines are usually
made of aluminium alloy, which has high thermal
conductivity and is light in weight. The material of
piston must have the ability for higher heat transfer.
The piston moves up and down (from TDC to BDC)
and assists in completing the engine cycle.
The piston rings are placed in the ring groove
and provide sealing between the piston and the
cylinder liner, thereby preventing the leakage of high
pressure gases. These are made of special grade
cast iron, which retains its elastic property even at
very high temperature. The upper piston rings are
called the compression rings and the lower piston
rings are called the oiling or oil control rings.

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4. Connecting Rod: It is usually manufactured by
using drop-forged steel. It is made in the shape
of ‘I’ so as to reduce its weight and to withstand
strength. Its small end is connected to the piston
with the help of gudgeon pin and the big end is
connected to the crankpin with shell bearings. It
has a passage for the transfer of lubricating oil
from the big end bearing to the small end bearing
(gudgeon pin). The major function of the connecting
rod is to convert the reciprocating motion of piston
to the rotary motion of the crankshaft.
5. Crank and Crankshaft: The crankshaft (Fig. 3.4)
is called the backbone of an engine because it
converts the reciprocating motion of piston into the
rotary motion of the crankshaft. The crankshaft is a
single casted unit and is made of drop-forged steel
main journals which are placed and supported in
the crank case. The main journal and connecting
journals are machined to a smooth finish to reduce
Cylinder
Piston
UP
Piston Pin
Bolt
Down
Connecting
Rod
Around in
a cricle
Crank Pin
Crank
shaft Lower Rod
Bearing Cap
Waster
Nut
Fig. 3.4: Crankshaft of multicylinder engine

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friction and shell bearings are used
Pin Con Rod
for smooth rotation of crankshaft.
Front end of the crankshaft will
transmit drive to the camshaft and
also to the timing gear, whereas
the flywheel is bolted to the flange
at rear end of the crankshaft.
Snap ring Main journal of the crankshaft
carries the oil passages to lubricate
shell bearings.
In case of a single cylinder
Snap ring engine crank assembly (Fig. 3.5) is
used, two crank webs are connected
with the crank pin, and crank webs
shafts are press fitted in both. At
one side of the shaft magneto is
fastened whereas clutch assembly
Fig. 3.5: Crank assembly of single cylinder engine
is mounted to the other. The crank
assembly is balanced dynamically
as well as statically for the smooth transmission
of power.
6. Piston Pin or Gudgeon Pin. This unit connects
the piston and small end of the connecting rod
and passes through the piston (Fig. 3.6). Circlips
Intake camshaft
Exhaust camshaft
Spark
plug Exhaust Valve
Cylinder
head
Exhaust Intake
Exhaust valve Intake valve
Piston
head
Piston pin
Inlet Valve
Connecting
rod
Engine block Cylinder
Crankshaft
Fig. 3.6: Important components of piston

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are fitted into recesses in the piston to prevent
the gudgeon from touching the cylinder wall. The
needle bearing or bronze bushing is press fitted
into the connecting rod, due to this the gudgeon
pin provides bearing for the oscillating small end
of the connecting rod.
7. Inlet Valve: The major role of the inlet valve is to
submit fresh charge in to the cylinder during the
suction stroke. Opening and closing of the valve
will control the admission of the charge into the
petrol engine or air into diesel engine during
suction stroke of an engine. The valve operations
will be as per the valve timings. The inlet valve has
a wider face or in latest engines two inlet valves are
used to maintain volumetric efficiency of an engine.
8. Exhaust Valve: The exhaust valve removes out
the burnt gases from the combustion chamber
after power stroke. The exhaust valve has to bare
more heat resistance.
9. Valve Spring: The valve spring (Fig.
3.7)plays an important role to close
the valve and also provides air tight
compartment to seal the combustible
gases during power stroke and
also maintain the self-centering
movement of the valve. Both ends
of the vale spring are machined for
smooth function and up and down
movements of the valves. Fig 3.7: Valve Spring
10. Inlet Manifold: The fuel air mixture
is carried from the carburettor to the cylinder
through a separate pipe through inlet manifold in a
carbureted engine. Whereas in compression ignition
engines (diesel), the air is sucked through the
induction manifold. In M.P.F.I the engine holds the
throttle body on top of the manifold and the supply
of air is monitored by the throttle body sensor.
11. Exhaust Manifold: It is a set of pipes and muffler,
which is used to remove the exhaust gases from
the exhaust ports. Engines oxygen sensors and
catalic convertors are used to reduce sound and
air pollution, respectively (see Fig. 3.8).

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Air Cleaner
Carburettor
Intake Manifold
Exhaust Manifold
Heat Control
Valve Spring
Fig. 3.8: Exhaust Manifold
12. Camshaft: The major function of the camshaft is

to operate the intake and exhaust valves through
the cam lobe, the gear drive transmits the power
for the rotation of oil pump, therefore the oil
pump sucks the oil from the oil sump and transits
the same to the oil gallery. The camshaft (Fig. 3.9)
is driven by crankshaft at half the speed of
the crankshaft.
13. Cam Lobe and Tappet: The cam lobe
(see Fig. 3.10) of the camshaft is placed directly
above the bucket tappet, such that the lobe comes
around it and pushes down the bucket tappet and
the valve, thus opening the valve. In an overhead
camshaft with rocker arm, the cam lobe comes
under the valve lifter, and causes the rocker arm
to rock or turn the lobe and pushes down
the valve steam and it moves down to open.
When the cam lobe passes the valve lifter
Fig. 3.9: Camshaft
the valve spring retains back to the original

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length. To close the valve the rocker Variable cam timing acuator
arm turns back and the valve lifter is Oil pressure ports
pushed down on the cam. In case of

double overhead camshaft engine, the
double row valves are usually operated
by the separate overhead camshaft.
14.
Push Rod and Rocker Arm: The Cam follower/lifter
motion of the cam lobe pushes the
valve lifter upwards. This movement Cam return spring
pushes the push rod (Fig. 3.11) and the
rocker turns the upward motion of the Valve
push rod to the downward movement of
the valve stem resulting in opening of Fig. 3.10: Cam Lobe and Tappet
the valve.
Rocker Arm
Valve Spring Retainer
Push Rod
Spring Collet
Valve Spring
Cam Follower
Cam
Valve Guide
Camshaft
Valve Stem
Valve Head
Valve Seat Insert
Fig. 3.11: Push Rod and Rocker Arm

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15. Crank Case: The crank case is an integrated
part of the cylinder block. The casing is provided
to hold the crankshaft. The crankshaft is allowed
to rotate freely and transmit the power to the
flywheel (Fig. 3.12).
16. Water Pump and Water Jacket: The function of
water pump is to draw water from the radiator
Fig. 3.12: Crank Case
and supply it to the water passages provided in
Fig. 3.13: Water Pump and Jacket
the cylinder block and cylinder

head with certain pressure. The
circulation of coolant removes the
excessive heat from an engine.
This helps in maintaining the
engine temperature and also the
life of an engine (Fig. 3.13).
17. Radiator: The major function
of the radiator is to radiate
the heat from the coolants. It
has two tanks located at the
top and bottom. The upper
tank is connected to the lower
tank with the core through the
passages for easy radiation
of the heat. The radiator also
Fig 3.14: Radiator
stores the coolant (Fig. 3.14).

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18. Flywheel: It is a wheel mounted on the crankshaft
which stores the energy during the power stroke
and transmits the energy to the transmission
system, the clutch and then to the gear
box (Fig. 3.15).
Fig. 3.15: Fly wheel
19. Governor: It is run by drive from the crankshaft.

The function of the governor (Fig. 3.16) is to
regulate the charge in case of petrol engine and
Fig. 3.16: Governor

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amount of fuel in case of diesel engine to maintain
the speed of the engine constant, when the load
requirement varies.
The components described above are commonly used
for all types of IC engine. Here we are describing only
a few components which are used in particular types
of engines.
20. Carburettor: The major function of the carburetor
(Fig. 3.17) is to supply carburised fuel as per
speed and the engine load. In petrol engines the
carburettor is mounted on the induction pipe or
on the induction manifold. The quantity of fuel air
mixture in appropriate ratio is controlled by the
throttle valve and the movements of the throttle
valve are connected to the accelerator.
Idle speed screw Idle mixture screw
Throttle plate Choke plate
Clean air
enters
throat
Fuel line
Fuel filter
Float
Float bowl
Jet
Pedestal
Fig 3.17: Carburettor
21. Spark Plug: The function of the spark plug is to

ignite the fuel air mixture after completion of the
compression stroke in an engine. It is generally

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placed in the combustion chamber of the cylinder
head. This is only used in petrol engine (Fig. 3.18).
Terminal nut
Ground Electrode Metal Shell
Gasket Hexagon
Corrugations
Thread
Centre Electrode
(with copper core) Insulator Top Insulator
Insulator Nose
Fig. 3.18: Spark Plug
22. Fuel Injection Pump: In case of diesel engine the

diesel oil from the fuel tank is sucked by the fuel
feed pump. The pump first sends the diesel oil to
the fuel filter and then to the transfer pump. The
transfer pump increase the pressure of the fuel.
Fig. 3.19: Fuel Injection Pump

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The high pressure of fuel is then sent to the distributor
rotor through the metering valve and from rotor the
fuel is sent to the injector (Fig. 3.19). In case of
a multi point fuel injection system, the electric fuel
pump is used and placed in the fuel tank. The pump
generates the injection pressure and sends it to
the fuel filter, and then to the common rail at a
pressure of 3 to 4 bar. The common rail or fuel rail
is connected to the fuel injector.
23. Fuel Injector: The function of fuel injector
(Fig. 3.20) is to break the fuel into fine spray
(atomised condition) as it enters the combustion
chamber of diesel engine.In case of an MPFI engine
petrol is injected at the end of compression stroke
as the fine spray of the fuel burns more efficiently
in the combustion chamber giving better fuel
efficiency with less air pollution.
Nipple
Oil outlet valve Spring
Oil outlet valve seat
Pump body
Tooth ring
Barrel
Rack
Plunger
Rotating
sleeve
Retainer
Spring
Ratainer
Roller body Adjusting

screw
Roller
Camshaft body
Fig. 3.20: Fuel Injector

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Practical Exercises
Activity 1
Name any five components of an automobile system used in
a vehicle.
S. No. Name of the system
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Check Your Progress

1. Engine is the _____________ of an automobile. Its role is
very important.
2. Engine converts the Chemical Energy (heat energy) to
________________ Energy.
3. Major parts of engine are ____________, _____________,

________________ and _______________.
4. The function of the carburettor is to supply uniform

______________ to the cylinder of a __________ through the
intake manifold.
5. Sparkplug is used to ____________

1. The compression-ignition engine air is compressed so that
its temperature goes up to ____________________.
(a) 538 °C (1000 °F) or higher
(b) 348 °C
(c) 2480 °C

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2. The cylinder of an IC engine is generally made of
__________________.
(a) cast iron
(b) copper
(c) iron
(d) fibre
3. The charge (fuel and air mixture for SI engine and only
air for CI engine) enters through the ___________________.
(a) inlet valve
(b) spark plug
(c) outlet valve
(d) piston
4. The heart of the engine is the _______________.
(a) piston
(b) cylinder head
(c) connecting rod
1. Explain the role of engine and its components.
2. Explain the difference between compression ignition
engine and spark ignition engine?
Session 3: Lubrication System

As you know, our body requires fluids like water and
also oil in the form of fats like ghee, butter, cooking oil
for maintenance of our system. Similarly, lubrication
is required for maintenance of engine. Lubrication
system is one of the most important parts of an engine.
The engine cannot run smoothly for more than a few
minutes without the lubricating oil.
Whenever two metallic surfaces move over each other
under direct contact, dry or solid friction is produced.
This is due to the irregularities on the two surfaces
interlocking each other. The dry friction thus created
produces a lot of heat and results in wear and tear of
the metal surface.

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Objectives of Lubrication
The main objectives of lubrication are
(i) to reduce friction between moving parts to its
minimum value so that power loss is minimised, and
(ii) to reduce wear and tear of the moving parts as
much as possible.
Apart from these objectives, lubrication also serves other
important purposes, which may be called secondary.
These are as follows.
(a) To provide cooling effect: The lubricating oil
takes heat from the hot moving parts during its
circulation and delivers it to the surrounding air
through the crank case.
(b) To provide cushioning effect: The lubricating oil
also serves as a good cushion against the shocks
experienced by the engine. For example, instant
combustion of the fuel in the combustion chamber
produces a sudden rise of pressure in the cylinder
and the shock goes to the bearings through the
piston, gudgeon pin and the connecting rod. This
shock is then absorbed by the layer of oil present
in the main bearings.
(c) To provide cleaning action: The lubricating oil serves
another useful purpose of providing a cleaning
action. During its circulation, it carries away many
impurities, such as carbon particles, etc.
(d) To provide a sealing action: The lubricating oil also
helps the piston rings in maintaining an effective
seal against the high pressure gases in the cylinder
thus preventing leakage towards the crank case.
Practical Exercises
Activity 1
List a few important functions of lubrication.

S. No. Functions of lubrication
1.
2.
3.
4.

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Check Your Progress
1. Dry or solid friction is produced in _____________.
2. Dry friction creates lot of ________________.
3. The objective of lubrication is to reduce __________.
4. Lubrication provides ________ and ______ effect.

1. Viscosity is measured using a ______________________.
(a) barometer
(b) thermometer
(c) viscometer
(d) fathometer
2. Lubricating oil is used for ___________________.
(a) minimising wear in moving parts
(b) help in keeping parts cool
3. Which type of lubrication system is used in a two-stroke
engine?
(a) petrol system
(b) wet sump system
(c) dry sump system
4. Viscosity index is a measure for the change of viscosity
with change in ______________.
(a) pressure
(b) temperature
(c) volume
(d) mass

1. Explain the importance of lubrication in engine.
2. List the properties of lubricant.
Session 4: Cooling System

Like our body requires air and water for cooling our system,
similarly the engine of a vehicle also requires cooling.
The cooling system (Fig. 3.21(a-d)) has three primary
functions, which are as follows.
(i) Remove excess heat from the engine
(ii) Maintain a constant engine operating temperature
(iii) Increase the temperature of a cold engine as quickly
as possible by maintaining the thermostat valve

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in a closed position which is fitted in the path of
coolant circulation
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Fig. 3.21 (a–d): Cooling system of an engine
Necessity of Cooling
The cylinders of internal combustion engines require
cooling because the engine cannot convert all the heat
energy released by combustion into useful work. Liquid
cooling is employed in most of the IC engines, whether
they are used in automobiles or elsewhere. The water
(coolant) is circulated around the cylinders to pick up
heat and then dissipate it through a radiator. As the
temperature increases from 71 to 82 degrees centigrade,
the thermostat valve opens and sends water to the
radiator to radiate the heat. When the temperature rises
above 82 degrees, the thermostat switch operates the
cooling fan to support the cooling process in radiator.

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Practical Exercises
Activity 1
List a few important functions of the cooling system.
S. No. Functions of cooling system
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Check Your Progress

1. The cooling system removes excess________________ from
the engine.
2. Cooling ____________________ a constant engine operating
temperature.
3. The objective of cooling is to reduce_____________.
4. Liquid cooling is employed in most ______________ engines.
B. Multiple choice question
1. Which of the following type of cooling system is used in a
motorcycle?
(a) Air cooling system
(b) Water cooling system
2. The cooling fan is _________________________________.
(a) driven by belt and pulleys
(b) fitted between the engine and the radiator
(c) driven from the camshaft
3. In water cooling, the water in the jacket obtains heat from
the cylinder due to _____________________.
(a) conduction
(b) convection
(c) radiation

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1. How does a cooling system work?

2. What is the role of coolants?
Session 5: Fuel Supply System

Fuel Supply System
In petrol engines, the fuel and air mixture is supplied to
the combustion chamber of an engine. This mixture is
atomised and then vapourised by the carburettor. Then
the mixture is ignited by the spark plug. The fuels, such
as petrol, benzoyl and alcohol are used in an SI engine
(Fig. 3.22). Nowadays, fuel is injected in the flow of air
at a certain temperature and pressure and the fuel
vapourises faster and the combustion process is better,
with low emission. It also shows better fuel efficiency.
In case of compression ignition engine (diesel) the
fuel is sent through the fuel pump to the injector and
the injector sprays the fuel at end of compression stroke
(Fig. 3.23). The oil fuels which are used in CI engines
do not vapourise easily. Therefore, a separate injection
system is used consisting of fuel injection pump (FIP) and
injectors. These injectors atomise the fuel and it is then
sent for combustion. Nowadays, in case of compression
ICU
Fig. 3.22: Fuel Supply System Fig 3.23: Fuel line

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ignition engine the common rail direct injection system
(CRDI) is used for better engine performance.
Fuel Supply Components

The fuel supply components include the following:
1. Fuel Tank: In most of the vehicles the fuel tank is
located at the rear end of the vehicle. The fuel tank
is made of a metal sheet or plastic. It is attached to
the chassis. The filler opening is closed with a cap.
The fuel line is attached to the fuel pump and also
to the fuel gauge.
2. Fuel Line: The fuel line carries the fuel from the
fuel tank to the carburettor or to the common rail
system used in MPFI engines. The line has to
withstand the pressure and provide resistance
for the corrosion. The rigid line is placed safely
in the chassis. It is connected to the units like
carburettor, through a flexible pipe.
3. Fuel Filter: The major role of the fuel filter is
to send clean fuel to the engine. This prevents
blockages in the fuel system. The filter contains
a cartridge of filtering the element through which
the fuel passes the filter traps any particles and
prevents them from entering the fuel system.
The fuel filter is required to be replaced at
regular intervals.
4. Air Cleaner: It is the main unit of the fuel system.
It supplies clean air to the engine. The element of
the air cleaner must be cleaned and replaced at
regular intervals for maintaining a healthy life of
the engine.
5. Fuel Injection Pump: In case of a diesel engine,
the diesel oil from the fuel tank is sucked by the
fuel feed pump. The pump first sends the diesel oil
to the fuel filter. From there it is sent to the transfer
pump. The transfer pump increases the pressure
of the fuel. This high pressure of the fuel is then
transferred to the distributor rotor through the
metering valve. From the rotor the fuel is sent to the
injector. In case of multi‑point fuel injection system
the electric fuel pump is used. The pump generates

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the injection pressure and sends it to the fuel filter
and then to the common rail at a pressure of 3 to 4
bar. The common rail or fuel rail is connected to the
fuel injector
6. Fuel Injector: The solonide injector used in the
M.P.F.I fuel system is operated electrically as per the
variation in the supply of current with resistance.
The solonide winding induces current within it and
controls the movements of the needle valve to inject
fuel as per the variations in speed and the load. The
fuel system is controlled by the ECM.
7. Pressure Regulator: It controls the amount of
pressure that enters the injector. The extra fuel is
sent back to the fuel tank.
Fuel Supply Components Fuel Supply Components
for SI Engine for CI Engine
• Fuel tank • Fuel tank
• Fuel lines • Fuel lines
• Fuel pump (A.C. mechanical type or • Fuel feed pump (Mechanical
electrical type) type or electrical type)
• Fuel filter • Fuel filters
• Carburettor • Fuel injection pump (FIP)
• Inlet manifold • Fuel injectors
• Air cleaner
Note: In case of modern MPFI engines carburettor
is replaced by injectors and sensors.
Practical Exercises
Activity 1
List the important functions of the fuel supply system.
S.No. Functions of the fuel supply system

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

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Check Your Progress
1. Air and fuel are _______ outside the engine.

