CHC3170: Process Equipment Design – Unit IV: Deign of Crystallizer, Agitated Vessels and

Reactors

AGITATED VESSELS:
Though often confused, agitation and mixing are two different things. Agitation
refers to the induced motion of material in a circulatory pattern inside a container
while, mixing is the random distribution, into and through one another, of two or
more initially separate phases. For example, a single homogeneous material, such as
a tankful of cold water, can be agitated, but it cannot be mixed until some other
material added to it.
Agitated vessels and tanks with heating and cooling arrangements are frequently
used in the process industries as reactors, liquid mixers, crystallizers, etc. Various
polymeric resins (phenolic resins, alkyd resins) are prepared in agitated kettles.
Emulsion and suspension polymerization (of styrene, vinyl chloride, etc.) are carried
out in agitated reactors. Hydrogenation of vegetable oils is carried out in stirred
vessels in which the agitator augments the rate of heat transfer and also keeps the
catalyst in suspension.
Unless only small rates of heat transfer are required, as when maintaining the
temperature of liquids in storage vessels, some form of agitation will be needed. The
correlations used to estimate the heat transfer coefficient to the vessel wall, or to the
surface of coils, is given by equation 12.10. The fluid velocity is replaced by a
function of the agitator diameter and rotational speed, D X V, and the characteristic
dimension is the agitator diameter.

------ (12.10)

For agitated vessels:

------ (12.85)

where hv = heat transfer coefficient to vessel wall or coil, Wm-2 oC-1

D = agitator diameter, m
N = agitator speed, rps (revolutions per second)
ρ = liquid density, kg/m3
kf = liquid thermal conductivity, Wm-1 oC-1
CHC3170: Process Equipment Design – Unit IV: Deign of Crystallizer, Agitated Vessels and
Reactors

Cp = liquid specific heat capacity, J kg-1 oC-1

μ = liquid viscosity, Nm-2s.

The values of constant C and the indices a, b and c depend on the type of agitator,
the use of baffles, and whether the transfer is to the vessel wall or to coils. Some
typical correlations are given below.
Baffles will normally be used in most applications.
1. Flat blade paddle, baffled or un-baffled vessel, transfer to vessel wall, Re < 4000:

------ (12.86a)

2. Flat blade disc turbine, baffled or un-baffled vessel, transfer to vessel wall, Re <
400:

------ (12.86b)

3. Flat blade disc turbine, baffled vessel, transfer to vessel wall, Re > 400:

------ (12.86c)

4. Propeller, 3 blades, transfer to vessel wall, Re > 5000:

------ (12.86d)

5. Turbine, flat blades, transfer to coil, baffled. Re, 2000-700.000:

------ (12.86e)
CHC3170: Process Equipment Design – Unit IV: Deign of Crystallizer, Agitated Vessels and
Reactors

6. Paddle, flat blades, transfer to coil, baffled,

------ (12.86f)

Example: A jacketed, agitated reactor consists of a vertical cylinder of 0.6m

diameter, with a flat blade disc turbine agitator, running at 120 rpm. The vessel is
baffled and is constructed of stainless steel plate 10 mm thick.
The physical properties of the reactor contents are:

Estimate the heat transfer coefficient at the vessel wall.

Solution:
CHC3170: Process Equipment Design – Unit IV: Deign of Crystallizer, Agitated Vessels and
Reactors

The selection chart given in Figure 10.57, which has been adapted from a similar
chart given by Penney (1970), can be used to make a preliminary selection of the
agitator type, based on the liquid viscosity and tank volume.
CHC3170: Process Equipment Design – Unit IV: Deign of Crystallizer, Agitated Vessels and
Reactors

REACTORS:
The reactor is the heart of a chemical process. It is the only place in the process
where raw materials are converted into products, and reactor design is a vital step in
the overall design of the process.
The design of an industrial chemical reactor must satisfy the following requirements:
1. The chemical factors: the kinetics of the reaction. The design must provide
sufficient residence time for the desired reaction to proceed to the required degree
of conversion.
2. The mass transfer factors: with heterogeneous reactions the reaction rate may be
controlled by the rates of diffusion of the reacting species; rather than the
chemical kinetics.
3. The heat transfer factors: the removal, or addition, of the heat of reaction.
4. The safety factors: the confinement of hazardous reactants and products, and the
control of the reaction and the process conditions.
Principal types of Reactor
The following characteristics are normally used to classify reactor designs:
1. Mode of operation: batch or continuous.
2. Phases present: homogeneous or heterogeneous.
3. Reactor geometry: flow pattern and manner of contacting the phases
a) stirred tank reactor;
b) tubular reactor;
c) packed bed, fixed and moving;
d) fluidized bed.

