CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1. BACKGROUND
The batch reactor is the generic term for a type of vessel widely used in the
process industry. This type of vessel is used for variety of process operations
such as solid dissolution, product mixing, chemical reactions, batch distillation,
crystallization, liquid-liquid extraction and polymerization

Typical batch reactors consist of a tank with an agitator and Integral

heating/cooling system. These vessels may vary in size from less than 1liter to
more than 15000 liters they are usually fabricated in steel, stainless steel, glass
lined steel or exotic alloy. Liquid and solid are usually charged via connections in
the top cover of the reactor, vapors and gases are also discharged through
connections in the top. Liquid are usually discharged out of the bottom.

The advantages of the batch reactor lie with its versatility a single vessel can
carry out a sequence of different operations without the need to break
containment. This is particularly useful when processing toxic or highly potent
compounds.

Batch reactor is also an essential operation unit of scale laboratory pilot plants,
since it is convenient for small scale operation for testing new processes that
have not been fully developed, for the manufacture of expensive product and
for processes that are difficult to convert to continuous operations. In the
laboratory, the batch reactors are pressurized vessel so that the top is sealed by

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various type of closure. Batch reactors are used to study the behavior of fluid
with material under various conditions of temperature and pressure. In a
chemical process, horizontal or vertical vessels are also used to store fluids or to
provide a volume so that a mixture of liquid and vapor can separate in two
distinct phases.

The batch reactor in the laboratory is typically loaded with materials and heated
to a desired temperature. There after a given time, the reactor is brought to
room temperature and the contents are analyzed because the vessel is sealed,
the mass of the materials in the vessel cannot change and the volume is
constant. Since the total mass and volume are constant in the vessel, the overall
density or system density is fixed. Batch reactors are widely used and are the
preferred reactor in laboratories and pharmaceutical industries. The
performance of a batch reactor can be analyzed via mole balance.
Batch reactors are utilized because of its simplicity and minimal attention
required. The reactor system consists of four (4) horizontally mounted cylindrical
tanks. Batch reactors are used in number of industries producing small
quantities of high valued materials such as cell cultivation, polymer synthesis
and crystallization. To operate the batch reactor with success the final quality
performance must maintain the minimal cost though operated with the same
recipe, the batch process shows batch to batch variation in its specified
trajectories, therefore online monitoring is very essential to achieve successful
batch operation. (Levenspiel O. 1972).

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1.2. Aim And Objectives
1.2.1. Aim
1.2.2. Objectives
I. To fabricate 205liters of batch reactor using mild steel
II. To evaluate the performance capacity of the reactor
III. To meet up with the demands of the manufacturing and
construction companies.
1.3. Scope Of Study
This work is limited to fabricate a 205litersbatch rector
1.4. Problem Statement
1.5. Significance of study
This work reviews the method and material for the fabrication of a batch
reactor, it will aid for small scale operation for testing new processes. It will
also aid in the manufacture of expensive product at low cost.

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 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. CHEMICAL REACTOR
A chemical reactor is any type of vessel used in transforming raw materials to
desired product. The vessels themselves could be a simple mixing tank or complex
flow reactors. In all cases a reactor must provide enough time for chemical
reaction to take place. The design of chemical reactors encompasses at least
three field of chemical engineering; thermodynamics, kinetics and heat transfer.
A chemical reactor can also be seen as an enclosed volume in which a chemical
reaction takes place. In chemical engineering, it is generally understood to be a
process vessel used to carry out a chemical reaction, which is one of the
classic unit operations in chemical process analysis. The design of a chemical
reactor deals with multiple aspects of chemical engineering. Chemical engineers
design reactors to maximize net present value for the given reaction. Designers
ensure that the reaction proceeds with the highest efficiency towards the desired
output product, producing the highest yield of product while requiring the least
amount of money to purchase and operate. Normal operating expenses include
energy input, energy removal, raw material costs, labor, etc. Energy changes can
come in the form of heating or cooling, pumping to increase pressure, frictional
pressure loss or agitation.

The most common basic types of chemical reactors are tanks (where the
reactants mix in the whole volume) and pipes or tubes (for laminar flow
reactors and plug flow reactors)

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Both types can be used as continuous reactors or batch reactors, and either may
accommodate one or more solids (reagents, catalysts, or inert materials), but the
reagents and products are typically fluids (liquids or gases). Reactors
in continuous processes are typically run at steady-state, whereas reactors
in batch processes are necessarily operated in a transient state. When a reactor is
brought into operation, either for the first time or after a shutdown, it is in a
transient state, and key process variables change with time.

There are three idealized models used to estimate the most important process
variables of different chemical reactors:

 Batch reactor model,

 Continuous stirred-tank reactor model (CSTR), and
 Plug flow reactor model (PFR).

Many real-world reactors can be modeled as a combination of these basic types.

Key process variables include:

 Residence time (τ, lower case Greek tau)

 Volume (V)
 Temperature (T)
 Pressure (P)
 Concentrations of chemical species (C1, C2, C3, ... Cn)
 Heat transfer coefficients (h, U)

A tubular reactor can often be a packed bed. In this case, the tube or channel
contains particles or pellets, usually a solid catalyst.[6] The reactants, in liquid or

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 gas phase, are pumped through the catalyst bed. A chemical reactor may also be
a fluidized bed; see Fluidized bed reactor.