2. The fuels, such as petrol, benzol and alcohol are used in
______________ engine.
3. Oil fuels which are used in CI engines do not _________
easily.
4. The fuel system is controlled by the ______________.
1. Which of these is used as a fuel in IC engine?

(a) methanol
(b) LPG
(c) Benzoyl
2. The carburettor is used to ___________________.
(a) mix petrol and air in correct proportion
(b) supply fuel air mixture to the engine
3. In a multi‑point fuel injection the injector is used for how
many cylinder engines?
(a) Five
(b) Two
(c) Four
(d) Six
4. Which of the following is not an injector fault?
(a) Blue nozzle body
(b) Nozzle wetness blue nozzle body
(c) Excessive leak off
(d) Blow holes
1. Write the importance of a fuel supply system.

2. Explain the correct method of injecting fuel in
an automobile.
Session 6: Transmission System

Transmission system is used in motor vehicles to
supply the output of the internal combustion engine to
the drive wheels. The transmission reduces the higher
engine speed to the slower wheel speed, increasing

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torque in the process. Transmissions are also used in
pedal bicycles, fixed machines and where rotational
speed and torque need to be adapted.
Transmission System
The transmission system consists of the following
components.
(i) Clutch assembly
(ii) Gear box assembly (Transmission case assembly)
(iii) Propeller shaft
Pilot bushing
Clutch assembly Clutch components
Clutch (Fig. 3.24) is

a mechanism which
Throw‑out
enables the rotary bearing
motion of one shaft
to be transmitted,
when desired. The
axes of driving shaft
and driven shaft are Flywheel
coincident. Clutch disk
Throw‑out Clutch pressure
Functions of clutch fork plate assembly
(a) To disconnect
Fig. 3.24: Clutch assembly
the engine power
from the gear box as required, under the following
circumstances:
(i) to start the engine and warm it up;
(ii) to engage first and second gear to start the vehicle
from rest;
(iii) to facilitate changing the gear as required; and
(iv) disconnect from the engine to stop the vehicle after
application of brakes.
(b) To allow the engine to take up load gradually without
shock or jerk.
Requirements of a Clutch
The clutch should meet the following requirements.
(a) Torque transmission or the ability to transmit
maximum torque of the engine.

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(b) Gradual engagement, i.e., to engage gradually and
avoid sudden jerks.
(c) Heat dissipation, i.e., ability to dissipate large
amount of heat generated during the clutch
operation due to friction.
(d) Dynamic balancing, which means that the clutch
should be dynamically balanced. This is particularly
required in the case of high-speed engine clutches.
(e) Vibration damping, i.e., having a suitable mechanism
to damp vibrations to eliminate noise produced
during the power transmission.
(f) Size of the clutch should be as small as possible so
that it occupies minimum space.
(g) Free pedal play, which helps the clutch to reduce
effective load on the carbon thrust bearing and
its wear.
(h) Easy in operation and requiring as little exertion
as possible on the part of the driver.
(i) Light weight of the driven member of the clutch so
that it does not continue to rotate for any length of
time after the clutch has been disengaged.
Main Parts of a Clutch
The main parts of a clutch are divided into three groups.
(a) Driving members: The driving members consist
of a flywheel mounted on the engine crankshaft.
The flywheel is bolted to a cover which carries a
pressure plate or driving disc, pressure springs
and releasing levers. Thus, the entire assembly
of the flywheel and the cover rotate all the time.
The clutch housing and the cover provided with
openings, dissipate the heat generated by friction
during the clutch operation.
(b) Driven members: The driven members consist of
a disc or plate, called the clutch plate. It is free
to slide lengthwise on the splines of the clutch
shaft (primary shaft). It carries friction material on
both of its surfaces. When it is gripped between
the flywheel and the pressure plate, it rotates the
clutch shaft through the splines.

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(c) Operating members: The operating members
consist of a foot pedal, linkage, release bearing,
release levers and the springs.
Gear Box (Transmission Case) Assembly

We need different gear ratios in the gear box or
transmission system to enable the vehicle to move at
different speeds. At the time of starting the vehicle, the
maximum amount of torque is available on the flywheel,
for which low gear ratio is selected for the movement of
the vehicle. As the engine speed increases, the amount
of torque is reduced on the flywheel and it is required to
select higher gear ratio.
Functions of a gear box
(i) To provide a means to vary the leverage or torque
ratio between the engine and the road wheels
as required.
(ii)
The transmission also provides a neutral
position so that the engine and the road wheels
are disconnected even with the clutch in the
engaged position.
(iii) It provides a means to reverse the car by selecting
the reverse gear.
Practical Exercises
Activity 1
Make a list of the parts of clutch assembly used in a vehicle.
S.No. Parts of clutch assembly
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

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Check Your Progress
1. Transmission system consists of ___________ components.

2. The main parts of a clutch are _________ and ___________.
3. Different gear ratios in the _________ makes the vehicle
move at different speeds.
4. The clutch assembly consist of flywheel, pressure plate
and ________________.
1. Which of these systems is used in motor vehicles to

supply the output of the internal combustion engine to
drive wheels?
(a) Transmission system
(b) Power system
(c) Torque system
2. Which type of transmission system is used for a
disengagement and engagement between the engine and
the remainder of transmission system?
(a) Clutch
(b) Differential
(c) Propeller shaft
3. In a four‑wheel drive there is _________________.
(a) one live axle
(b) no live axle
(c) two live axle
4. ___________________ produces different gear ratios in
automobiles.
(a) Transmission system
(b) Differential
(c) Steering
(d) Gear box
1. Discuss the role of a transmission system.

2. Explain the function of a gear box.

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Session 7: Front and Rear Axle
In this session, we shall discuss the axle and steering
system, which transmits power to the wheel. It plays a
crucial role in the movement of a vehicle.
Propeller Shaft
This is a shaft which transmits power from an engine
to the wheels of a motor vehicle. It is a hollow tubular
shaft and consists of mainly three parts.
(i) Shaft: It mainly bears torsional stress produced
due to twisting. It is usually made of tubular
cross section.
(ii) Universal joints: One or two universal joints are
used, depending on the type of rear axle drive
used. The universal joints help in the up and down
movements of the rear axle when the vehicle is in
running condition.
(iii) Slip joint: Depending on the type of drive, one slip
joint may be there in the shaft. This serves to adjust
the length of the propeller shaft when demanded
by the rear axle movements.
Front and Rear Axle
Front axle
Front axle carries
the weight of the Spring Seats
front portion of the A

automobile as well as B
facilitates steering
and controls the A
rolling of wheels. It B
also absorbs road
shocks arising due
Section AT A-A Section AT B-B
to road surface
variations. Fig. 3.25: Front axle
In case of a
commercial vehicle the front axles (Fig. 3.25) are
generally dead axles. The front axle is designed to
transmit the weight of the automobile from the springs

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to the front wheels, turning right or left as required.
To prevent interference due to front engine location,
and for providing greater stability and safety at high
speeds by lowering the centre of gravity of the road
vehicles, front axle includes the axle-beam, stub-
axles with brake assemblies. It is made of drop forged
alloy steel consisting of 0.4% carbon steel and 1.3%
nickel steel.
The axle is made of I-section at centre and of circular
or elliptical section in the ends since it has to bear the
bending stress and torsional stress. In order to lower
the chassis height a downward sweep is provided at the
centre of the beam axle.
The main beam axle is connected to the stub axle
with a king pin. The front road wheels are mounted on
the stub axle.
For smooth steering effects and maintaining proper
control, the front axle of a car is supported with an
independent suspension system, such as Mac-pherson.
The strut and coil spring allows the wheel to move up
and down but does not allow to change the driving
angle of axle shaft to transmit the drive smoothly. It
also allows the wheel to rotate freely. This supports in
steering the vehicle.
Rear Axle
Like the front axle,
the rear axle is also
made of drop forged
steel. The rear axle
(Fig.3.26) bears the
weight of the vehicle
body and load with
springs. It enables to
transmit the driving
and breaking torque to
the chassis frame and
body of the vehicle.
It also bears the side
thrust or pull due to
Fig. 3.26: Rear axle
any side load on the

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wheel. It supports various parts like bevel pinion, bevel
gear, cage of sun gear and star pinions, axle shafts, and
different support bearings.
It is important to note that rear road wheels
are mounted on the axle shaft and the differential
mechanism enables the outer wheel to move faster than
the inner wheel while taking a turn.
Practical Exercises
Activity 1
Make a list of parts of rear axle of a vehicle.
S. No. List of parts of rear axle
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Check Your Progress

1. Axle and steering system transmit ______ to the wheel.

2. Front and rear axle system is used for __________.
3. Differential mechanism enables the __________ to move
faster than the inner wheel while taking a turn
4. Rear axle ________ the weight of vehicle body.
1.
The central portion of the front axle is made
of________________.
(a) I section (b) T section
(c) Q section (d) U section

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2. The end of the front axle is mounted with ____________.
(a) stub axles (b) king pin
(c) piston ring (d) axle shaft
3. What kind of load does the axle take due to the load of
the vehicle?
(a) Bending load (b) Frictional load
(c) Torsional load (d) None of these
1. What is the role of a front axle?

2. Why are rear axles required?
Session 8: Steering and Suspension System

Steering System
The steering mechanism permits the driver to control
the car on a straight road and turn right or left as
desired. The steering mechanism includes a steering
wheel, which the driver
controls, a steering
Steering Wheel gear, which converts
rotary motion of steering
wheel in to straight line
motion and steering
Steering Column linkages. In modern cars,
the manually operated
steering system (Fig. 3.27)
is assisted by power and is
Rack and Pinion called power steering. The
electric power drawn from
the battery or hydraulic
power is used.
Tie Rod Functions of a Steering

System
1. It provides directional
King Pin stability to the
vehicle when moving
in a straight (ahead)
Fig. 3.27: Steering System
direction.

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2. It provides perfect steering condition, i.e., perfect
rolling motion of the wheels at all times.
3. It facilitates straight ahead recovery after completion
of turn.
4. It controls the wear and tear of the tyre.
5. It is used to turn the vehicle as per the will of the driver.
6. It converts the rotary motion of the steering wheel
into angular displacement of the front wheel.
7. It multiplies the effort of the driver to ease operation.
8. It absorbs road shocks and prevents them from
reaching the driver.
Requirements of a Good Steering System
1. It should be very accurate.
2. It should be easy to handle.
3. The effort required should be minimal.
4. It should provide directional stability.
5. The front wheels should roll without lateral skid
while negotiating curves.
6. There should be proper proportion between the
angles turned by the front wheels.
7. The tyre must have good elasticity so that on turns,
these may follow an arc of greater radius than the
stiff tyre.
8. The wheels should automatically come to the
straight ahead position after negotiating the bend.
When going straight, the wheels must maintain the
neutral position.
9. The angular oscillations of the wheels must
be minimum.
10. The system must be irreversible to a certain degree
so that minimum front wheel shocks are transmitted
to the driver’s hands.
Steering Mechanism
For perfect steering, it must always have an
instantaneous centre about which all the wheels
must rotate. To achieve this the inner wheel has
to turn more than the outer wheel. Two types of

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mechanism are available, viz., the Davis and the
Ackermann steering mechanism. Out of these
Ackermann type is more popularly used because
of its simplicity. It also lessens wear of tyre and
lowers friction.
Steering Linkages
A steering linkage is the part of an automotive steering
system that connects to the front wheels. In a commercial
vehicle a rigid axle type front suspension system is used.
Steering Wheel
It is made of polyurethane or hard plastic. It consists of a
circular rim with a hub at the centre. The rim is slightly
elliptical in cross section to maintain strength and provide
hand grip. The steering shaft is mated in the undulations
cut on the inside of the steering wheel hub.
Steering Column
It is tubular in nature. It provides switches for horn,
light and wiper for easy and quick operation. The
collapsible columns are used for safety, which collapse
upon impact and reduce the chances of injury to
the driver.
Steering Shaft
It is made from drop forged alloy steel. It connects the
steering wheel to the steering gear box and transfers
movements of the steering wheel to the steering gear, or
to the pinion.
Drop Arm
It is also called as pitmen arm. It is made up of drop
forged steel. It connects the cross shaft with the draglink.
Draglink
It connects the drop arm to the steering knuckle. It is
also made up of drop forged steel.

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The tie rod ends are different parts of the steering
linkage will be connected to the ball joints which provide
angular motion to the steering system.
Steering Gears
The steering gear converts the turning motion of the
steering wheel into the to-and-fro motion of the link rod
of the steering linkage. It also provides the necessary
leverage so that the driver is able to steer the vehicle
without fatigue.
Suspension System
Suspension is the term given to the system of springs,
shock absorbers and linkages that connects a vehicle
to its wheels. The suspension system serves a dual
purpose, contributing to the vehicle’s road holding or
handling and braking for safety and driving comfort,
and keeping the vehicle occupants comfortable and
reasonably well isolated from road noise, bumps and
vibrations, etc.
Functions of suspension system
The main functions of a suspension system are as follows:
(i) To safeguard the occupants against road shocks
and provide riding comfort.
(ii) To minimise the effects of stresses due to road
shocks on the mechanism of the motor vehicle and
provide a cushioning effect.
(iii) To keep the body perfectly in level while travelling
over rough uneven ground, i.e., the up and down
movement of the wheels should be relative to
the body.
(iv) To isolate the structure of the vehicle from shock
loading and vibration due to irregularities of the
road surface without impairing its stability.
(v) To provide the requisite height to the body
structure as well as to bear the torque and
braking reactions.

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Various Components of Suspension System
The components of a suspension system can be
categorised as follows.
Mechanical Suspension
(i) Leaf springs
(ii) Coil springs
(iii) Rubber springs
(iv) Torsion bars
Hydraulic Suspension
(i) Hydraulic shock absorber
(ii) Telescopic fork absorber
Air Suspension
Compressed air is used in an air suspension system.
Mechanical Suspension
1. Leaf Spring: A leaf spring (Fig. 3.28) is a component
of a vehiclse’ suspension system. Leaf springs
are curved and the curvature helps the spring
absorb impact.
Fig 3.28: Leaf spring
2. Coil Spring: Coil springs are commonly called

compression springs, torsion springs or helical
springs. They store energy and release it to absorb
shock or maintain a force between two contacting
surfaces. Mostly coil springs or helical springs are
used in engine starter and hinges (Fig. 3.29).
3. Rubber Spring: A rubber string stores more
energy per unit mass than any other type of spring

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material. The rubber spring
(Fig. 3.30) is installed
between the frame and the
top link of the suspension
system. When the spring is
connected to a point near
the link pivot, deflection
of the spring reduces
to a minimum, without
affecting the total wheel
movement. The energy
released from the rubber
Fig. 3.29: Coil spring
spring after deflection is
considerably less than that
imparted to it.
4. Torsion Bars: Torsion
bars are of two types —
helical or spiral. These
bars are used in
automobile vehicles for
transmitting torque.
Hydraulic Suspension
Hydraulic suspension combines
rubber springs with a damper
system, linking the front and Fig. 3.30: Rubber spring added
rear wheel on the same side of
the car. As the front wheel rises over a bump, some of
the fluid from its suspension unit (known as a displacer
unit) flows to the rear‑wheel unit and raises it, so
tending to keep the car level. In each of the displacer
units, the fluid passes through a two-way valve, which
provides the damping effect. Once the rear wheel has
passed over the bump, the fluid returns to the front
displacer unit and the original level is restored.
1. Hydraulic Shock Absorber: It is a mechanical
device designed to absorb shock impulses. This
device is also used for checking or damping out
the suspension spring to a comfort level.
2. Telescopic Fork Absorber: A telescopic fork is
a form of motorcycle front suspension whose
use is so common that it is virtually universal.
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The telescopic fork uses fork tubes and sliders
which contain springs and dampers.
Air Suspension
In this suspension, compressed air is used as a spring.
This suspension system is operated with air and
controlled by a microprocessor. It helps in maintaining
self‑driving conditions and supports the weight of
the vehicle.
Practical Exercises
Activity 1
List the components of a suspension system.
S. No. Name of the component

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Check Your Progress

1. Steering system is used for __________.

2. Main parts of steering system are __________and steering
column.
3. A suspension system consists of springs, __________ and
linkages that connect a vehicle to its wheels.
4.
A suspension system keeps vehicle occupants
_____________.

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1. The tilting of the front wheels away from the vertical is

called _____________.
(a) camber
(b) caster
(c) toe-in
(d) toe- out
2. Which of the following types of mechanism is used in a
steering system?
(a) Rack and pinion steering
(b) Rotary motion is turning
(c) Reciprocating motion
(d) Power steering system
3. Leaf spring absorbs shocks by __________________.
(a) tension
(b) compression
(c) twisting
(d) bending
4. Compressed air is used for ________________________.
(a) air suspension system
(b) hydraulic suspension
(c) mechanical suspension

1. How does a steering system work?
2. What is a power steering system?
Session 9: Wheel, Tyre and Brake

Wheel
The wheel is an important component of a vehicle.
Wheel of a four-wheeler vehicle is mounted on a hub
and consists of parts like rim, tyre and tube (Fig.3.31).
The wheels not only support the weight of the vehicle,
but also protect it from road shocks. All the four wheels
must resist the braking stresses and withstand side
thrust. A wheel should be light and easily removable.
Functions of the wheel Fig. 3.31: Wheel
(i) To withstand the weight of the vehicle.

(ii) To absorb road shocks.
(iii) To grip the road surface.

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Rim (iv) To balance dynamically (i.e., when
the vehicle is in motion) and statically
(i.e., when the vehicle is at rest).
Rim
The rim (Fig. 3.32 [a-b]) is the ‘outer edge of a
wheel, holding the tyre’. It makes up the outer
Wheel
disk circular design of the wheel on which the inside
edge of the tyre is mounted on vehicles, such as
automobiles. For example, on a bicycle wheel
(a) the rim is a large hoop attached to the outer
ends of the spokes of the wheel that holds the
tyre and the tube.
Heavy vehicle wheel rim
Different types of wheel rim
(i) Disc wheel rim
(ii) Wire spoke wheel rim (used in
motorcycle, bicycle)
(iii) Split wheel rim (used in scooter)
(iv) Heavy vehicle wheel rim (available in
three piece and four piece including
locking ring)
1. Disc wheel Rim: A wheel is generally
(b)
composed of rim and disc. Rim is an outer part
Fig. 3.32(a–b): Rim
of the wheel and holds the tyre. Disc is a part of
wheel which connects the rim and the axle hub.
2. Wire Spoke Wheel Rim (used in motorcycle,
bicycle): Wire spoke wheel rim is where the outside
part of the wheel (rim) and axle installed part are
connected by many numbers of wires called spokes.
3. Spilt Wheel Rim (used in scooter): Spilt wheel
rim is used in a multi‑piece wheel. This wheel rim
holds the tyre with a locking ring. A split wheel rim
cannot be used normally in all types of vehicle.
4. Heavy Vehicle Wheel Rim (available in
three piece and four piece including locking
ring): Heavy vehicle wheel rim have a three and
four‑piece locking ring. This type of wheel rim is
used in heavy vehicles wheel like truck, buses
container, etc., because it has a longer life.