1. Batch or Continuous Processing

In a batch process all the reagents are added at the commencement; the reaction
proceeds, the compositions changing with time, and the reaction is stopped and
the product withdrawn when the required conversion has been reached. Batch
processes are suitable for small-scale production and for processes where a range
of different products, or grades, is to be produced in the same equipment; for
instance, pigments, dyestuffs and polymers.
In continuous processes the reactants are fed to the reactor and the products
withdrawn continuously; the reactor operates under steady-state conditions.
Continuous production will normally give lower production costs than batch
CHC3170: Process Equipment Design – Unit IV: Deign of Crystallizer, Agitated Vessels and
Reactors

production, but lacks the flexibility of batch production. Continuous reactors will
usually be selected for large-scale production. Processes that do not fit the
definition of batch or continuous are often referred to as semi-continuous or semi-
batch. In a semi-batch reactor some of the reactants may be added, or some of the
products withdrawn, as the reaction proceeds. A semi-continuous process can be
one which is interrupted periodically for some purpose; for instance, for the
regeneration of catalyst.
2. Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Reactions
Homogeneous reactions are those in which the reactants, products, and any
catalyst used form one continuous phase: gaseous or liquid.
Homogeneous gas phase reactors will always be operated continuously; whereas
liquid phase reactors may be batch or continuous. Tubular (pipe-line) reactors are
normally used for homogeneous gas-phase reactions; for example, in the thermal
cracking of petroleum crude oil fractions to ethylene, and the thermal
decomposition of dichloroethane to vinyl chloride. Both tubular and stirred tank
reactors are used for homogeneous liquid-phase reactions.
In a heterogeneous reaction two or more phases exist, and the overriding problem
in the reactor design is to promote mass transfer between the phases. The possible
combination of phases are:
a. Liquid-liquid: immiscible liquid phases; reactions such as the nitration of
toluene or benzene with mixed acids, and emulsion polymerizations.
b. Liquid-solid: with one, or more, liquid phases in contact with a solid. The
solid may be a reactant or catalyst.
c. Liquid-solid-gas: where the solid is normally a catalyst; such as in the
hydrogenation of amines, using a slurry of platinum on activated carbon as
a catalyst.
d. Gas-solid: where the solid may take part in the reaction or act as a catalyst.
The reduction of iron ores in blast furnaces and the combustion of solid
fuels are examples where the solid is a reactant.
e. Gas-liquid: where the liquid may take part in the reaction or act as a
catalyst.

3. Reactor Geometry (type)

The reactors used for established processes are usually complex designs which
have been developed (have evolved) over a period of years to suit the
CHC3170: Process Equipment Design – Unit IV: Deign of Crystallizer, Agitated Vessels and
Reactors

requirements of the process, and are unique designs. However, it is convenient to

classify reactor designs into the following broad categories.

Stirred Tank Reactors:

Stirred tank (agitated) reactors consist of a tank fitted with a mechanical agitator
and a cooling jacket or coils. They are operated as batch reactors or continuously.
Several reactors may be used in series.
The stirred tank reactor can be considered as the basic chemical reactor;
modelling on a large scale the conventional laboratory flask. Tank sizes range
from a few liters to several thousand liters. They are used for homogeneous and
heterogeneous liquid-liquid and liquid-gas reactions; and for reactions that
involve finely suspended solids, which are held in suspension by the agitation.
As the degree of agitation is under the designer's control, stirred tank reactors are
particularly suitable for reactions where good mass transfer or heat transfer is
required.
When operated as a continuous process the composition in the reactor is constant
and the same as the product stream, and, except for very rapid reactions, this will
limit the conversion that can be obtained in one stage.
The power requirements for agitation will depend on the degree of agitation
required and will range from about 0.2 kW/m3 for moderate mixing to 2 kW/m3
for intense mixing.