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Tyre
The tyre (Fig. 3.33) is mounted on the wheel rim. It
carries the vehicle load and provides a cushioning
effect. It must produce minimum noise, while the
wheel turns on the road. It resists the tendency for
the vehicle to oversteer. It should have good grip
while accelerating and braking the vehicle on both
dry and wet roads.
Desirable Properties of a Tyre
A tyre must have the following properties.
(i) Non-skidding: The tyre must have grip to avoid Fig. 3.33: Tyre
skidding or slipping on the road surface.

(ii) Uniform wear: The tyre must get worn uniformly
over its outer circumference.
(iii) Load carrying: The tyre is required to carry the
vehicle load.
(iv) Cushioning: The tyre needs to absorb the
vibrations due to the different road surfaces and
their impact, and thus, provide cushioning effect
to the vehicle.
(v) Power consumption: While rolling on the road,
the tyre should consume little power created by
the engine.
(vi) Noise: The tyre should create minimum noise
while running on the road.
(vii) Balancing:
The tyre should be balanced
dynamically as well as statically, i.e., maintain
balance at both times — when the vehicle is in
motion as well as at rest.
Functions of Tyre
(i) To carry the load of the vehicle.
(ii) To absorb minor road shocks.
(iii) To reduce vibration to some extent.
(iv) To transmit the power from the engine through gear
box, propeller shaft and rear axle to the ground
with which the vehicle moves.
(v) The treads made on the tyres grip the road for
better traction.

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Types of Tyre
(i) Solid tyre: It is used in children’s cycle and is
filled with solid material, like rubber, which makes
it sturdy.
(ii) Tube tyre: It consists of a tube between the rim
and the tyre, in which air is filled. It is used in
most of the vehicles seen on road.
(iii) Tubeless tyre: Nowadays, with the advancements
in technology, tubeless tyres are replacing the tube
tyres. Tubeless tyres are mainly used in modern
cars. The benefits of tubeless tyres include slow
leakage of air during punctures, better balancing
of wheels, low cost and ease of puncture repairing.
Brake
Brakes (Fig. 3.34) are one of the most
important control components of a vehicle.
They are required to stop the vehicle within
the smallest possible distance and this is
done by converting the kinetic energy of
the wheels into the heat energy which is
dissipated into the atmosphere.
Requirements of A Good Braking System
(i) To stop the vehicle in the shortest
possible distance and time.
(ii) To control the vehicle speed while
Fig. 3.34: Brake
moving on plain roads and hills.
(iii) To work equally well on fair and bad roads.
(iv) To ensure that the pedal effort applied by the driver
is not much, thereby reducing the inconvenience
for the driver.
(v) To work efficiently in all weathers.
(vi) It should have very few wearing parts.
(vii) It should require little maintenance.
(viii) Brake, when applied should not disturb the

steering geometry.
(ix) There should be minimum sound when brake
is applied.

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Types of Brake
1. Foot Brake: Foot brake is one of the most common
brake systems operated by the foot pedal. When
pressure is applied to the foot pedal, the vehicle
stops. Pedal force applied by the driver is further
multiplied and sent to the braking drum or disc
either by mechanical linkages or by hydraulic
pressure which in turn causes braking. It is also
known as a service brake.
2. Hand Brake: Hand brakes are Cam
Spring
usually used for stable parking
Brake
of the vehicle either a on flat lining
road or slope. They are also
called parking brakes. Hand
brakes are connected to the
brake mechanism directly and
the other end is operated by
the driver. This type of brake
is also known as emergency
brake as it is independent of the
main service brake.
3. Drum Brakes or Internal
Expanding Brakes: Drum
brakes (Fig. 3.35) are usually Fig. 3.35: Drum brake
used as rear brakes in most
automobiles, which utilises
the friction between the drum
and the brake shoes to stop
the vehicle. This type of brake
is fitted in automobile light
vehicle, such as car and light
trucks. These brakes have a two
shoe, the left hand shoe is
known as a primary shoe and
the right‑hand shoe is known
as trailing shoe. Shoes are
fitted in the drum. The friction
between the shoes and the
drum produces the braking
torque and reduces the
Fig. 3.36: Disc Brake
speed of the drum so that the
vehicle stops.

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4. Disc Brake or External Contracting Brakes: It
is the type of braking system in which instead
of a drum assembly a disc rotor is attached to
the hub of the wheel in such a fashion that it
rotates with the wheel (see Fig. 3.36). This disc
rotor is clamped in between the caliper which is
rigidly fixed with the knuckle or upright of the
vehicle. When brakes are applied the actuation
mechanism contracts the attached brake shoes
which in turn make the frictional contact with
the rotating disc rotor and cause the stopping
of a vehicle. An external contracting brake is
used for only parking purpose as well as used to
operate in flour mills, various types of electrical
components, etc.
5. Mechanical Brake: This brake system has an
inbuilt mechanical device for absorbing energy
from a moving system. Mechanical brake is a cable
pull system, which consists of rim‑like brakes just
arranged in a different way.
6. Power Brake: Power brake system is a
combination of the mechanical components to
multiply the force applied to the brake pedal by
the driver to stop the vehicle. In a power brake
system we mainly use the vacuum booster and
master cylinder, brake calipers, drum brake, etc.
These braking systems are designed to reduce the
effort required to depress the brake pedal when
stopping a vehicle.
7. Vacuum Brake: It is the conventional type of
braking system in which vacuum inside the brake
lines causes brake pads to move, which in turn
finally stop or deaccelerate the vehicle. This type
of brake is mainly used in railways in place of air
brakes. This brake can remove the kinetic energy
and convert it into a form of heat. The conversion
is usually done by applying a contact material to
the rotating wheel attached to the axles. Vacuum
brakes are cheaper than air brakes but are less
safe than air brakes.

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8. Air Brake: Air brake system is a very advanced
braking system. It is generally used in very heavy
vehicles like buses and trucks. It is the type
of braking system in which the atmospheric
air through compressors and valves is used to
transmit brake pedal force from brake pedal to
the final drum or disc rotor. Air brakes generate
higher brake force than hydraulic brake which
is the need of the heavy vehicle. High‑end cars
these days are using air brake systems due to its
effectiveness and fail proof ability.
9. Hydraulic Brakes: A hydraulic braking system
transmits brake-pedal force to the wheel brakes
through pressurised fluid, converting the fluid
pressure into useful work of braking at the
wheels. The brake pedal relays the driver’s
foot effort to the master-cylinder piston, which
compresses the brake fluid. This fluid pressure
is equally transmitted throughout the fluid to
the front disc-caliper pistons and to the rear
wheel-cylinder pistons. The pressure on a liquid
is called hydraulic pressure. The brakes which
are operated by means of hydraulic pressure are
called hydraulic brakes.
10. Anti‑lock Braking System: Anti‑lock Braking
System prevents the wheels from locking or
skidding. The anti-lock braking (ABS) system is
a component that ensures passenger safety by
stopping the vehicle in adverse conditions, like
stopping very quickly or if the road is slippery.
To simplify it, the ABS prevents the wheels of
the vehicle from locking up and causing you to
skid out of control.
11. Electric Brake: It is the type of braking used
in electric vehicle. Electric brakes use electrical
motors which are the main source of power in
electric vehicles. Electric brakes or secondary
shoe are similar to the drum brakes in an
automobile. Electric brakes are actuated by
an electromagnet.

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Practical Exercises
Activity 1
List the different types of brake used in an automobile.
S. No. Types of brake
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Check Your Progress

1. Wheel is an important component of the ___________.
2. Tyre is fitted on the _____________.
3. Brake should work ______________ on roads.
4. Hand brake is also known as ____________ brake.
1. The most important component of a vehicle is __________.

(a) wheel
(b) rim
(c) disk
(d) tyre
2. The tyre is mounted on the ____________.
(a) vehicle
(b) disc

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(c) wheel rim
3. The main component of the generating or charging system
is (are) ______________.
(a) generator/alternator
(b) ammeter
(c) the battery
1. What are the components of a wheel?

2. How does the brake system function?
Session 10: Electrical or Electronic and

Air Conditioning Systems
Electrical or Electronic System
Nowadays, all the automobiles run with the help
of electrical and electronic system, and therefore,
it plays an important part in the functioning of
an automobile.
The electrical and electronic systems consist of the
following.
(i) Starting system: The starting motor is driven by
means of the current taken from the battery.
(ii) Ignition system: The function of the ignition system
is to produce a spark in the engine combustion
chamber at the end of the compression stroke.
(iii) Generating or charging system: The function of the
charging system in an automobile is to generate,
regulate and supply the electrical energy for
charging the battery.
(iv) Lighting system: It consists of various types of
lighting used during the vehicle running, such as
head light, tail light, fog light, brake light, reversing
light, left and right indicators, parking light, cabin
light, panel board lights, etc.
(v) Connections for other accessories.

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Main components of the electrical system
Starting Generating or
Ignition system Lighting system Accessories
system Charging system
• Battery • Generator/ • Battery • Headlight • Horns

• Starting Alternator • Ignition switch • Side light • Wind screen wiper
• Motor • Ammeter • Ignition coil • Rear light • Electric fuel pump
• Motor • The cut-out • Distributor • Fog Lamps • Fuel gauges
• Control • Switch • Spark plugs • Number plate • Temperature gauge
• Battery • Contact breaker illumination lamp • Radio sets
• Voltage and • Automatic • Interior lights • Cigar lighter/mobile
current regulator advance and • Indicator flashers phone charger
retard unit • Heater
• Vacuum control • Wind screen defroster
unit • Signalling devices
Note: In modern vehicles, various types of electronic

sensors and actuators are fitted in different systems of
the engines, which are also operated electrically.
Air Conditioning System

During summer, an automobile requires considerable
amount of refrigerating capacity to maintain cool and
comfortable conditions in the sitting space. Similarly,
when moving in a cold day in winter, the same vehicle
would require considerable heating capacity to keep it
comfortably warm for passengers.
Modern-day automobiles have an air conditioning
unit (Fig. 3.37) to maintain suitably controlled
temperature and humidity conditions inside the vehicle.
In automobiles, an air conditioner is a refrigeration
machine which requires
electrical energy drawn
from the battery system.
The battery is charged by
energy of the engine.
For heating purposes,
the warm water from the
engine cooling system is
used. The heat required
to warm the automobile
is generally provided by
circulating warm water
Fig. 3.37: Air conditioner in a car through a heating coil.

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Besides controlling the temperature levels, the air
conditioner also cleans the air. During summer, the
humidity of the air inside the vehicle is reduced with
air conditioner in operation, which makes the sitting
area comfortable. Car air conditioner comes inbuilt in
air conditioned (AC) car models. However, these can
also be fitted at a later stage in a non-AC model of
the car.
Different Components of Automobile Air
Conditioning System
(i) Compressor
(ii) Magnetic clutch
(iii) Condenser
(iv) Receiver-drier (or dehydrator)
(v) Expansion valve
(vi) Evaporator
(vii) Throttling valve
1. Compressor: A compressor is unit driven by the
engine. It has a low pressure side port which is
connected to the evaporator and a high pressure
side port which is connected to the condenser
using rubber hoses. The compressor is the main
mechanical part of the system. In hybrid engines
the compressor is electrically powered. A small
electric motor is fitted inside the compressor
which pressurises the refrigerant. These
compressors have a pair of large gauge wires
which form the compressor controller. In latest
cars, where the climetrons are used the electric
power supply is controlled by ECU as per the
temperature settings.
2. Clutch: The compressor is always fixed with
a clutch. The major function of the clutch is to
transmit the power smoothly to the compressor
when the system is operated.
3. Condenser: The major function of this device will
be to change the high-pressure refrigerant vapour
to a liquid. The condenser is mounted in front
of the engine’s radiator, and it looks similar to

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a radiator. The condenser is a cooling device in
which the vapour is condensed to a liquid because
of the high pressure that is driving it in, and this
generates a great deal of heat. The heat is then in
turn removed from the condenser by air flowing
through the condenser on the outside.
4. Receiver-drier: The main function of this device is
to filter refrigerant. The liquid refrigerant moves to
the receiver-drier. This is a small reservoir vessel
for the liquid refrigerant, which removes any
moisture that may have leaked into the refrigerant
and also stores excess quantity of refrigerant.
5. Expansion Valve: The pressurised refrigerant flows
from the receiver-drier to the expansion valve. The
expansion valve is a controlling device which controls
the varying load when there are pressure changes
in the evaporator, as it may increase or decrease.
The valve maintains a constant pressure throughout
the varying load on the evaporator controlling the
quantity of refrigerant flowing into the evaporator.
6. Evaporator: It is the main component of
a refrigeration system and is also called the
cooling coil. It has tubes and fins or freezing
coil. It is usually placed inside the passenger
compartment above the footwell. As the cold
low-pressure refrigerant is passed into the
evaporator, it vapourises and absorbs heat
from the air in the passenger compartment. The
blower fan inside the passenger compartment
pushes air over the outside of the evaporator, so
cold air is circulated inside the car. On the ‘air-
side’ of the evaporator, the moisture in the air is
reduced, and the ‘condensate’ is collected.
7. Throttling Device: It is a part of refrigeration
system and air conditioning system. When
refrigerant comes out from the condenser at a
medium temperature and high pressure, it enters
the throttling valve. In the throttling valve, the
pressure and temperature of the refrigerant are
decreased suddenly and the cooling effect is provided
to the evaporator.

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Working of Air Conditioning System
In a car’s air conditioning system, the refrigerant vapour
from the evaporator is compressed to high pressure by
the compressor. The compressor is driven by the engine
through a belt drive. In a hybrid car, the compressor
is driven by the motor and the power is used from
the battery.
The compressor is connected by an electromagnetic
clutch which serves, engages and disengages the
compressor as required. A variable displacement A/C
compressor is sometimes used to match a compressor
capacity to varying cooling requirement. The refrigerant
pressure and temperature increases in the compressor
and converts it into the vapour form and then to the
condensed form. In the condenser the refrigerant
liberates heat and converts into the liquid form.
Sometimes the air is not sufficient and therefore,
an extra engine or electric driven fan is used to
cool the refrigerant. This cooled but high pressure
refrigerant is passed through the dehydrator to extract
any moisture. Dry refrigerant liquid is then made to pass
through expansion valve mounted at the inlet side of the
evaporator. The expansion valve allows the refrigerant
liquid to expand to low pressure in the evaporator.
The process of expansion to low pressure makes the
refrigerant evaporate and thereby cool the evaporator.
A sensing device, called temperature tube signals
the diaphragm in the expansion valve to change the
size depending upon the refrigerant temperature at the
evaporator outlet, thus achieving automatic temperature
control (Fig. 3.38).
Fig 3.38: Air Conditioning System in a Car

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Practical Exercises
1. ________ is the main component of a refrigeration system.
2. Battery is used for _______ vehicle.
3. Starting system consist of battery and starting _________.
4. Warm temperature in the car is maintained by ____________.
1. The starting motor is driven by means of the current taken
from the________________.
(a) battery
(b) stabiliser
(c) ignition coil
2. The function of the ignition system is ____________________.
(a) to produce a spark in the engine combustion chamber
(b) to generate, regulate and supply the electrical energy
(c) to produce a current for charging
3. List the electrical accessories used in vehicle.
S. No. List of accessories
1.
2.
3.
4. Air conditioner losses energy from the _______________.
(a) battery system
(b) condenser
(c) engine
1. Discuss the importance of electrical and electronic system
in automobiles.
2. What are the components of an air conditioning system?
Session 11: Active and Passive Safety

There are different safety and security systems for
automobiles available in the market and some of which
are fitted by the manufacturer. Some of the active and
passive security systems are mentioned as follows.
Safety Glass
Safety glass is used in all windows and doors of automotives.
The safety glass used in today’s vehicles is of two
types — laminated and tempered. These are considered
as safety glass because of their varying strength.

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Laminated plate glass is used to make windshields.
It consists of two thin sheets of glass with a thin layer of
clear plastic between them. Some glass manufacturers
increase the thickness of the plastic material for better
strength. When this type of glass breaks, the plastic
material tends to hold the shattered glass in place and
thus, prevents it from causing injury.
Tempered glass is used for side and rear window
glass but rarely for windshields. It is a single piece of
heat-treated glass and has more resistance to impact
than the regular glass of the same thickness. Thus, it has
greater strength compared to a laminated plate glass.
Seat belts
A seat belt is also called a safety belt. It is a
harness designed to protect the occupant of
a vehicle from harmful movement, during a
collision or when the vehicle stops suddenly.
A seat belt (Fig. 3.39) reduces the
likelihood and severity of injury in a traffic
collision. It prevents the vehicle occupant
from hitting hard against the interior
elements of the vehicle or other passengers,
and keeps the occupants positioned in
place for maximum benefit from the airbag.
The passenger must fasten the seat belt
for crash protection. However, in case of a
passive safety system, such as the inflation Fig. 3.39: Seat belt
of air bags at the time of an accident, is
automatic. No action is required of the occupant to make
it functional. Nowadays, seat belts are also provided for
rear seat occupants.
Airbags
An airbag (Fig. 3.40) is one of the passive
safety systems for the occupants of a four-
wheeler. The electrical system of airbags
includes impact sensors and an electronic
control module. In case of an accident,
the sensor detects the impact and the
airbag opens up to save the driver and Fig. 3.40: Air bags
other occupants.

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Energy-absorber Safety Bumpers
Modern bumpers are designed to absorb the energy of a
low-speed impact, minimising the shock directed to the
frame and to the occupants of the vehicle. Most energy
absorbers are mounted between the bumper face bar or
bumper reinforcement bar and the frame.
Security Devices
There are three basic types of security devices available
— locking devices, disabling devices and alarm systems.
In automobile vehicle, an anti-theft system or
device is installed to prevent theft of a vehicle. Many
car security devices are available in the market. These
are mechanical devices and ignition cut off devices,
intelligent computerised anti-theft devices, satellite
tracking system, engine control module, etc. Vehicle
owners may select as per risk and install it in their
vehicles. Prior to purchasing, the customers should
check that these theft devices are duly approved from
the Automobile Research Association of India (ARAI).
Important features of these devices are explained below.
• Alarm: In the case of vehicle tampering, audible
warning sounds emerge
• Keyless Lock Device: To use the vehicle, electronic
coding device is required
• Electronic Immobilisers: These built-in
transponders send signals to the ignition and fuel
pump system. The vehicle remains in stationary or
inoperable state if the ignition starters do not get
correct signals.
• Steering Wheel Lock: This device is fitted in
the steering of the vehicle and it locks it in one
place so that no one can drive it without removing
the lock.
• Vehicle Tracking: Even if a thief steals a vehicle,
the tracking technologies can help trace it.
Tracking devices offer real-time location of the
stolen vehicle with the help of the global positioning
system (GPS).

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Practical Exercises
Activity 1
List the different active and passive safety devices.
S.No. List of devices

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Check Your Progress

1. Air bags are used for ___________.
2. Seat belt is also known as a __________ belt.
3. Passive safety system helps __________.
4. Active safety system is used for avoiding _______________.

1. Which types of anti‑theft devices are available in a vehicle?
(a) Locking devices
(b) Disabling devices
(c) Alarm systems
2. Tempered glass is used for ____________________.
(a) side and rear window glass
(b) auto window and door
(c) head light
3. Which of these safety systems are operated automatically?
(a) Passive safety system
(b) Active safety system
(c) Energy-absorber safety
4. Impact sensors are used in ___________________________.
(a) electrical system
(b) mechanical system
(c) auto-mechanical system
C. Short answer question
1. Discuss the components of the active and passive
safety system.

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Unit
4
Road Safety
INTRODUCTION
India ranks high when it comes to number of accidents
on the road. However, in the recent years, improvement
has been seen in this area. With the rapid increase in
the number of vehicles on the road, the traffic conditions
are under a lot of pressure. Therefore, road safety is one
of the most serious public health issues in our country.
It has an impact on everyone, whether one drives a
vehicle, walks or rides a cycle.
Fig. 4.1: Road accident
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Understanding Road Safety
Road safety refers to the measures which must be
adopted by everyone while using roads. These safety
methods are meant for reducing the risk of accidents
and injuries or causalities on the road. These rules must
be followed by all users of roads including pedestrians,
cyclists, motorists, and bus and truck drivers. Safety
methods also relate to the construction, layout of
roads as well as traffic regulation systems. So, we can
summarise that road safety involves:
(i) the design of roads and highways;
(ii) laws pertaining to traffic and vehicles;
(iii) systems of traffic safety and control;
(iv) driver education;
(v) school students’ education;
(vi) mass education;
(vii) traffic regulation and road safety signs;
(viii) vehicle design; and
(ix) motor vehicle safety inspection and maintenance.
Keeping our roads safe is not that difficult a task.
Imagine if everyone follows simple safety measures and
traffic rules, there will be no accident!
In this Unit, you will understand the various types of
road safety measures to be adopted, and the importance
of safety rules, road signs, traffic signals and rules,
driving rules, registration and licensing adopted in
our country.
SESSION 1: IMPORTANCE OF ROAD SAFETY

Road Safety
Some of the major causes of road accidents are as
follows.
(i) Lack of highway safety
(ii) Drunken driving
(iii) Driving in an exhausted state for long hours
(iv) Using cell phone while driving
(v) Overspeeding or rash driving
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(vi) Driving in wrong lanes
(vii) Turning without giving signal
(viii) Overtaking from wrong side
It can be seen that road safety is a collective responsibility.
Therefore each one of us has to take steps required
of us.
Role of Government and Public Sector

(i) Develop stricter road safety polices
(ii) Generate funds for road safety awareness
(iii) Stricter enforcement of rules by government
(iv) Building better roads and highways
Role of General Community

(i) Acceptance of road safety rules, regulations and
policies
(ii) Participation in road safety awareness drives to
enhance people’s knowledge about road safety
Role of Education Sector

(i) Inclusion of road safety modules in
school curriculum
(ii) Impart road safety education with the help of
experts in this area
(iii) Impart effective driver training for learners as well
as existing drivers
Role of Media
(i) Communicate road safety messages through print
and electronic media
(ii) Support road safety initiatives through responsible
and objective reporting
Role of Health Professionals

(i) Strengthen trauma facilities in our country.
(ii) Organise workshops for saving the lives of people
in road accidents.

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Improvement in Infrastructure
(i) Adopt effective and safe traffic management
measures while planning and designing
infrastructure. For example, government approved
road design, design of overbridges, road signages, etc.
Hurdles in Road Safety

(i) Negligence by civilians
(ii) Pathetic condition of roads
(iii) Unsafe vehicle design
(iv) Violation of road safety standards
(v) Lack of emergency services
(vi) Defects in highway designing
Some measures undertaken by the Road Safety
Cell are
(i) Publicity programmes
(ii) Grants-in-aid to voluntary organisations for
organising road safety programmes
(iii) National Highway Accident Relief Service Scheme
(iv) Refresher training to heavy vehicle drivers in
unorganised sector
(v) Setting up of Model Driving Training school
(vi) Within the Ministry of Road Transport and
Highways, massive road sector development
programmes, such as observing Road Safety Week
or conducting eye check-ups for truck drivers,
the government is working closely with agencies
like the World Bank, Asian Development Bank to
improve road safety.
Road Safety Tips

Road safety is a result of efforts from all the sectors of
the society including civilians and government officials.
In addition to the human suffering, the estimated cost
of road injuries is a noticeable amount in Gross National
Product (GNP) per annum.
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A few important road safety tips are mentioned below.
(i) Do not use your mobile phone while driving.
(ii) Use seatbelts even while sitting at the back seat of
the vehicle.
(iii) Do not drink and drive.
(iv) Always adhere to the speed limit.
(v) Take special care with regard to children, senior
citizens and pedestrians.
(vi) Do not drive if tired.
(vii) Pedestrians should walk cautiously and make use
of zebra crossing.
(viii) Stay alert and observant while driving.
(ix) Keep distance from other vehicles while driving.
(x) Always wear helmets and seatbelts.
Fig. 4.2: Bicycle helmet Fig. 4.3: Two-wheeler helmet
Safety Devices
Two-wheeler Helmet
A two-wheeler helmet (Figs 4.2, 4.3) is a type of protective
headgear used by bicycle, motorcycle and scooter
riders. The primary goal- of a two-wheeler helmet is to
protect the rider’s head during impact, thus preventing
or reducing head injury or saving the rider’s life. Some
helmets provide additional conveniences, such as
ventilation, face shields, ear protection, etc.
Of all the organs in our body, the heart and brain
are the most vital ones. When a two-wheeler rider meets
with an accident, it is the brain that is at a greater risk
of injury. A brain injury can result due to skull fracture,

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a concussion, brain haemorrhage, which can result
in death.
Even if a part of the brain is damaged, it might result
in the loss of speech or motor skills. In order to protect
the brain, one must wear a helmet. A motorcycle helmet
protects the skull and the brain from extensive damage.
Airbag
An airbag (see Unit 3, Fig. 3.40) is fitted in a four-wheeler
to protect the driver and passengers during an accident.
Practical Exercises
Activity 1
List the safety rules which must be followed on road.
S. No. Rules
1.
2.
3.
4.
Activity 2
Draw a road safety poster to be put up in your classroom.
Check Your Progress

1. Accident takes places in our daily life due to lack of

__________________ measure.
2. Road safety is one of the nation’s most serious__________

issues.
3. __________ is a result of efforts from all the sectors of

the society.
4. Do not use your mobile phone while ___________.
5. Important rules of road safety cannot be___________.
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1. Which safety device should be used while driving a

two-wheeler?
(a) Helmet
(b) Seatbelt
(c) Airbags
2. Pedestrians should always cross the road using
_______________ crossing.
(a) zebra
(b) side road
(c) main road
(d) footpath
1. List the road safety tips.

2. What are the safety devices used while driving a
four - wheeler?
SESSION 2: SAFE AND RESPONSIBLE DRIVING

Getting Ready to Drive before Driving
(i) Ensure that you are comfortable with your mental
and physical condition.
(ii) Inspect your vehicle and observe the
driving conditions.
While driving, you should carry your driving licence,
registration certificate, insurance certificate and
pollution control certificate. Transport and commercial
vehicle drivers should carry the permits and vehicle
fitness certificates also.
A combination of knowledge, skill and attitude is
required to be a safe driver.
• Knowledge of traffic rules and driving practices that
help traffic move safely.
• Skill to care about the safety of others on the road.
We all are responsible for avoiding accidents.
• Attitude to cooperate with other drivers to keep
traffic moving safely. We must be courteous, giving

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other drivers space to change lanes, not cutting them
off and signalling before turning.
Fig. 4.5: Ill effects of drunken driving
Physical and Mental Alertness

One must be in good physical and mental condition
before driving (Fig. 4.5).
Do not drive if you
(i) have been drinking alcohol.
(ii) take any medicine or drug that affects your
responses.
(iii) are tired, as it affects your driving skills and
reaction time.
(iv) are sick or injured.
(v) are angry or upset.
In such conditions, you could be risking your life or
lives of others on the road.
Know Your Vehicle

Go through the vehicle owner’s manual.
You should know the features of the vehicle you
are going to drive, for example, anti-lock brakes,
four-wheel drive, etc.
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Ensure that you know where the controls and
instruments are and what they do. Check that all
emergency signals and instruments work.
You should be able to turn on wipers, washers,
headlights, indicators, etc., without having to look at
them and without taking your eyes off the road.
Seating Position
Proper, upright position gives more stability while
driving. Make sure you can see over the steering wheel
and hood. You should be able to see the ground 1.5–2.0
metre in front of the vehicle for proper judgement.
Sit straight and upright in the
seat, with your elbows slightly bent.
Adjust the seat (Fig. 4.6) so that your
feet reach the pedals easily. Place
your feet flat on the floor under the
brake pedal. You are seated properly
if you can do this.
Adjust the headrest to an
appropriate height. It protects the
head in case of collision.
Cars with air bags: It is important
to note that an air bag cannot prevent
injuries if the seating position
Fig. 4.6: Sitting position is incorrect.
Know Your Blind Spots

Blind spot (Fig. 4.7) is an area on each side of the vehicle
that you cannot see through the mirrors. Mostly blind
spots are to the back left and back
right of the vehicle. In Fig. 4.7,
the red car is in the blind spot
area of the silver car. The green
areas show the blind spots of the
silver car.
Adjust the mirrors to get
the maximum view and identify
your blind spots. You may not
see vehicles when they are in
Fig. 4.7: Know your blind spots these spots.

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Position the interior mirror so that the centre of the
mirror shows the centre of the rear window. When the
interior mirror is properly adjusted, you would be able
to see directly behind your vehicle (Fig. 4.8).
Fig. 4.8: Adjustment of interior mirror
The exterior (wing) mirror adjustment

should be made while seated normally for
driving. Do not set the right-hand exterior
mirror by placing your head against the
glass of the driver’s door window. Do not
adjust the left-hand exterior mirror by
leaning to the centre of the vehicle.
Side mirrors show only narrow angles
of view, so you have to turn your head
to make sure there is nothing in your
blind spots.
Fasten your Seat Belt

Fasten your seat belt before you start
(Fig. 4.9). Seat belts are for safety and
not just for avoiding challans.
Seat belts should be worn comfortable
enough to keep you in your seat if there
is a collision. Put the shoulder strap over
your shoulder, never under your arm.
The lap belt should be put low over the
Fig. 4.9: Fasten your seat belt
hips, not over the stomach.
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A seat belt saves life in the following ways.
(i) It keeps you behind the wheel and
in control of the vehicle in case of
a collision.
(ii) It keeps your head and body from hitting
the inside of the vehicle.
(iii) It keeps you inside the vehicle in case of
Fig. 4.10: Headlight at night a collision. A person who is thrown out
of the vehicle during the collision has a
higher chance of serious injury.
Turn on Headlights at Night and in Poor

Light Conditions
Turn on headlights around 30 minutes before sunset
and keep them on until 30 minutes after sunrise. Turn
on your lights when fog or rain reduces your visibility to
less than 100 metres.
Keep your headlights clean and get them adjusted
regularly so that they enable clearer vision while driving.
In dim light, use your headlights, not parking lights.
Parking lights are only for parking.
High beams are banned in cities like Delhi,
Chandigarh and other cities. You should not use high
beams on roads. If you are travelling on a highway and
using high beam headlights, switch to low beams within
150 metres of an incoming vehicle. Switch to your
low beams when you are less than 60 metres behind
another vehicle.
Practical Exercise
Activity 1
List the ‘know your vehicle’ rules followed in driving.
S. No. Name of rules

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

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Check Your Progress
1. Safety belt is used in ____________.

2. Proper, upright position gives more _______________while
driving.
3. Mental status before driving should be _________.
4. A combination of knowledge, skill and attitude is required
to be a safe __________.
5. You should know the __________ of the vehicle you are
going to drive.
1. Mirror is adjusted to see the ____________view.

(a) maximum (b) minimum
(c) equal view (d) None of the above
2. What is the minimum age for driving a vehicle with a
permanent licence?
(a) 14 (b) 16
(c) 18 (d) 20
3. Which areas on each side of the vehicle are not visible
through the mirrors?
(a) Front spot (b) Blind spot
(c) Danger area (d) None of the above
C. Short answer question
1. Define ‘blind spot’.
SESSION 3: ROAD SIGNS

Signals play an important role during smooth
movement of traffic. Road signals are to
be followed systematically, otherwise it may
cause accidents.
Arm Signals
Arm signals are needed when a vehicle’s
indicators are not used, or when necessary
to reinforce direction indicator signals and Fig. 4.11 (a): Intending to move to the left
or turn left
stop lights (Figs 4.11 [a]–4.11 [e]).
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Fig. 4.11 (b): Intending to move out to the right Fig. 4.11 (c): Intending to stop
or turn right
Fig. 4.11 (e): Indicating the car following you

Fig. 4.11 (d): Intending to slow down
to overtake
Traffic Signs
Traffic signs are divided into three main categories.
(i) Mandatory/regulatory signs
(ii) Cautionary signs
(iii) Information signs
Red circle instructs

Blue circle instructs
what should not be
what should be done.
done.

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Triangle cautions Blue rectangle informs
Typical Cautionary Signs
Right/Left Hand Curve: This Right/Left Hair Pin Bend: This sign is
sign is used where the direction used where the change in direction is so
of alignment changes. The sign considerable that it amounts to reversal
forewarns the driver to reduce the of direction. The symbol bends to right or
speed and proceed cautiously along left depending upon the road alignment.
the road.
Right/Left Reverse Bend: This sign is used where the nature of the reverse
bend is not obvious to approaching traffic and constitutes a hazard. If the first
curve is to the right, a right reverse bend shall be used. If the first curve is to
the left, a left reverse bend is used.
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Narrow Bridge: This sign is erected Gap in Median: This gap is installed
on roads in advance of bridges ahead of a gap in the median of a divided
where the clear width between carriageway, other than an intersection.
the wheel guards is less than the
normal width of the carriageway.
Narrow Road: This sign is Road Widens: This sign is normally

normally found in rural areas where found in rural areas where a sudden
a sudden reduction in the width widening of road causes a danger to
of the pavement causes a danger traffic, such as a two-lane road suddenly
to traffic. widening to a dual carriageway.
Cycle Crossing: This sign Pedestrian Crossing: This sign is

is erected in advance of all erected in advance of both approaches
uncontrolled cycle crossings. to uncontrolled pedestrian crossings.
School: This sign is erected where Men at Work: This sign is displayed only
school buildings or grounds are when men and machines are working on
adjacent to the road, where traffic the road or adjacent to it or on overhead
creates a hazard to children. lines or poles. This sign is removed when
the work is completed.

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Side Road Left/Right: This sign is displayed in advance
of the side road intersections where a large volume of
entering traffic, together with restricted sight distance,
is likely to constitute a hazard. The driver is warned of
the existence of a junction.
Y-Intersection: These signs are displayed on the

approach to a bifurcation of any road. This sign warns
of the existence of a junction and no other indication
is given.
Major Road: These signs are displayed in advance of

a crossing with a major road, where a sufficiently large
volume of traffic together, with restricted sight, is likely
to cause a hazard.
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Staggered Intersection: This sign is used to indicate
junctions where the distance between two junctions is
not more than 60 meters.
T Intersection: This sign

is displayed in advance
of T-junctions where the
nature of intersection is
not obvious to approaching
traffic. This sign is used
to warn the driver of the
existence of a junction.
Start of Dual
Carriageway: This sign
is displayed when a single
carriageway ends in a
dual carriageway.
Reduced Carriageway:
These signs caution the
driver about the reduction
in the width of the
carriageway ahead. This
is displayed on undivided
carriageways when some
portion of the carriageway
is closed or reduced
for repairs.

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Two-way Operation: This
sign is used to caution the
driver of a changed pattern
of traffic operation of the
carriageway expected to
carry traffic in one
direction only.
Typical Cautionary Signs
Cattle: This sign is used

where there is danger due
to farm animals or cattle
crossing the road.
Falling Rocks: This sign

is used wherever rocks are
liable to fall on the road
seasonally or throughout
the year. The symbol may
be reversed to show the
side from which rockfall
is expected.
Lane Closure: This sign cautions the driver of

the closure of a portion of the carriageway on
multilane highways.
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Barrier: This sign is
erected in advance of a
gate controlling entry
into a road. A definition
plate with words ‘SLOW
BARRIER AHEAD’ or
‘TOLL BARRIER AHEAD’
is also displayed on
the sign.
Roundabout: This sign is

used where it is necessary
to indicate the approach
to a roundabout.
End of Dual
Carriageway:
This sign is displayed
when a dual carriageway
ends and a single
carriageway starts.
Cross Road: This sign is displayed in advance of the

cross road where a sufficiently large volume of crossing
or entering traffic with restricted sight distance is likely
to constitute a hazard.

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Traffic Diversion on
Dual Carriageway: This
sign warns the driver about
the diversion of traffic
from one carriageway to
the other. It is used on
dual carriageway when
one carriageway is closed.
Ferry: This sign is used

to warn the drivers about
the existence of a ferry
crossing across a river.
Loose Gravel: This sign

is used on the section
of road on which gravel
may be thrown up by fast
moving vehicles.
Overhead Cable: This

sign cautions the driver
about the presence
of overhead power
transmission lines.
Quarry Side or River

Bank: This sign is used
to caution the driver of
the presence of water by
the side of the road and
impending danger.
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Rough Road: This sign
is posted where the road
is rough and the drivers
are required to slow down
their vehicles for safe
travel.
Runway: This sign is

used to warn the drivers
about the presence of
a runway ahead and
possible movement of
aircraft.
Series of Bends: This

sign is used to caution the
driver about the presence
of zigzag for a long
distance over a section of
road ahead.
Slippery Road: This

sign is used to warn that
the section of the road
ahead may be
particularly slippery.
Sudden Side Wind: This

sign is used to caution
the driver about the side
winds which endanger
the lives of travellers. This
sign is posted at places
where such weather
conditions exist.

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Traffic Signals: This
sign is used to caution
the drivers about the
presence of traffic signals.
Unguarded Railway Crossing: This sign is used on

the approaches of level crossings where there are no
gates or other barriers. An advance warning sign (with
two bars) is installed at a distance of 200 metres and
second sign (with one bar) is installed near the crossing.
Guarded Railway Crossing: This sign is used to warn

traffic on the approaches to guarded railway crossing.
An advance warning sign (with two bars) is installed at
a distance of 200 metres and a second sign (with one
bar) is installed near the crossing.
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Steep Ascent or Steep Descent: This sign is displayed
before a steep upgrade or downgrade that may constitute
a hazard to traffic. A gradient of 10 per cent and above
is considered steep gradient.
Rumble Strip: This sign

is installed in advance of
the rumble strips provided
on the road to control the
speed of the vehicle.
Dangerous Dip: This

sign is used where a
sharp dip in the profile of
the road or a causeway
is likely to cause
considerable discomfort
to traffic.
Speed Breaker: This

sign warns the drivers
about the presence of a
speed breaker.

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Parking Signs
Parking on this Side Parking on both Sides
Scooter and Motor

Cycle Stand
Cycle Stand
Autorickshaw
Taxi Stand
Stand
Cycle-Rickshaw Stand
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Speed Limit and Vehicle Control Signs
Speed Limit: This sign is

erected at the beginning
of the section of the road
or area covered by a speed
restriction, with numerals
indicating the speed limit
in kilometres per hour.
Width Limit: This sign

is used where entry of
vehicles exceeding a
particular width
is prohibited.
Height Limit: This sign

is erected in advance of
an overhead structure
where entry is prohibited
for vehicles whose height
exceeds a certain limit.
Length Limit: This

sign is used where entry
of vehicles exceeding
a particular length is
prohibited.
Load Limit: This sign

is used where entry of
vehicles is prohibited
for vehicles whose laden
weight exceeds a certain
limit.