Tubular Reactor:
Tubular reactors are generally used for gaseous reactions, but are also suitable
for some liquid-phase reactions.
If high heat-transfer rates are required, small-diameter tubes are used to increase
the surface area to volume ratio. Several tubes may be arranged in parallel,
connected to a manifold or fitted into a tube sheet in a similar arrangement to a
shell and tube heat exchanger. For high-temperature reactions the tubes may be
arranged in a furnace.
The pressure-drop and heat-transfer coefficients in empty tube reactors can be
calculated using the methods for flow in pipes.

Packed Bed Reactors:

There are two basic types of packed-bed reactor: those in which the solid is a
reactant, and those in which the solid is a catalyst. Many examples of the first
type can be found in the extractive metallurgical industries.
CHC3170: Process Equipment Design – Unit IV: Deign of Crystallizer, Agitated Vessels and
Reactors

In the chemical process industries the designer will normally be concerned with
the second type: catalytic reactors. Industrial packed-bed catalytic reactors range
in size from small tubes, a few centimeters diameter, to large diameter packed
beds. Packed-bed reactors are used for gas and gas-liquid reactions. Heat-transfer
rates in large diameter packed beds are poor and where high heat-transfer rates
are required fluidized beds should be considered.

Fluidized Bed Reactor:

The essential features of a fluidized bed reactor is that the solids are held in
suspension by the upward flow of the reacting fluid; this promotes high mass and
heat-transfer rates and good mixing. Heat-transfer coefficients in the order of 200
W/m2°C to jackets and internal coils are typically obtained. The solids may be a
catalyst; a reactant in fluidized combustion processes; or an inert powder, added
to promote heat transfer.
Though the principal advantage of a fluidized bed over a fixed bed is the higher
heat transfer rate, fluidized beds are also useful where it is necessary to transport
large quantities of solids as part of the reaction processes, such as where catalysts
are transferred to another vessel for regeneration.
Fluidization can only be used with relatively small sized particles, <300 μm with
gases. A great deal of research and development work has been done on fluidized
bed realtors in recent years, but the design and scale up of large diameter reactors
is still an uncertain process and design methods are largely empirical.

Design Procedure:
A general procedure for reactor design is outlined below:
1. Collect together all the kinetic and thermodynamic data on the desired
reaction and the side reactions. The kinetic data required for reactor design
will normally be obtained from laboratory and pilot plant studies. Values will
be needed for the rate of reaction over a range of operating conditions:
pressure, temperature, flow-rate and catalyst concentration.
2. Collect the physical property data required for the design; either from the
literature, by estimation or, if necessary, by laboratory measurements.
3. Identify the predominant rate-controlling mechanism: Kinetic, mass or heat
transfer. Choose a suitable reactor type, based on experience with similar
reactions, or from the laboratory and pilot plant work.
CHC3170: Process Equipment Design – Unit IV: Deign of Crystallizer, Agitated Vessels and
Reactors

4. Make an initial selection of the reactor conditions to give the desired

conversion and yield.
5. Size the reactor and estimate its performance. Exact analytical solutions of the
design relationships are rarely possible; semi empirical methods based on the
analysis of idealized reactors will normally have to be used.
6. Select suitable materials of construction.
7. Make a preliminary mechanical design for the reactor: the vessel design, heat-
transfer surfaces, internals and general arrangement.
8. Cost the proposed design, capital and operating, and repeat steps 4 to 8, as
necessary, to optimize the design.
In choosing the reactor conditions, particularly the conversion, and optimizing the
design, the interaction of the reactor design with the other process operations mast
not be overlooked. The degree of conversion of raw materials in the reactor will
determine the size, and cost, of any equipment needed to separate and recycle
unreacted materials. In these circumstances the reactor and associated equipment
must be optimized as a unit.