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Axle Load Limit: This
sign is used where entry
of vehicles is prohibited
for vehicles whose gross
load exceeds a
certain limit.
Prohibitory Signs
Straight Prohibited or No Entry: These signs are
located at places where the vehicles are not allowed to
enter. It is generally erected at the end of one-way road
to prohibit traffic entering the roadway in the wrong
direction and also at each intersection along the
one-way road.
One way Sign: These signs are located at the entry to

the one-way street and repeated at intermediate
intersections on that street.
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Vehicles Prohibited in Both
Directions: This sign is
used at the approach end of
the roads where entry to all
types of vehicular traffic is
prohibited, especially in areas
which have been designed as
pedestrian malls.
Horn Prohibited: This sign

is used on stretches of the
road where using horn is not
allowed, for example, near
hospitals and in silence zones.
Cycle Prohibited: This sign

is erected on each entry to
the road where cycles
are prohibited.
Pedestrian Prohibited: This

sign is erected on each entry
to the road where pedestrians
are prohibited.

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Right/Left Turn Prohibited: These signs are used at
places where vehicles are not allowed to turn to the
right or left. The signs are also used at the intersections
of one-way street to supplement the one-way sign.
U-Turn Prohibited: This sign

is used in places where vehicles
are forbidden to make a turn to
the reverse direction of travel
between the sign and the next
intersection beyond it.
Overtaking Prohibited:
This sign is erected at the
beginning of such sections
of highways where sight
distance is restricted
and overtaking could be
dangerous.
All Motor Vehicles

Prohibited: This sign is used
at places where entry to all
types of motor vehicles is
prohibited.
Trucks Prohibited: This

sign is used at the entrance
to the road where movement
of trucks is prohibited.
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Hand Cart Prohibited:
This sign is erected on each
entry to the road where hand
carts are prohibited.
Bullock Cart Prohibited:

This sign is erected on each
entry to the road where
bullock carts are prohibited.
Tonga Prohibited: This sign

is erected on each entry to
the road where tongas
are prohibited.
Bullock Carts and Hand

Carts Prohibited: This sign
is erected on each entry to the
road where all types of slow
moving vehicles except cycles
are prohibited.
Stop and Give Way Signs

Stop Sign: This sign is used
on roadways where traffic
is required to stop before
entering a major road. The
vehicle shall proceed past
the stop line only after
ascertaining that this will not
cause any damage to traffic
on the main road.

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Give Way Sign: This sign
is used to assign right-of-
way to traffic on certain
roadways and intersections,
the intention being that the
vehicles controlled by the sign
must give way to the other
traffic having the right-of-way.
Restriction End Sign

This sign indicates the point at
which all prohibitions notified by
the prohibitory signs for moving of
vehicles cease to apply.
Compulsory Direction Control and

Other Signs
Compulsory Turn Left/Right: These signs indicate
the appropriate direction in which the vehicles are
permitted to proceed.
Compulsory Ahead or Turn Left/Right: These

signs indicate the appropriate directions in which
the vehicles are permitted to proceed. Vehicles are
supposed to move either of the given two directions.
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Compulsory Ahead: This sign
indicates that the vehicle is only
permitted to proceed ahead.
Compulsory Keep Left: This

sign is most frequently used on
bollards or islands and refuges
in the middle of the carriageway
and at the beginning of central
reserves of dual carriageway.
The vehicles are obliged to keep
left only.
Compulsory Cycle Rickshaw

Track: This sign means only
cycles and rickshaws are allowed
on this road or carriageway.
Compulsory Sound Horn: This

sign means the motor vehicles
shall compulsorily sound horn
at the location where the sign is
placed. This sign is mostly put at
sharp curves on hill roads.
Slip Road Ahead: This sign

means the vehicles can either go
straight or turn left.
Main Road Ahead: This sign

means the vehicles can either go
straight or turn right.

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Pedestrians Only: This sign
means that only pedestrians
are allowed and the traffic
is not allowed on this road
or carriageway.
Buses Only: This sign means that

only buses are allowed and other
traffic is not allowed on this road
or carriageway.
Practical Exercise
Activity 1
Draw 'Prohibitory' signs.
Check Your Progress

1. A traffic sign helps in ____________movement of traffic.

2. The hand can also be used as ___________ in emergency.
3. Signal traffic lights have _______________, ______________
and _____________ colour.
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1. Sign of children near road shows possibility of

______________ nearby.
(a) school
(b) park
(c) home
(d) hospital
2. Sign of informs that ________________.
(a) vehicle is prohibited in both directions
(b) vehicle prohibited in one direction
(c) vehicle prohibited in all directions
3. Signal of shows ________________.
(a) speed limit
(b) crossing
(c) distance
(d)None of the above
4. Sign shows __________________.
(a) guarded railway crossing

(b) unguarded railway crossing
(c) road crossing
4. Sign of informs about ____________________.
(a) danger due to animals
(b) danger due to light
(c) danger due to forest
1. Discuss the role of signal in road safety.
2. List some safety signs.
SESSION 4: DRIVING RULES AND REGISTRATION

The basic idea behind devising driving rules is to make
the traffic more organised and safe. The Government
of India has made driving rules for the citizens, which
need to be followed by every citizen. Violation of the
driving rules leads to fine or one can be asked to appear
in front of the court. The driving rules and their number
with penalty is explained next (these rules change from
time to time).

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Driving Rules
Table 4.1: Traffic Offence and Penal Sections
S. Offence Penal Section Compoundable Fine Subsequent

No. or Non- Amount Fine Amount
compoundable
1. Driver without Uniform 66.1/192A MV Act Non To Court To Court
(in PSVs) Compoundable
2. No Overtaking (General 6 RRR/177 MV Act Compoundable 100/- 300/-
Motorists)
3. Smoking by Driver/ DMVR 11.2/177 MV Compoundable 100/- 300/-
Conductor Act
4. Park/Wait in Bus RRR15(2)/177 MV Act Compoundable 100/- 300/-
Lane/Bus Stand
(General Motorists)
5. Open dala RRR 16.1/177 MV Act Compoundable 100/- 300/-
6. One-way violation/ RRR 17(1)177 MV Act Compoundable 100/-& 300/- & 2000
Driving against the flow and 184 MV Act 184 MV Act
of traffic 1000/-
7. Violation of Yellow Line 18(11)RRR/119/177 Compoundable 100/- 300/-
(Central Verge) MV Act
8. Blowing of pressure 21 RRR/177 MV Act Compoundable 100/- 300/-
horn
9. Conductor without PSV 66(1) 192A MV Act Non To Court To Court
badge Compoundable
10. Giving alms to beggars 22(a) RRR/177 MV Act Compoundable 100/- 300/-
or buying articles from
hackers/vendors at
intersection
11. Conductor without 66(1)/192A MV Act Non To Court To Court
uniform Compoundable
12. Carrying high/long RRR 29/177 MV Act Compoundable 100/- 300/-
load
13. Advertisement on DMVR 71.2/177 MV Compoundable 100/- 300/-
vehicle Act
14. Cruelty with animal DMVR 80/177 MV Act Compoundable 100/- 300/-
15. Carrying goods on DMVR 84(4)/177 MV Compoundable 100/- 300/-
passenger vehicle Act
16. Carrying passenger on 84(2) DMVR/177 & 184 Compoundable 100/- 300/-
goods vehicle MV Act
17. Without log group CMVR 85(10)/177 MV Compoundable 100/- 300/-

Act
18. Smoking in the vehicle DMVR 86.1(5)/177 MV Compoundable 100/- 300/-
Act
19. Using horn in ’NO DMVR 96(1)/177 MV Compoundable 100/- 300/-
HONKING ZONE’ Act
20. Use of coloured light on DMVR 97(2)/177 MV Compoundable 100/- 300/-
motor Act
Contd...
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compoundable
21. Without valid PUC 115 CMVR/ 190(2) MV Compoundable 1000/- 2000/-
certificate Act
22. Excess smoke DMVR 99(1)(a)/177 MV Compoundable 100/- 300/-
Act
23. Use of tinted glass 100(2) CMVR/177 MV Compoundable 100/- 300/-
Act
24. Without wiper CMVR 101/177 MV Act Compoundable 100/- 300/-
25. Playing of music in 102 DMVR/177 MV Act Compoundable 100/- 300/-
buses and use of DVD
screen in private cars
26. Driving without light CMVR 105/177 MV Act Compoundable 100/- 300/-
after sunset
27. Using siren DMVR 107/177 MV Act Compoundable 100/- 300/-
28. Using high beam 112(4)(a)&(c)/177 MV Compoundable 100/- 300/-
Act
29. Violation of stop line 113(1)DMVR/177 MV Compoundable 100/- 300/-
Act
30. Violation of traffic 119/177 MV Act Compoundable 100/- 300/-
signal
31. Violation of mandatory 119/177 MV Act Compoundable 100/- 300/-
road signs
32. Driving without horn CMVR 119.1/177 MV Compoundable 100/- 300/-
Act
33. Driving left-hand drive 120/177 MV Act Compoundable 100/- 300/-
indicator
34. Driving without CMVR 120/177 MV Act Compoundable 100/- 300/-
silencer
35. Obstructive/improper 122/177 MV Act &179 Compoundable 100/- 300/-
parking where police MV Act
direction is indicated
through a sign board of
‘No Parking’
36. To travel on footboard 123/177 MV Act Compoundable 100/- 300/-
37. Travelling without 124/177 MV Act Compoundable 100/- 300/-
Pass/Ticket
38. Obstructive driving 125/177 MV Act Compoundable 100/- 300/-
(Extra Passenger on
Driver Seat)
39. Triple riding on 128/177 MV Act Compoundable 100/- 300/-
two-wheeler
40. Driver/Pillion rider 129/177 MV Act Compoundable 100/- 300/-

without helmet
41. Not using seat belts 138(3) CMVR/177 MV Compoundable 100/- 300/-
Act
Contd...
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compoundable
42. Not displaying number CMVR 50,51/177 MV Compoundable 100/- 300/-
Plate/Defective number Act & alongwith section
plate/Fancy number 39/192 MV Act.
plate
43. Without HSRP 39/192 MV Act Compoundable 4500/- 9000/-
44. Permit holder/driver 66(1)/192 MV Act Non To court to court
of contact carriage Compoundable
refuses to carry
passengers
45. To drive a vehicle 3/181 MV Act Compoundable 500/- -
without license
46. Allowing unauthorised 5/180 MV Act Compoundable 1000/- -
person to drive vehicle
47. Driving a vehicle 39/192 MV Act Compoundable 5000/- 10000/-
without registration
48. Using unregistered 39/192 MV Act Compoundable 4500/- 9000/-
vehicles or displaying
applied for
49. Driving a vehicle 96/192 MV Act Compoundable 5000/- 10000/-
without fitness
50. Not displaying the 66/192-A MV Act Non To court To court
helpline number Compoundable
of State police and
transport department
in a bus
51. Violation of Supreme 66/192-A MV Act Non To court To court
Court directions Compoundable
violation of permit
conditions
52. Driving a vehicle 66/192-A MV Non To court To court
without valid permit Act(Vehicle to be Compoundable
impounded for 15 days
and not to be released
until permit is renewed)
53. Misbehaviour by TSR/ 66(1)/192-A MV Act Non To court- To court
Taxi driver Compoundable
54. Overcharging by TSR/ 66(1)/192-A MV Act Non To court To court
Taxi Compoundable
55. Refusal by TSR/Taxi 66(1)/192-A MV Act Non To court To court
driver Compoundable
56. Overtaking to other 66/192-A MV Act Non To court To court
commercial vehicle in Compoundable
running condition
57. Picking passenger 66.1/192-A MV Act Non To court To court
without stand Compoundable
58. Running in first lane 66.1/192-A MV Act Non To court To court
(not in bus lane) Compoundable
Contd...
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compoundable
59. Without speed governor 66.1/192-A MV Act Non To court To court-
Compoundable
60. School bus without 66.1/192-A MV Act Non To court To court
school board Compoundable
61. Bus not stopping 66.1/192-A MV Act Non To court To court
within one meter of the Compoundable
kerb of the authorised
bus stop
62. Plying of bus with open 66.1/192-A MV Act Non To court To court
doors Compoundable
63. To drive overweight 113/194 MV Act Non To court To court
vehicle Compoundable
64. Violation of no entry 115/194 MV Act Non To court To court
timings by goods Compoundable
vehicles
65. Driving a vehicle 146/196 MV Act Non To court To court
without insurance Compoundable
66. Violation of directions 132/179 MV Act Compoundable 500/- -
of a police officer and
misbehaviour with a
police officer
67. With holding of 179 (2) Compoundable 500/- -
information
68. Driving of vehicle by 182(1) Compoundable 500/- -
disqualified person
69. Disqualified conductor 182(2) Compoundable 500/- -
70. Over speeding 112/183 MV Act Compoundable 400/- 1000/-
71. Causing the employee 183(2) Compoundable 300/- 500/-

to drive at excessive
speed
72. Driving dangerously 184 MV Act (or Case Compoundable 1000/- 2000/-
under section 279 IPC)
73. Using mobile while 184 MV Act Compoundable 1000/- 2000/-

driving a vehicle
74. Drive a vehicle after 185 MV Act Non To court To court

consuming intoxicants Compoundable
substances (narco-
drugs), alcohol
(violation of blood
alcohol concentration
over 3mg/100mL)etc.
Contd...
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compoundable
75. Driving when mentally 186 MV Act Compoundable 200/- 500/-
and physically unfit
76. Punishment relating to 187 MV Act Non To court To court

accidents Compoundable
77. Racing and trials of 189 MV Act Compoundable 500/- -

speed
78. Air/noise pollution 190(2) MV Act Compoundable 1000/- 2000
79. Sale of vehicle in 191 MV Act Compoundable 500/- -

contravention of Act
80. To take away vehicle 197 MV Act Non To court To court

without permission Compoundable
81. Unauthorized 198 MV Act Non To court To court

interference with Compoundable
vehicle
82. Without RUPD and 124 CMVR/190(2) MV Compoundable 1000/- 2000/-

LUPD Act
(Source: https://delhitrafficpolice.nic.in/public-interface/traffic-offence/)
Motor Vehicle Acts and Rules

MVA Motor Vehicle Act,1988
CMVR Central Motor Vehicle Rules,1989
DMVR Delhi Motor Vehicle Rules,1993
Registration
After a vehicle is purchased, it is registered with the State
Transport office. All the districts have a Road Transport
Office (RTO). RTO gives a registration number to all road
vehicles. Every vehicle is fixed with a registration plate,
commonly known as a number plate, which is placed in
the front and back of the vehicle.
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Registration Rules and Process
Necessity for Registration
No person shall drive any motor vehicle and no owner
of motor vehicle shall cause or permit the vehicle to be
driven in any public place or any other place, unless
the vehicle is registered in accordance with Chapter 4
of IMV Act 1988.
Where to Register?
Every owner of a motor vehicle shall cause the vehicle
to be registered by a registration authority in whose
jurisdiction they have a residence or place of business
where the vehicle is normally kept.
Temporary Registration
An application for temporary registration shall be made
in Form 20 of the Central Motor Vehicle Rules, 1989
prescribed for Registration, under the Act marked
‘Temporary’ to the Registering Authority or to the dealer
dealing in the sale of new motor vehicles recognised by
the Transport Commissioner. It shall not be necessary
to fill in the items 23 to 32 of the Form 20 in case of
commercial vehicles like trucks.
Permanent Registration
An application for registration of a motor vehicle shall
be made in Form 20 to the Registering Authority within
a period of seven days from the date of delivery of such
vehicle excluding the period of journey and shall be
accompanied by Sales certificate in Form 21.
(i) Road worthiness certificate in Form 22 from the
manufacturers (Form 22A from the vehicle body
manufacturer).
(ii) Valid Insurance Certificate
(iii) Proof of Address (Ration Card, Electricity Bill, etc.)
(iv) Design approval copy of State Transport Authority
in case trailer or semi-trailer
(v) Original Sales Certificate from the concerned
authorities in Form 21 in the case of
ex-Army vehicle

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(vi) Pollution under control certificate
(vii) Customs’ clearance certificate in case of
imported vehicles
(viii) Appropriate fee as specified in Rule 81 of
CMV Rules
Practical Exercise
Activity 1
List the types of documents used in RTO office while registering
a vehicle.
S. No. Name of forms
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Check Your Progress

1. An application of temporary registration can be made in

______________ of the Central Motor Vehicles Rules, 1989.
2. Vehicle registration is made at _____________ office.
3. Vehicle registration is compulsory for driving
______________.
1. Red circle instructs _____________

(a) what should not be done
(b) what should be done
(c) what should be seen
2. Signal plays an important role during _________________.
(a) smooth movement of traffic
(b) air traffic movement
(c) sea transport movement
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3. Right/Left Hand Curve sign is used where the direction of
alignment ____________.
(a) does not change
(b) changes
(c) is straight
4. Narrow arrow road sign is normally found _______________.
(a) in rural areas
(b) in urban area
(c) in city area
1. Why is registration required?

2. What are the different types of documents used
in registration?
3. What are the advantages of using a driving license?
SESSION 5: DRIVING LICENCE

As you may be aware, while driving a vehicle the driver
must have a valid document called driving licence or a
driver's licence. It is an official document which states
that a person may operate a motorised vehicle, such as
a motorcycle, car, truck or a bus, on a public roadway.
The minimum age for driving is 18 years for all vehicles,
however motorcycle having engine capacity below 50 cc
may be driven at the age of 16.
According to the Motor Vehicle Act 1988, a valid
driving licence is necessary to drive any motor vehicle
on public roads.
(i) Driving Licence is issued by the Regional Transport
Office (RTO) of Motor Vehicles Inspector's Office
after the recipient has passed a driving test and
has proved the required age.
(ii) The Driving Licence in India is segregated as
Motorcycle Licence, Light Motor Vehicle (LMV)
Licence and Heavy Motor Vehicle (HMV) Licence.
(iii) Learner's Licence is issued after passing a
theory test.

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(iv) The legislation of Driving Licence is done through
the Rules of the Road Regulation and the Motor
Vehicle Act, 1988.
(v) The driver of the vehicle is required to keep the
original copy of the licence while driving.
Types of Driving Licence in India

To drive a motor vehicle in any public place, a valid
driving licence is necessary. A valid driving licence
means the licence is issued to a person authorising
them to drive the vehicle of that particular category.
There are different types of licences issued by the RTO
offices. Here we will discuss each of them separately.
(a) Learner Driving Licence

This is a temporary licence which is valid up to six
months from the date of issue. It is basically issued to
learn driving of motor vehicles.
(b) Permanent Driving Licence

Permanent driving licence is issued to those who become
eligible for it after 30 days (to apply within 180 days)
from the date of issue of the learner licence. The person
supposed to get permanent driving licence should be
conversant about the vehicle systems, driving, traffic
rules and regulations.
(c) Duplicate Driving Licence

In case of loss, theft or on mutilation, a duplicate driving
licence is issued. The documents to be produced are
FIR of the lost licence, challan clearance report from
RTA Office (in case of commercial licence renewal)
and an application in Form LLD. The particulars are
verified by the authority from the records. The duplicate
licence has the same valid period as that of the previous
licence. If the licence is lost and expired by more than
six months, it requires permission from headquarters of
the Transport Department.
It is recommended to keep a photocopy of the original
licence or the particulars of the licence noted, in order
to make it easier for the issuing authority to locate the
particulars from their record.
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(d) International Driving Licence
The motor licencing authority also issues International
Driving Licence. The validity of this licence is for one
year. Person visiting the country is required to collect
the licence from there within one year period. Apart
from the address proof and birth certificate, one has to
produce a valid passport and valid visa while applying.
(e) Motorcycle Licence or Two-wheeler Licence

A two-wheeler licence is issued by the Regional Transport
Office (RTO) to permit driving of only two-wheeler
vehicles like bike, scooter and moped.
(f) Light Motor Vehicle Licence (LMV)

Light Motor Vehicle Licence is issued to drive light
vehicles like autorickshaws, motor car, jeep, taxi,
three-wheeler delivery vans, etc.
(g) Heavy Motor Vehicle Licence (HMV)

Heavy Motor Vehicle Licence is issued to drive heavy
vehicles like trucks, buses, tourist coaches, cranes,
goods carriages, etc. A person with HMV licence can
drive light vehicles but a Light Motor Vehicle Licence
does not permit one to drive heavy vehicles.
Practical Exercises
Activity 1
List the different types of licences.
S. No. Name of forms

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

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Check Your Progress
1. Learner's License is issued after passing a _________ test.

2. RTO is office used for registration of ___________
3. Driving license is made at _________ office.
4. License is compulsory for driving ______________.
5. The minimum age for getting a learning license is ________.
1. The full form of LMV is ________________________________.

(a) Light Motor Vehicle
(b) Low Motor Vehicle
(c) Light Meter Vehicle
2. The full form of HMV is ________________________.
(a) Heavy Motor Vehicle
(b) High Motor Vehicle
(c) High Meter Vehicle
3. International Driving License is valid for
____________________________.
(a) 1 year
(b) 2 years
(c) 3 years
(d) 4 years
1. Why is a driving license required?

2. What are the different types of documents required to get
a driving license?
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Unit
5 Automobile and
Environment
INTRODUCTION
Pollution is a big concern to the human race today. We
are not able to conserve our environment properly, and
if we do not act upon it, our natural resources will soon
get depleted. Pollution in any form is dangerous, be it
pollution of air, water or noise, and therefore, it needs
to be controlled to save our environment. It is necessary
for us to adopt national and international emission
standards which ensure better utilisation of resources
and help in controlling pollution. Governments all over
the world are now serious about environment, and
therefore, we get emission standards to follow in design
and maintenance of automobiles. All the products and
services have to follow national standards. Nowadays,
strict measures are being taken by car designers to
adopt Bharat Standard (BS). You may have noticed
BS-IV written on vehicles. This is the latest version of
emission standards followed in India. Similarly, all the
vehicles are supposed to carry PUC (Pollution Under
Control) certificate so that pollution is controlled. A visit
to a nearby petrol pump would help you observe how
pollution coming out of an automobile is checked.
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In this Unit, we will understand air pollution, auto
emission standards like EU/BS, PUC certification and
ways to control pollution.
SESSION 1: AIR POLLUTION

Human population has grown enormously over the
last 100 years, and so has the demand for food, water,
home, electricity, roads, automobiles and numerous
other commodities. These increasing demands exert
tremendous pressure on our natural resources, and also
contribute to pollution of air, water and soil. The need
of the hour is to check the degradation and depletion of
our precious natural resources and pollution without
halting the process of development.
Pollution is an undesirable change in physical,
chemical or biological characteristics of air, land, water
or soil. Agents that bring about such an undesirable
change are called pollutants. In order to control
environmental pollution, the Government of India
has passed the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 to
protect and improve the quality of our environment (air,
water and soil).
Air Pollution and Its Control

We are dependent on air for our respiratory
needs. Air pollutants cause injury to all
living organisms. They reduce growth and
yield of crops and cause premature death
of plants. Air pollutants (Fig. 5.1) also
deleteriously affect the respiratory system
of humans and animals. Harmful effects
depend on the concentration of pollutants,
duration of exposure and the organism.
Smokestacks of thermal power plants,
smelters and other industries release
particulate and gaseous air pollutants
together with harmless gases, such as
nitrogen, oxygen, etc. These pollutants
must be separated and filtered out
before releasing the harmless gases into Fig. 5.1: Air pollution
the atmosphere.
AUTOMOBILE AND ENVIRONMENT

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Automobiles are also a major cause for atmospheric
pollution at least in the metro cities. The badly designed
and badly maintained automobiles are a major cause
of air pollution. You may have seen buses, trucks,
cars or tempos releasing black smoke. This happens
because of poor maintenance of the vehicle, and due
to this, the engine does not burn the fuel completely
or properly. It can also happen because of improper
mixture of air and fuel or when poor quality of fuel
is used.
As a result of the increasing number of vehicles on
the roads, air pollution is shifting to the other cities as
well. Proper maintenance of automobiles along with the
use of lead-free petrol or diesel can reduce the pollutants
they emit. Catalytic converters, having expensive metals,
namely platinum-palladium and rhodium as the
catalysts, are fitted into automobiles for reducing
emission of poisonous gases. As the exhaust passes
through the catalytic converter, unburnt hydrocarbons
are converted into carbon dioxide and water. Also,
carbon monoxide and nitric oxide are changed to carbon
dioxide and nitrogen gas, respectively. Motor vehicles
equipped with catalytic converter should use unleaded
petrol because lead in petrol reduces the effectiveness
of the catalyst.
Controlling Vehicular Air Pollution:

A Case Study of Delhi
With its large population of vehicular traffic, Delhi leads
the country in its levels of air pollution — it has more
cars than in the states of Gujarat and West Bengal
put together. In the 1990s, Delhi ranked fourth among
the 41 most polluted cities of the world. Air pollution
problems in Delhi became so serious that a public
interest litigation (PIL) was filed in the Supreme Court of
India in 1985. After being censured very strongly by the
Supreme Court, under its directives, the government
was asked to take, within a specified time period,
appropriate measures, including switching over the
entire fleet of public transport, i.e., buses, from diesel
to compressed natural gas (CNG).

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The Government of Delhi decided to convert all the
state-run buses to CNG by the end of 2002. This resulted
in a dramatic improvement in the pollution levels.
You might be curious to know why CNG is better than
diesel. The answer is that CNG burns more efficiently
and completely. On the other hand, petrol or diesel are
partly left unburnt. Moreover, CNG is cheaper than petrol
or diesel, cannot be siphoned off by thieves and cannot
be adulterated like petrol or diesel. The main problem
with switching over to CNG is the difficulty of laying
down pipelines to deliver CNG through distribution
points or pumps and ensuring uninterrupted supply.
Therefore, you may have noticed long ques of vehicles
at CNG stations.
Simultaneously, steps are being taken for reducing
vehicular pollution which include phasing out of old
vehicles, use of unleaded petrol, use of low-sulphur
petrol and diesel, use of catalytic converters in vehicles,
application of stringent pollution level norms for
vehicles, etc.
The Government of India through a new auto fuel
policy has made a plan to cut down vehicular pollution
in Indian cities. More stringent norms for fuels means
steadily reducing the sulphur and aromatic content
in petrol and diesel fuels. Euro II norms, for example,
stipulate that sulphur be controlled at 350 parts-per-
million (ppm) in diesel and 150 ppm in petrol. Aromatic
hydrocarbons are to be contained at 42 per cent of the
concerned fuel. The goal, according to the roadmap, is
to reduce sulphur to 50 ppm in petrol and diesel and
bring down the level to 35 per cent. Corresponding to
the fuel, vehicle engines also need to be upgraded.
All automobiles and fuel — petrol and diesel, were to
have met the Euro III emission specifications in these
11 cities from 1 April 2005 and have to meet the Euro
IV norms by 1 April 2010. The rest of the country were
required to have Euro III emission norm-compliant
automobiles and fuels by 2010. Now, Delhi-NCR regions
have started using ultra-clean Bharat Stage VI grade
fuel (both petrol and diesel). Other cities like Noida,
Ghaziabad, Gurugram and Faridabad along with 13

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major cities, including Mumbai, Chennai, Bengaluru,
Hyderabad and Pune, are also said to switch over to
cleaner BS-VI grade fuel from 2019 onwards. However,
BS-VI fuel will be rolled out in rest of the country by
April 2020. These efforts have resulted in improved
air quality in some cities like Delhi. According to an
estimate, a substantial fall in CO2 (carbon dioxide) and
SO2 (sulphur dioxide) levels has been found in Delhi
between 1997 and 2005. This has been possible by
introducing CNG buses on the roads.
Practical Exercise
Activity 1
List the reasons for air pollution.
S. No. Reasons for air pollution
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Check Your Progress

1. The need of the hour is to check the ___________________

and ________________ of our precious natural resources.
2. In order to control environmental pollution, the
Government of India has passed the ________________ Act,
1986 to protect and improve the quality of our ____________
(air, water and soil).
3. Air pollutants deleteriously affect the ___________________
system of humans and of animals.
4. The full form of CNG is ______________________________
____________________.
5. Automobiles are a major _____________ of atmospheric
pollution.

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6. Euro II norms, for example, stipulate that sulphur be
controlled at _________ parts-per-million (ppm) in diesel
and ________ ppm in petrol.
1. The latest version of emission standards to be followed in

India are ________.
(a) BS-IV
(b) BS-III
(c) BS-II
(d) EURO-III
2. A substantial fall of which gases level was found in Delhi
between 1997 and 2005 due to CNG?
(a) CO2 and SO2
(b) Co2 and Sio2
(c) CO and SO2
3. An undesirable change in physical, chemical or biological
characteristics of air, land, water or soil is known as
_________________.
(a) population
(b) pollution
(c) propulsion
4. The Government of Delhi decided to convert all the buses
to CNG by the end of year ____________.
(a) 2022
(b) 2016
(c) 2002
(d) 2006

1. Why is it important to control air pollution?
2. What is the role of a convertor in an automobile?
3. How has CNG helped in controlling pollution?
SESSION 2: AUTO EMISSIONS AND

EU/BS STANDARDS
You may have noticed black or white smoke coming
out from car, scooter, tempo or truck. This smoke is
a by-product of the combustion process and from
evaporation of fuel itself. It is known as auto emission
(see Fig. 5.2).

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Fig. 5.2: Auto emission
Auto Emissions
When emission from automobiles carry unburnt
hydrocarbons, it causes air pollution. Pollution from
cars comes from by-products of this combustion process
(exhaust) and from evaporation of the fuel itself.
Combustion Process
Petrol and diesel fuels are mixtures of hydrocarbons,
compounds which contain hydrogen and carbon atoms.
In a ‘perfect’ engine, oxygen in the air converts all the
hydrogen in the fuel to water and all the carbon in
the fuel to carbon dioxide. Nitrogen in the air remains
unaffected. In reality, the combustion process cannot be

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‘perfect’, and therefore, automotive engines emit several
type of pollutants.
Emission Standards
Governments and regulatory bodies all over the
world discuss with automobile companies and list
down requirements that set specific limits to the
amount of pollutants that can be released into the
environment. Many emission standards focus on
regulating pollutants released by automobiles (motor
cars) and other powered vehicles, but they can also
regulate emissions from industry, power plants,
small equipment, such as lawn mowers and diesel
generators. Frequent policy alternatives to emission
standards are technology standards (which mandate
the regulation of emissions of nitrogen oxides [NOx],
sulphur oxides, particulate matter [PM] or soot,
carbon monoxide [CO], or volatile hydrocarbons).
Emission Norms in India

With the increasing number of vehicles on the roads,
the possibility of large scale pollution due to these
vehicles has also increased. However, the pollution can
be reduced considerably if the vehicles are designed and
maintained as per regulations.
It was only in 1991 that the first stage emission norms
came into force for petrol vehicles, and in 1992, for diesel
vehicles. From April 1995, mandatory fitting of catalytic
converters in new petrol passenger cars sold in the four
metros of Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai, along
with a supply of Unleaded Petrol (ULP) was brought
into effect. Availability of ULP was further extended
to 42 major cities and now it is available throughout
the country.
The emission reduction achieved from pre-
1989 levels is over 85 per cent for petrol-driven and
61 per cent for diesel vehicles from 1991 levels.
In the year 2000, passenger cars and commercial
vehicles started meeting Euro I equivalent India 2000
norms. Euro II equivalent Bharat Stage II norms are in

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force from 2001 in the four metros of Delhi, Mumbai,
Chennai and Kolkata.
India is still behind Euro norms by a few years.
These are standards followed by European countries.
However, with many vehicles manufactured in India
now being exported, a beginning has been made, and
emission norms are being aligned with Euro standards
and vehicular technology is being accordingly upgraded.
Indian vehicle manufactures are also working towards
bridging the gap between Euro standards and Indian
emission norms.
Bharat stage emission standards are emission
standards instituted by Government of India to regulate
the output of air pollutants from internal combustion
engine equipments, including motor vehicles. The
standards and the timeline for implementation are
set by the Central Pollution Control Board under the
Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change.
Nowadays, India has adopted Bharat Stage IV norms
in the automobile sector. For metro cities, it has become
compulsory to use the standard product.
The implementation schedule of EU emission
standards in India is presented in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Indian Emission Standards (4-wheeler vehicles)
Standard Reference Date Region
India 2000 Euro 1 2000 Nationwide
Bharat Stage II Euro 2 2001 NCR*, Mumbai,
Kolkata, Chennai
2003.04 NCR*, 11 Cities†
2005.06 Nationwide
Bharat Stage III Euro 3 2005.06 NCR*, 11 Cities†
2010.14 Nationwide
Bharat Stage IV Euro 4 2010.14 NCR*, 11 Cities†

* National Capital Region (Delhi)
† Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bengaluru, Hyderabad,
Secunderabad, Ahmedabad, Pune, Surat, Kanpur and Agra
The above standards apply to all the new four-wheeler

vehicles sold and registered in the respective regions.

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In addition, the National Auto Fuel Policy introduces
certain emission requirements for interstate buses with
routes originating or terminating in Delhi or the other
10 cities.
For two- and three-wheelers, Bharat Stage II has been
applicable since 1 April 2005 and Stage III standards
came into force from 1 April 2010.
Practical Exercise
Activity 1
List the reasons for auto emission.
S. No. Reasons for Emission
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Check Your Progress

1. Burning of fuel takes place in the __________________ of

automobile to give power to the vehicle.
2. Smoke is the by-product of the ________________ process.
3. First stage emission norms came into force for petrol
vehicles in the year ________.
4. Emission reduction achieved from pre-89 levels is
_____________ for petrol driven and __________ for diesel
vehicles from 1991 levels.
5. Euro II equivalent Bharat Stage II norms are in force from
2001 in the four metros of ___________________________
____________________________,__________________________
and ________________________.

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1. Petrol and diesel fuels are mixtures of

_______________________.
(a) hydrocarbons
(b) carbons
(c) nitrogen
(d) carbon monoxide
2. Government standards generally regulate the
emissions of ____________________.
(a) nitrogen oxides (NOx)
(b) sulphur oxides (SOx)
(c) particulate matter (PM) or soot
3. In a ‘perfect’ engine, oxygen in the air would convert
all the hydrogen in the fuel to ___________________.
(a) water
(b) gases
(c) smoke
(d) pollution
1. Why is emission control important?

2. What is Bharat Standard or Euro Standard?
SESSION 3: PUC CERTIFICATION

In this session, we will learn about various aspects of
automobile pollution and measures taken to control
pollution (Fig. 5.3).
Adulteration of fuel
leads to the weak
combustion process
which ultimately leads to
pollution. You may have
read in the newspaper
that some petrol-pump
owners adulterate petrol
with kerosene to get higher
margin of profit. It causes
incomplete combustion
and leads to air pollution
from vehicles using
Fig. 5.3: PUC unit such adulterated petrol.

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Proper maintenance of vehicles keeps a check on
pollution by reducing the emission. Adequate measures
have been taken to improve the quality of fuel, for
example, lead-free fuel, CNG fuel, biofuel, etc., are
being adopted in the automobile sector.
Hence, the quality of fuel plays an important role
in meeting the stringent emission regulation. The fuel
specifications of petrol and diesel have been aligned
with the corresponding European fuel specifications
for meeting the Euro II, Euro III and Euro IV
emission norms.
The use of alternative fuels has been promoted in
India both for energy security and emission reduction.
Delhi and Mumbai have more than 1,00,000 commercial
vehicles running on CNG fuel. Delhi has the largest
number of CNG commercial vehicles running anywhere
in the world. India is planning to introduce biodiesel,
ethanol and gasoline blends in a phased manner, and
has drawn up a roadmap for the same.
The Indian auto industry is working with the
authorities to facilitate introduction of alternative fuels.
India has also set up a taskforce for preparing the
hydrogen roadmap. The use of LPG (liquid petroleum
gas) has also been introduced as an auto fuel and the
oil industry has drawn up plans for setting up of auto
LPG dispensing stations in major cities.
Pollution Under Control (PUC) Certificate

Presently, all vehicles need to undergo a periodic
emission check (three months or six months) at PUC
centres at fuel stations and private garages which are
authorised to check the vehicles. It is mandatory for
every vehicle owner to carry a valid Pollution Under
Control (PUC) Certificate and maintain the vehicle
within the prescribed emission norms.
You may have seen the computerised facilities
for checking pollution levels and issuing of PUC
Certificates (to vehicles meeting emission standards)
at petrol pumps. These authorised pollution checking
centres are spread in all cities. At present, a number
of centres for petrol-driven vehicles and diesel-driven

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vehicles are functioning. These centres issue Pollution
Under Control (PUC) certificates if the vehicles meet the
prescribed emission norms. In case a vehicle is found
polluting beyond prescribed norms, necessary repairs
and tuning in the vehicle are required.
If a vehicle does not have a valid PUC certificate, then
its owner is liable to be prosecuted under Section 190(2)
of the Motor Vehicles Act. A penalty of `1,000/- for the
first offence and `2,000/- for every subsequent offence
of violation has been provided.
Fee for pollution checking is fixed by the State
Transport Department and is quite nominal.
Petrol/CNG/LPG vehicle: ` 25
Diesel vehicle: `50
Minor adjustment (Carburetted petrol vehicles
only): `5
Despite having a valid PUC certificate, if a vehicle
is found polluting the environment, then the PUC
certificate of the vehicle is cancelled and its owner is
directed (under Rule 116 of CMV Rules) to produce a
fresh PUC certificate within seven days. The failure to
comply with this direction results in prosecution under
Section 190(2) of the Motor Vehicles Act. If the vehicle
is not polluting and the PUC Certificate has expired or
one does not have a PUC certificate, then also offence of
not having a PUC certificate attracts prosecution under
Section 190(2) of the Motor Vehicles Act.
There are regulations also that require transport
vehicles to undergo an annual fitness check carried out
by RTOs for emissions, safety and road worthiness. Now
the government is also preparing plans for compulsory
inspection of vehicles after a certain number of years.
Some other ways to control pollution are:
(i) keeping car one day off in a week.
(ii) car pooling for going to office.
(iii) using bicycle for short distances.
(iv) maintaining the vehicle properly maintained.
(v) using public transport to commute. Delhi Metro
is the best example of controlling pollution and
providing comfort to the public.

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Practical Exercises
Activity 1
List the reasons for controlling pollution.
S. No. Reasons for controlling air pollution

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Check Your Progress

1. The new alternate fuel used in Delhi is _____________.
2. Meaning of PUC is ____________ _____________ ___________.
3. PUC is checked at ___________________.
4. The full form of CNG is ________________ ________________
_____________.
5. Adulteration of fuel leads to _________________ combustion
process.

1. Which state of India has the largest number of CNG
commercial vehicles running in comparison to anywhere
else in the world?
(a) Maharashtra (b) Punjab
(c) Delhi (d) Gujarat
2. India has setup a task force for preparing the
_________________.
(a) carbon road map (b) oxygen road map
(c) hydrogen road map (d) hydrocarbon road map

1. What is the purpose of having PUC?
2. List some tips for controlling pollution.

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Unit Introduction to Vehicle
6
Maintenance and
Servicing
INTRODUCTION
Automobiles need maintenance from time to time. Like
humans are required to maintain hygiene, similarly
automobiles also need to be kept clean. Automobiles
have to run on dirty roads and in a polluted environment.
They run on uneven roads with potholes and other
obstructions, and are therefore subjected to loads which
damage them. Therefore, there is a need for regular
maintenance and servicing of automobiles, which is
usually done in auto workshops or auto service stations.
In this Unit, you will understand the concept of
vehicle maintenance and servicing.
SESSION 1: IMPORTANCE OF VEHICLE

MAINTENANCE AND SERVICING
As you may be aware, there is an increase in the number
of vehicles, such as motorcycle, scooter, bus, car, jeep,
tempo, truck, tanker, etc., running in the cities.
Every new vehicle comes with a vehicle maintenance
manual. The owner of the vehicle is expected to read and
use this manual, as it mentions vehicle maintenance
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tips during driving. It has been noticed that after getting
a car or vehicle, the owners do not care much about a
regular car or vehicle maintenance.
Even if the owners regularly service their vehicle,
the vehicle maintenance tips given in the vehicle
maintenance manual increases the longevity or life of
the vehicle to a great extent.
Vehicle maintenance and servicing is carried out
when the vehicle completes certain kilometres on its
normal running or when the vehicle does not give proper
performance. It is suggested that the vehicle owners
carry out regular and periodical checks on their vehicle,
some of which are mentioned below.
Daily Inspection (DI)

It is the responsibility of a driver or owner of a vehicle
to carry out the following inspection and checks
daily, before starting the engine, to avoid any type of
breakdown on the road.
(i) Check tyre pressure in all the tyres visually or by
hitting the tyre wall with the help of a stone and
judge the sound
(ii) Check the radiator’s coolant level
(iii) Check the fan belts for looseness
(iv) Check the level of engine oil
(v) Check the windscreen, rear-view mirror and
rear-window glass for their cleanliness
Maintenance Check-up
When one plans a long distance travel, it is necessary
to carry out a routine check-up. One should read the
vehicle maintenance manual for clarity. Some important
check-ups are done for better maintenance (see Fig. 6.1).
(i) Topping of oil level
(ii) Proper tension of belt
(iii) Battery for cleanliness and level of electrolyte (add
only distilled water for topping of electrolyte water)
(iv) Brakes
(v) Topping up of coolant, if required, in the
coolant reservoir
INTRODUCTION TO VEHICLE MAINTENANCE AND SERVICING

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(vi) Checking the serviceability of cooling system hoses
(vii) Proper tyre inflation pressure
(viii) Air conditioning
Fig. 6.1: Service centre
Vehicle maintenance is generally done at a vehicle service

centre. You could make a visit to a nearby vehicle service
centre to see how a vehicle is maintained
and what all checks are carried out
by service mechanic. Some important
check-ups are discussed here.
Check or Top-up All Vehicles’

Oil Levels
Service mechanic, with the help of a
measuring stick, checks the engine oil,
coolant, brake oil and water. During
routine check-up, oil, water and coolants
are topped up or otherwise they are
Fig.6.2: Checking oil levels
changed (Fig. 6.2).

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Belt Check-up
Checking of belt is very
important. If it is loose or broken,
then it needs to be replaced
immediately.
Battery
It is a very important component
of a vehicle. It should be checked
regularly. Battery electrolyte
(distilled water) is checked by
removing the battery caps and
looking inside. If the level is low,
it is topped up with distilled
Fig. 6.3: Battery
water. Nowadays, batteries
are maintenance-free which
means they have sealed caps
and require no checking. But,
some batteries though said to
be maintenance-free, do have
removable caps. These should
be checked in the usual manner
(Fig. 6.3).
Brakes
The service mechanic checks
the brake by pushing the
pedal. If there is need of
servicing, the service mechanic
informs the customer Fig. 6.4: Wheel brakes
accordingly (Fig. 6.4).
Cooling System
The technician checks the
cooling system by topping up
the coolant. The cooling system
should be refilled with the correct
coolant, and not with water alone
(Fig. 6.5).
Fig.6.5: Cooling system

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Air Conditioning
The service mechanic checks cooling and heating
by examining if the airflow is coming from all
appropriate vents.
Tyres
The mechanic at the service station (see
Fig. 6.7) examines the tyres by checking
correct tyre pressure, and also checks
whether there is any external damage
(Fig. 6.6).
The safety rules to be followed during
servicing of vehicle include:
(i) Always select appropriate tools for
Fig. 6.6: Tyre
a specific job. An inapt tool could
damage the part being worked on
and could cause one to get hurt
(ii) Keep tools and equipment under control
(iii) Wipe excess oil and grease off hands and tools so
that one can get a good grip on tools or parts
(iv) Work quietly and with full concentration
(v) Keep jack handles out of the way. Stand the creeper
against the wall when not in use
(vi) Do not put sharp objects, such as screwdrivers, in
one’s pocket. One could cut oneself or get stabbed,
or could damage the seat
(vii) Make sure that the technician’s clothes are right
for the job and one wears full leather safety shoes
(viii) If oil, grease, or any liquid spills on the floor, clean
it up to avoid falls
(ix) Always wear eye protection when using a grinding
wheel or welding equipment, or while working with
chemicals, such as solvents
(x) While using a jack, place it properly to avoid slip
(xi) Never run an engine in a closed garage or service
station that does not have proper ventilation system.
The exhaust gases contain carbon monoxide, a
colourless, odourless, tasteless poisonous gas that
can be toxic.

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Fig. 6.7: Service station
Practical Exercise
Activity 1
List the steps carried out during the pre-checkup activity of
a vehicle.
S. No. Steps of Pre-checkup activity

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Check Your Progress

1. Vehicle maintenance and servicing is carried out when

the vehicle completes _________ kilometres.
2. After overhauling, the vehicle regains its _______________.
3. When you plan a long-distance travel, take some time to
make sure that your ___________________ is ready to take
you outside.

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4. During pre-check-up, items like vital fluids, battery,
_______________, air conditioning, _________________, belt,
hoses and cooling system should be checked.
1. Before starting the engine the driver or owner of the

vehicle must inspect the _________________.
(a) tyre pressure
(b) radiator coolant
(c) engine oil
2. The exhaust gases contain ________________.
(a) carbon monoxide
(b) carbon oxide
(c) carbon dioxide
(d) hydrocarbon
3. If the battery electrolyte level is low it can be
topped-up using ___________________.
(a) pure water
(b) distilled water
(c) sea water
4. Coolant is used in ___________________.
(a) engine oil
(b) brake oil
(c) cooling system
(d) battery
1. List the safety rules to be followed during servicing of

a vehicle.
2. Why is it important to employ the right tool for the
right job?
SESSION 2: TIPS TO EXTEND THE LIFE OF

A VEHICLE
Care and maintenance keep a vehicle running in
good condition.

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The following suggestions help in better maintenance
of a vehicle, and must be observed in day-to-day life.
(i) Drive the vehicle with care every day
(ii) Be patient during the accident or breakdown of
a vehicle, call helpline number of vehicle
(iii) Buy petrol from reputed and trustworthy service
stations
(iv) Do not fill up fuel if your vehicle is parked
around an oil tanker
(v) Car keychain should be light
(vi) Preserve the car during long-term storage
(vii) Clean the inside too
(viii) Clean dash gauges carefully
(ix) Preserve door and window seals
(x) Do not carry too much load
(xi) Use upholstery cleaners on soiled seats
(xii) Place a towel under baby seats
(xiii) Protect car paint from the sun by parking it in a
spot that is out of direct sunlight. You can also
apply high-quality wax as it prevents sun damage
to car paint from ultraviolet radiation
(xiv) Maintain proper tire inflation
(xv) Check for uneven wear
(xvi) Rotate your tyres
(xvii) Get wheel alignment checked
(xviii) Top off brake fluid
(xix) Care for anti-lock brakes
(xx) Check engine oil at every other fill-up
(xxi) Change oil frequently
(xxii) Do not mix coolants
(xxiii) Avoid hose hassles
(xxiv) Check drive-belt tension
(xxv) Clean your engine
(xxvi) Keep the AC functional, even occasionally during
winters
(xxvii) Maintain your car’s battery
(xxviii) Seal a leaky radiator
(xxix) Dilute your coolant

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Practical Exercises
Activity 1
List some important safety tips of a vehicle.
S. No. Tips
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Check Your Progress

1. Clean dash gauges ___________.

2. It is important to maintain proper ____________ inflation.
1. During the breakdown of a vehicle we may call ____________.

(a) police
(b) hospital
(c) helpline of service centre
2. Wax is used to protect the car’s _____________.
a) life
b) paint job
c) engine
d) battery
1. Why is it necessary to service a vehicle?

2. List some tips for maintaining a tyre.

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SESSION 3: INTRODUCTION TO VEHICLE
SERVICE PROCEDURE
You may have noticed that authorised automobile
service centres adopt certain procedures during the
service of a vehicle. In this session, we will discuss the
common activities done in the service centre. One of the
most important part is job card and its filling procedure.
Common Activities in the Workshop

(i) Job card and its filling procedure
(ii) Washing of vehicle and Washing Procedure
(iii) Engine minor tune up
(iv) Oil replacement
(v) Checking of battery — electrolyte level and top-up
(vi) Clutch and brake-free play and their adjustment
(vii) Lighting system, its various parts and
their checking
(viii) Identification of greasing points of wheelers and
procedure of greasing
(ix) Checking of tyre inflation and procedure of inflation
Job Card and Its Filling Procedure

When a vehicle owner enters the service centre, he or she
is attended by the supervising engineer. The customer
informs about the vehicle defect. After getting feedback
from the vehicle owner or driver regarding defects of the
vehicle, the supervising engineer in a service station or
workshop inspects it. The defects pointed out or listed
are noted down in a standard format, which is called
the job card or work order.
In order to indicate his satisfaction with the diagnosis
made by the supervising engineer, the customer of the
vehicle signs the job card before the repairs on the vehicle
are started. Work is then assigned to the concerned
person to carry out repairs and the supervisor signs the
job card too. The work order or job card is prepared
in duplicate.

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Contents of a Standard Job Card
(i) Job card number
(ii) Name, address and phone number of the service
centre
(iii) Name, address and phone number of the customer
(iv) Details of vehicle, such as make, model, registration
number, chassis number, engine number, date of
sale, kilometres’ reading, receiving date and time,
delivery date and time by the service centre
(v) Checklist before trial
(vi) Customer’s observation
(vii) Job to be done
(viii) Estimated cost in rupees for the customer and
insurance company
(ix) Labour required
(x) Name of the mechanic
(xi) Name and signature of the supervisor
(xii) Customer’s authorisation for repair and
their signature
(xiii) Acknowledgement
Filling the Job Card

Almost all the information must be properly filled in
the job card (Fig. 6.8) by the supervisor with their
signature and the customer also needs to sign on the
authorisation for work column. Then the repairing or
servicing job on the vehicle is taken over.

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A standard job card is shown below.
The student must practise to fill
the same.
Fig. 6.8: Job card sample

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Practical Exercises
Activity 1
List some important service procedures of a vehicle.
S. No. Vehicle service procedure

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Check Your Progress

A. Fill in the blank
1. Job card is used for filling _____________of a vehicle.

1. Defects pointed out are noted down in a standard format
which is known as ________________.
(a) complaint book
(b) rule book
(c) job card
(d) register
2. What type of vehicle information is required to be
mentioned in a job card?
(a) Chassis No.
(b) Engine No.
(c) Model No.
3. The acknowledgement form must have the signature
of the ________________.
(a) supervising engineer
(b) mechanic
(c) owner of service centre
1. What is a job card?

2. What all is done during the service of a vehicle?

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Unit Innovation and
7
Development in
Automobiles
INTRODUCTION
Innovation leads to development of new technologies, with
which the customers get benefits in terms of comfort and
safety. Sometimes, innovation also helps in lowering the
cost of the product. The automobile sector is witnessing a
lot of development in terms of innovations, as a result of
which new automobile models are being launched in the
market.
Innovation has also been noticed in the field of
passenger safety. A number of devices, such as air bags,
are now provided in cars so that in case of an accident,
the passengers can be saved. There is a lot of research
going on in the area of alternative fuels due to economic
reasons and environmental concerns. Even solar energy
based cars have been designed these days, which can run
up to 80 kms in a day. Some cars have been designed
which use electrical energy. A combination of electrical
and petrol energy has been used in cars, which are called
‘hybrid’ cars. Technological developments of design and
innovation and chassis have led to the development of
MPFI (Multi Point Fuel Injection) system which gives more
mileage per litre of fuel.
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Nowadays, innovation has become more predictable.
It is a detailed method for achieving objectives of better
designs, lower costs, different fuels, etc. In major auto
companies of the world, there are large teams working
on new developments and innovations. It is a continuous
process involving lots of experimentation by highly
qualified engineers and scientists. In this Unit, you will
understand the new innovations and developments taking
place these days.
SESSION 1: INNOVATION AND DEVELOPMENT

You may have seen some old cars running on roads in your
village, town or city. Some old models like Ambassador
cars can still be seen but their number is reducing day
by day. You would have also noticed more stylish cars
on the roads nowadays. Same is the case with scooters
and motorcycles. Even buses and trucks look different
today. Can you name a famous car innovation by an
Indian company a few years ago? It was the Tata Nano car
manufactured by Tata Motors. It is one of the smallest as
well as lowest-powered cars in the world. It was designed to
be the cheapest car in India aimed mainly at the lowest price
segment in the country (Fig. 7.1).
Apart from looks and style,
one important challenge among
car manufacturers is the use
of alternate fuel, as both petrol
and diesel are a limited resource.
A lot of research has been done in
this field, and some companies are
even working on a project to run
vehicles on water or air only!
Some of the technologies being
incorporated into new automobile
designs include gas-electric
hybrids, fuel cells and biomass fuel
Fig. 7.1: Tata Nano sources including methane.
Electric Car
An electric car is an automobile that is propelled by one
or more electric motors, using electrical energy stored in

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batteries or another energy storage device.
Electric cars are pollution free and have
zero tail pipe emission. Such a car helps in
reducing urban air pollution. Electric cars
are generally more expensive than petrol,
the primary reason being the high cost of car
batteries (Fig. 7.2).
Hybrid Vehicle
It is a vehicle that uses two or more Fig. 7.2: Electric car
distinct power sources to move the
vehicle. A hybrid vehicle is also known as
Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV). This vehicle
combines an internal combustion engine
and electric motor. Although electric cars
have been around since the inception of
the automobile, a new breed of gas-electric
hybrid autos were introduced in the United
States of America several years ago. Most
of the major automobile manufacturers
Fig. 7.3: Hybrid vehicle
including General Motors, Honda, Toyota,
Ford and Diamler-Chrysler have either introduced
or are planning to introduce new hybrid models during
the next several years. New car sales on hybrids have
increased by approximately 36 per cent in the U.S.
Fig. 7.3 shows Toyota Prius which is the world’s top
selling hybrid car, with a cumulative global sales of 2.5
million units by February 2016.
Fuel Cells
Automobile fuel cell technology is under
development and has not been marketed yet.
However, this innovative energy technology has
the potential to revolutionise transportation.
Fuel cell car technology under development
creates electricity through a chemical
reaction between hydrogen and oxygen
(air). The reaction creates heat which is stored
in batteries to power the car. The reaction
creates only water and heat and may offer
a solution to our energy and environmental
situations (Fig. 7.4). Fig. 7.4: Fuel cells
INNOVATION AND DEVELOPMENT IN AUTOMOBILES

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General Motors introduced a fuel cell stack that is 60
per cent more powerful than any competitor, and has
launched a fuel cell car called HydroGen3 to the public.
Biomass Fuel
Biomass automotive fuels
and lubricants have been
gaining acceptance over
the past several years,
primarily as a result of
environmental concerns.
Biomass fuels are typically
generated through the
decay of organic matter.
For the past several years,
ethanol and di-methyl
ether produced from
biomass have been added
to oxygenate fuels and
Fig. 7.5: Biomass fuel
reduce emissions. Biomass
fuel can also produce hydrogen which can be used in fuel
cell vehicles. Methane created from biomass is also being
explored as a transportation fuel alternative (Fig. 7.5).
Biofuel
Have you heard about the jatropha plant? The jatropha
plant seeds are very rich in oil (40 per cent). Jatropha oil
has been used in India for several decades as biodiesel
for the diesel fuel requirements of remote rural and forest
communities. Jatropha oil can be used directly after
extraction (i.e., without refining) in diesel generators and
engines.
The former President of India, Dr Abdul Kalam
strongly advocated jatropha cultivation for production
of biodiesel. In our country, out of the 6,00,000 km² of
wasteland that is available in India over 3,00,000 km²
is suitable for jatropha cultivation. Once this plant
is grown, the plant has a useful lifespan of several
decades. During its life, jatropha requires very little water
when compared to other cash crops. Jatropha oil is being
blended with diesel and used in Indian vehicles.

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New Developments
Car Technology: The Latest Innovations in

Engine Development and Safety
Car technology is focussing increasingly on safety,
efficiency and the environment. Some of the major
innovations are given below.
(a) Engine development
Carbon emissions have become an issue of contention for
new and used car owners. Motorists are being encouraged
by both politicians and the media to downsize their vehicles
and reduce their carbon footprint. Many manufacturers
have changed their engine and reduced carbon dioxide
emissions — tail piece emission. BMW, Mini Cooper Diesel,
Mercedes, Mercedes Benz and many more have adopted
new technologies in there engine.
(b) Convenience and safety
(i) Automatic parking: The wheel scuffer’s dream will
soon be possible in a whole range of luxury cars. One
will have to simply drive along a row of parked cars
and the system would detect a space big enough for
the vehicle to squeeze into. No intervention would be
required from the driver’s end. The driver could even
take their hands and feet off everything, and watch
in astonishment as the car parks itself.
(ii) Pre-scan technology: This technology was also
showcased in the Mercedes F700 concept, where
lasers scan the road surface before the car drives over
it. This prepares the suspension to react to the terrain
accordingly and ensures peerless ride comfort.
(iii) Saab Alcokey: Saab helps reduce the number of
alcohol-related road incidents with this device by
fitting it as standard — apparently, one in three
traffic accidents in Europe are alcohol-related. This
fully integrated system requests the driver to blow
into a wireless handheld unit before driving the car.
The breath is then analysed and if the blood-alcohol
limit is exceeded, a red LED appears and the engine
does not start.

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(iv)Volvo sleep detection: Volvo has introduced both
Driver Alert Control (DAC) as well as a Lane Departure
Warning (LDW) system as a £500 option on some of
its higher-priced models. LDW uses cameras located
between the windscreen and the rear-view mirror and
monitors the car’s position between the road markings.
Only after a certain speed is reached does the system
become active.If the car then wanders across any lane
markings without using an indicator, the driver is
audibly alerted.
(v) Collision warning system: Swedish car maker Volvo
is also developing a collision warning system which
uses radar technology with a wide-angle search area
to detect objects in front of and around the car. If
the car approaches a pedestrian, a red warning light
comes on the windscreen’s head-up display and a
warning signal sounds. This helps the driver to react
and, in most cases, avoid an accident. If the risk
of a collision increases, assisted panic braking is
activated to provide more pressure when the brakes
are applied, but if the driver still doesn’t apply brake
and a collision is imminent, the car’s brakes are
activated automatically.
This system can even be expanded to incorporate
collision avoidance programming, where the car could
actually perform a direct input to the steering wheel
and to the direction of travel if an imminent crash
is detected.
(vi)Vehicle to vehicle technology: This hi-tech system is
being developed by General Motors and uses wireless
technology to allow a driver in one car to receive
information from another car further ahead on the
same road — suppose the other driver has come
across an obstacle or has slammed on the brakes.
This system allows the other driver to receive this
information in sufficient time to react and therefore
avoid any accident.
(vii) Driverless cars: These ‘intelligent vehicles’ are capable
of taking a person from one point to another without
any driver. Providing a ‘taxi-like’ experience to the
passengers, these vehicles would navigate the roads
on their own. Also called as autopilot, autonomous

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vehicle or auto-drive car. An example of such smart
cars is the 2getthere passenger vehicle based on the
FROG navigation technology that originated in The
Netherlands, DARPA Grand Challenge (from USA)
and AGRO research project (from Italy).
(viii) Emission standards: With the help of automotive
technologies, a check can be put on the emission
of harmful pollutants, such as NO2, particulate
matter (PM) or soot, carbon monoxide (CO) or volatile
hydrocarbons. As a result, it would reduce the pollution
level and save the planet from global warming.
(ix) Suspension technology: The suspension system
comprises springs, shock absorbers and linkages.
This system connects the vehicle to its wheels. The
main function of a suspension system is to minimise
jerks and provide comfort to the occupants of the
vehicle. With the advancement of technology, gas-
filled shock absorbers have been developed which are
much more responsive than the spring absorbers.
Apart from the above-mentioned technologies, steering
technology and safety technologies have also helped the
automotive industry in a big way to reach great heights.
Innovative Car Safety Technologies in

New Honda City
Car safety technologies have gained prominence in recent
years with the growing number of road accidents. Modern-
day cars are well equipped with safety devices compared
to the older ones. The New Honda City recently launched
by Honda Seil Cars India in the Indian car market is a
perfect example of safety.
Trinity of Braking System
Trinity of braking system is one of the most significant
safety systems in the new Honda City. The trinity comprises
the Anti-lock Braking (ABS), Electronic Brakeforce
Distribution (EBD) and Brake Assist. The combination of
these advanced safety technologies sets a new standard
in car safety feature.
ABS uses a system of sensors, an electronic control
unit and a hydraulic control unit. All these work in
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association with each other to monitor the movement of
car wheels and prevent wheel lock up. When any of the car
wheels is about to lock while braking, the sensors sense
the situation and the electronic unit or the ABS computer
sends the signal to the hydraulic unit. After receiving the
signal, the system modulates the braking pressure of the
corresponding wheel and prevents lock up. The key motive
of the ABS system is to help car drivers maintain steering
control during hard braking, especially in case of slippery
road conditions.
The introduction of EBD with the ABS, holds its
own significance in improving safety standards. The
system works in conjunction with the anti-lock brakes
to electronically distribute the braking pressure
between front and rear wheels. It optimises the braking
performance by maintaining the pressure balance
between both front and rear wheels based on road
conditions, car weight, car speed and the available
traction. This balance is very important as the car
would otherwise spin if the rear wheels lock up before
the front wheels.
The Brake Assist system also plays a key role in
ensuring faster and safer braking in association with the other
two members of the trinity. This system monitors the use
of brake pedal and automatically senses the need to stop
the car in case of an approaching accident or as a result
of panic.
G-Force Control Technology (G-CON)
G-CON or the G-force control technology is one of
Honda’s best innovations designed in response to the
need to control or absorb the crash force in event of an
unavoidable accident.
This technology helps to reduce the impact of collision from
all directions on the car body. The all-new Honda City is
designed with the same impact absorbing body structure
along with a strong survival zone to cocoon its passengers
in case of an accident. It is believed that the car is estimated
to withstand a fixed-barrier frontal collision at around 55
km/hr, a side collision at around 50 km/hr, and a rear
impact at around 50 km/hr.

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Pedestrian Safety
Honda’s commitment to safety also includes the safety of
common people who walk on roads. Safety of pedestrians
has always been a key concern for Honda. With this
concern, the company first studied the dynamics of
pedestrian collision according to which when a person is
stuck by an oncoming car, they are thrown up onto the car
hood before rolling on the street. Keeping this in mind, the
company introduced pedestrian safety dummies known
as POLAR II.
POLAR II is believed to be the most advanced test
dummy that was designed with realistic human structure
along with sensors to measure the impact of energy on a
human body during a car accident. Data received after
crash testing these dummies has been used to re-evaluate
the shape and design of the vehicles.
The New Honda City is also designed in accordance
to the data received after conducting a crash test with
the POLAR II. In the event of an accident with the new
Honda City, the bonnet and front wings of the car deform
on contact with a pedestrian. Even the hinges on the car
bonnet and wiper pivots are designed in such a way that
they bend, break or absorb energy so that head injuries to
the pedestrian can be minimised. These developments are
continuous and helpful to the passenger.
Practical Exercises
Activity 1
List the types of innovation that have come up in the
automobile sector.
S. No. Name of innovation
1.
2.
3.
4.

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Check Your Progress
1. A hybrid vehicle is a vehicle that uses two or more distinct

___________ sources to move the vehicle
2. Biomass fuels are typically generated through the ___________
of organic matter.
3. Old technology vehicles are outdated because they are more
______________.
4. G-CON technology helps to reduce the impact of collision
from __________ directions on the car body.

1. Up to how many kms can solar energy-based cars travel in a
day?
(a) 80 km (b) 30 km
(c) 40 km (d) 60 km
2. The vehicle which combines an internal combustion engine
and electric motors is a____________________.
(a) hybrid vehicle
(b) electric car
(c) fuel cells car
(d) biomass fuel car
3. The full form of ABS is ____________________________________
_______________.
(a) Anti-lock Bike System
(b) Anti-brake System
(c) Anti-lock Braking System
4. Which of these personalities was a former President of India
and a strong advocator of jatropha cultivation for production
of biodiesel?
(a) Mrs Pratibha Devi Patil
(b) Dr K R Naraynan
(c) Dr Abdul Kalam
(d) Mr Pranab Mukherjee
1. What is a hybrid vehicle?

2. What is the use of ABS?

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Answer Key
Unit 1: History and Evolution of Automobiles
Session 1: Invention of Wheel
1. Wheel 2. Mesopotamia, 5500
3. circular 4. device, object 5. lower
B. M
ultiple choice questions
1. c 2. a 3. c
Session 2: Wheel Cart
1. animal 2. horses 3. two-wheeled vehicle 4. 10 ‑12
Session 3: Invention of Automobiles
1. 1672 2. internal combustion engine
3. Karl Benz 4. Beetle
1. a 2. a 3. a
Session 4: Invention of Automobiles (Post World War II)
1. Mustang 2. American 3. 1920
4. Ambassador, Fiat 5. Suzuki 6. Nano
1. a 2. a 3. c 4. b
Unit 2: Various Types of Automobiles

Session 1: Two-wheelers and Three-wheelers
1. vehicle 2. Two-wheeler
3. three wheels, tri‑motorcycle 4. common, transportation
1. a 2. b 3. a 4. d
Session 2: Passenger Vehicles and Commercial Vehicles
A. F
ill in the blanks
1. four 2. goods, material 3. Willys Overlands
4. transporting goods and passenger
Session 3: Agricultural Vehicles
1. implement 2. power, mechanise
3. harvesting, threshing 3. labour saving
Session 4: Construction Equipment Vehicles
1. compactor, concrete, construction 2. bulk material
3. heavy machine 4. excavating the soil 5. 10 tonnes
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1. a 2. b 3. c 4. b
Session 5: Special Vehicles
1. engine 2. diesel or electricity 3. lifting
4. longer, tankers 5. liquids
1. a 2. d 3. d 4. a
Unit 3: Major Systems and Components of an Automobile

Session 1: Chassis and Auto Body
1. vehicle 2. vehicle 3. steel 4. part 5. tank
1. a 2. d 3. a 4. a 5. C
Session 2: Engine and Its Components
1. heart 2. mechanical
3. crankshaft, connecting rod, piston, cylinder
4. air-fuel, petrol engine 5. ignite the mixture
1. a 2. a 3. a 4. a
Session 3: Lubrication System
1. two metallic surfaces 2. heat
3. friction 4. cushioning, cooling
1. c 2. a 3. d 4. b
Session 4: Cooling System
1. heat 2. maintains 3. temperature 4. IC
1. b 2. a 3. a
Session 5: Fuel Supply System
1. mixed 2. IC 3. mix 4. ECM
1. d 2. c 3. d 4. d
Session 6: Transmission System
1. three 2. driving members, driven members, operating
members 3. transmission system 4. clutch disc
1. a 2. a 3. c 4. c
Session 7: Front and Rear Axle
1. power 2. power transmission 3. outer wheel 4. bears
1. a 2. a 3. b 4. a 5. a

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Session 8: Steering and Suspension System
1. controlling the vehicle 2. steering wheel
3. shock absorbers 4. safe
1. b 2. d 3. d 4. a
Session 9: Wheel, Tyre and Brake
1. vehicle 2. rim 3. equally well 4. emergency
1. a 2. c 3. a
Session 10: Electrical or Electronic and Air Conditioning Systems
1. Evaporator 2. charging 3. motor 4. heater
1. d 2. a 3. d 4. a
Session 11: Active and Passive Safety
1. safety 2. safety 3. automatically 4. accidents
1. d 2. a 3. a 4. a
Unit 4: Road Safety
Session 1: Importance of Road safety
1. safety 2. public health 3. Concern
4. driving 5. ignored
1. a 2. c 3. b 4. a
Session 2: Safe and Responsible Driving
1. four-wheelers 2. stability 3. good
4. driver 5. features
1. a 2. c 3. b
Session 3: Road Signs
1. smooth 2. signal 3. red, green, yellow
1. a 2. a 3. b
Session 4: Driving Rules and Registration
1. Form 20 2. Road Transport 3. vehicles
1. a 2. d 3. b 4. a
Session 5: Driving Licence
1. theory 2. vehicle
3. Road transport 4. vehicle 4. 16 years
Answer Key
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1. a 2. a 3. a
Unit 5: Automobile and Environment

Session 1: Air Pollution
1. degradation, depletion
2. Environment (Protection), environment
3. respiratory 4. Compressed Natural Gas
5. Source 6. 350 and 150
1. a 2. a 3. d 4. b
Session 2: Auto Emissions and EU/BS Standards
1. engine 2. combustion 3. 1991
4. 85% and 61% 5. NCR, Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata
1. a 2. d 3. a
Session 3: PUC Certification
1. CNG 2. Pollution Under Control 3. PUC centre
4. Compressed Natural Gas 5. weak
1. c 2. c
Unit 6: Introduction to Vehicle Maintenance and Servicing

Session 1: Importance of Vehicle Maintenance and Servicing
1. the specified (by the vehicle's company)
2. strength 3. vehicle 4. air light
1. d 2. a 3. b 4. c
Session 2: Tips to Extend the Life of a Vehicle
1. regularly 2. tyre
1. c 2. b
Session 3: Introduction to Vehicle Service Procedure
A. Fill in the blank
1. details
1. c 2. d 3. a
Unit 7: Innovation and Development in Automobiles

Session 1: Innovation and Development
1. power 2. decay 3. expensive 4. All
1. a 2. a 3. c 4. c

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Glossary
Automised: in this process, fuel is forced through a small jet opening
under extremely high pressure to break it into a fine misted spray. From
here, the mist is mixed with air (emulsified) and then vapourised into
a rarefied form appropriate for use by an internal combustion engine.
Bronze Age: it is the time period when people made tools from an alloy (a
mixture of metals) called bronze. Bronze is a yellowish-brown metal which
is a mixture of copper and tin.
Bullock-cart: a bullock cart or ox cart is a two-wheeled or four-
wheeled vehicle pulled by oxen (draught cattle). It is a means of
transportation used since ancient times in many parts of the world.
Catalytic converters: it is an
emission control system used
to reduce the discharge of noxious and polluting gases from the
internal-combustion engine.
Chalcolithic: a period in the 4th and 3rd millenia BC, chiefly in the
near East and south‑eastern Europe
Designed water jacket: a cooling water jacket is used for an engine
and it is demonstrated that improvement of the water jacket passage
is an effective method for enhancing its cooling capacity.
Draught animal: is a strong working animal used to draw loads
like cart, plow etc., as opposed to a mount.
External combustion engine: an external combustion engine (EC
engine) is a heat engine where a working fluid, contained internally, is
heated by combustion in an external source, through the engine wall
or a heat exchanger.
Flash point: the flash point of a chemical is the lowest temperature
where it will evaporate enough fluid to form a combustible concentration
of gas. The flash point is an indication of how easy a chemical
may burn.
Hybrid electric vehicles: it is a type of vehicle that uses more
than one means of power like diesel or petrol engine with an
electric motor.
Hydraulic suspension: air
suspension kits convert a vehicle’s
original suspension into an air suspension. These kits include air
springs, mounts and fittings. An air suspension system works similar
to hydraulics. However, air suspension systems use air springs and
air to operate.
Impact sensors: a shock detector or impact
monitor is a device
which indicates a physical shock. A related use of an impact
detector is as automobile air bag sensor. These sophisticated sensors
are used to trigger the protective air bag system.
2019-20

Internal combustion engine: an internal combustion engine (ICE)
is a heat engine where the combustion of a fuel occurs with an
oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber that is an integral
part of the working fluid flow circuit.
Locomotive: a self-propelled vehicle that runs on rails and is used
for moving railroad cars.
Quadricycle: it refers to vehicles with four wheels. In 1896 Ford
called its vehicle the ‘Quadricycle’; it ran on four bicycle tires with an
engine driving the back wheels.
Neolithic: the word “Neolithic” comes from two words in
Greek meaning ‘new’ and ‘lithic’, meaning stone. The Neolithic period is
the time when farming was invented and when people started caring
for animals, such as cows, sheep and pigs.
Quadricycle: it refers to vehicles with four wheels. In 1896 Ford
called its vehicle the ‘Quadricycle’; it ran on four bicycle tires with an
engine driving the back wheels.
Spark plug: a spark plug is a device for delivering electric current
from an ignition system to the combustion.
Specific gravity: it is the ratio of the density of a substance to the
density of a reference substance; equivalently, it is the ratio of the
mass of a substance to the mass of a reference substance for the
same given volume.
Stub Axle: a short axle that carries one of the front steered wheels
of a motor vehicle and is capable of limited angular movement about
a king pin bevel pinion, bevel gear, cage of sun gear and star pinions,
axle shafts and different support bearings
Suspension system: a system consisting of small particles kept
dispersed by agitation (mechanical suspension) or by the molecular
motion in the surrounding medium (colloidal suspension.
SUV: sports-utility vehicle or SUV is a kind of station wagon
or estate car with off-road vehicle features like raised ground
clearance and ruggedness and available four-wheel drive.
Thermal conductivity: it (often denoted k, λ, or κ) is the property
of a material to conduct heat. It is evaluated primarily in terms of the
Fourier›s Law for heat conduction. Heat transfer occurs at a lower
rate in materials of low thermal conductivity than in materials of
high thermal conductivity.
Tillage: it is the agricultural preparation of soil by mechanical
agitation of various types, such as digging, stirring and overturning.
Torque: the tendency of a force applied to an object to make it rotate
about an axis. For a force applied at a single point, the magnitude
of the torque is equal to the magnitude of the force multiplied by the
distance from its point of application to an axis of rotation

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Wankle engine: it is a type of internal combustion engine
using an eccentric rotary design to convert pressure into
rotating motion.
Yoke: it is a wooden beam normally used between a pair of oxen
or other animals to enable them to pull together on a load when
working in pairs, as oxen usually do; some yokes are fitted to
individual animals.
Glossary
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List of Credits
Unit 1
Fig. 1.2 https://goo.gl/zp3zbL
Fig. 1.6 https://goo.gl/78tWvN
Fig. 1.7 https://goo.gl/UhL2yq
Fig. 1.8 https://goo.gl/uKAUa9
Fig. 1.9 https://goo.gl/Rg7ym8
Fig. 1.10 https://goo.gl/YDn2px
Fig. 1.11 https://goo.gl/vz1ujU
Fig. 1.12 https://goo.gl/d4wY2X
Fig. 1.13 https://goo.gl/SLjqtg
Unit 2
Fig. 2.17 https://goo.gl/joHYeF
Fig.2.18: https://goo.gl/Eu2MGK
Fig.2.12 http://goo.gl/SEGxpQ
Fig.2.14 https://goo.gl/F2kCM6
Fig.2.15 https://pxhere.com/en/photo/740337
Unit 3
Fig. 3.1 https://goo.gl/x7eP4z
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Qualification Pack: Ref. Id. ASC/Q1401

Textbook for Class IX

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First Edition ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

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Chief Editor : Shveta Uppal

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The National Curriculum Framework–2005 (NCF–2005) recommends

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Our country has been witnessing growth in the automotive sector

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The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)

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About the Textbook v

Unit 1: History and Evolution of Automobiles 1

Session 1: Invention of Wheel 2

Session 2: Wheel Cart 6

Session 3: Invention of Automobiles 8

Session 4: Invention of Automobiles(Post World War II) 14

Unit 2: Various Types of Automobiles 21

Session 1: Two-wheelers and Three-wheelers 22

Session 2: Passenger Vehicles and Commercial Vehicles 26

Session 3: Agricultural Vehicles 29

Session 4: Construction Equipment Vehicles 31

Session 5: Special Vehicles 35

Unit 3: Major Systems and Components of an Automobile 39

Session 1: Chassis and Auto Body 40

Session 2: Engine and Its Components 44

Session 3: Lubrication System 58

Session 4: Cooling System 60

Session 5: Fuel Supply System 63

Session 6: Transmission System 66

Session 7: Front and Rear Axle 71

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Session 9: Wheel, Tyre and Brake 81

Session 10: Electrical or Electronic and Air Conditioning Systems 89

Session 11: Active and Passive Safety 94

Unit 4: Road Safety 98

Session 1: Importance of Road Safety 99

Session 2: Safe and Responsible Driving 104

Session 3: Road Signs 109

Session 4: Driving Rules and Registration 130

Session 5: Driving License 138

Unit 5: Automobile and Environment 142

Session 1: Air Pollution 143

Session 2: Auto Emissions and EU/BS Standards 147

Sesion 3: PUC Certification 152

Unit 6: Introduction to Vehicle Maintenance and Servicing 156

Session 1: Importance of Vehicle Maintenance and Servicing 156

Session 2: Tips to Extend the Life of a Vehicle 162

Session 3: Introduction to Vehicle Service Procedure 165

Unit 7: Innovation and Development in Automobiles 169

Session 1: Innovation and Development 170

Answer Key 179

List of Credits 186

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