Chemical reactions occurring in a reactor may be exothermic, meaning giving off

heat, or endothermic, meaning absorbing heat. A tank reactor may have a cooling
or heating jacket or cooling or heating coils (tubes) wrapped around the outside
of its vessel wall to cool down or heat up the contents, while tubular reactors can
be designed like heat exchangers if the reaction is strongly exothermic, or
like furnaces if the reaction is strongly endothermic.

2.2. Reactor Classification

Chemical reactor can be classified by several different method depending on the

variable of interest, they include;

A. Operation type
B. Number of phases
C. Reaction type
D. Combination of term

A. Operation type

The operation type configuration for a reactor can be a primary method of

classification they include;

a. Batch Reactor
Batch reactors are operated with all the material placed in the reactor prior
to the start of reaction, and all the materials are removed after the reaction

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 has been completed there is no addition or withdrawal of material during
the reaction process.

b. Semi batch reactor

The semi batch reactor combine attribute of the batch and the continuous
–stirred tank reactor. The reactor is essentially batch but has either a
continuous input or output stream during operation.
c. Continuous flow
Continuous flow reactor represents the largest group of reactor type by
operational classification. Several continuous flow reactor are used
industrially.

B. Number of phases
Reactors can also be classified by the number of phases present in the reactor at
any time.
a. Homogeneous
Homogeneous reactors contains only one phase throughout the reactor
b. Heterogeneous
Heterogeneous reactor contains more than one phase throughout the
reactor. Various heterogeneous reactor type are available due to various
combination of phases such as;
I. Gas-liquid phase
II. Gas solid phase
III. Liquid-solid phase
IV. Gas-liquid-solid phase

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 Multiple reactor configurations are strongly influence by mass transfer
operations. Any of the reactor types presented above can be operated as
multiple reactor.

C. Reaction type
Reactors can also be classified by reaction type
a. Catalytic reaction
This is the reaction that requires the presence of a catalyst to obtain the rate
condition necessary for that particular reactor type.
b. Non-catalytic reaction
These are reactions that do not require either homogeneous or
heterogeneous catalyst.
c. Biological reaction
This is the reaction that involves living cells (enzymes, bacteria 0r yeast),
parts of cell or product from cells required for the reaction scheme.
d. Polymerization
Polymerization reactions are reaction that involves the formation molecular
chains, whether on a solid support or in solution.

D. Combination of terms
Any combination of the above classification can be used to describe a reactor for
example a heterogeneous-catalytic-batch reactor.

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2.3. Types of reactor
2.3.1. Batch reactor
Batch reactor is an essential operation unit of scale laboratory pilot plant, since
it is convenient small scale operation, for testing new processes that have not
been fully developed, for the manufacture of expensive products and for the
processes that that are difficult to convert to continuous operation. In the
laboratory batch reactors are pressurized vessels so that the top is sealed by
various type of closure. Batch reactors can be used to study the behavior of fluid
with material under various conditions of temperature and pressure in a
chemical process.
The simplest type of reactor is a batch reactor. Materials are loaded into a batch
reactor, and the reaction proceeds with time. A batch reactor does not reach a
steady state, and control of temperature, pressure and volume is often
necessary. Many batch reactors therefore have ports for sensors and material
input and output. Batch reactors are typically used in small-scale production and
reactions with biological materials, such as in brewing, pulping, and production
of enzymes. One example of a batch reactor is a pressure reactor. Batch reactor
is a standard equipment in chemical process industries. It consists essentially of
an autoclave provided with mixing and heat transfer devices, as well as with
piping connections for feeding the reactant and taking off the product. The
operation mode is intrinsically dynamic which means that the properties vary
continuously in time but not in space because of homogenization by mixing. For
an isothermal operation, there is a perfect analogy between the evaluations in
time of concentrations and reaction rate in a batch reactor and the variables
over the length in an ideal continuous plug flow reactor. (H. Mallin et al 2013).

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Fig1 Batch reactor

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2.3.2. Application of a batch reactor

Batch reactors are often used in the process industry. Batch reactors also have
many laboratory applications, such as small scale production and inducing
fermentation for beverage products. They also have many uses in medical
production. Batch reactors are generally considered expensive to run, as well as
variable product reliability. They are also used for experiments of reaction
kinetics, volatiles and thermodynamics. Batch reactors are also highly used in
waste water treatment. They are effective in reducing BOD (biological oxygen
demand) of influent untreated water.

2.3.3. Advantages of batch reactor

I. Flexible for multi-product processes
II. Low cost of equipment and maintenance
III. Suitable for small scale production
IV. Suitable for reaction requiring long reaction time
V. Suitable for reaction with superior selectivity.

2.3.4. Disadvantages of batch reactor

I. Cannot be used to carry out large chemical process

II. It is a closed system in which once the reactants are added in the reactor
they will come out as product only after the completion of the reaction.

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2.3.5. Components of a batch reactor
1. Agitation

The usual agitator arrangement is a centrally mounted driveshaft with an

overhead drive unit. Impeller blades are mounted on the shaft. A wide variety
of blade designs are used and typically the blades cover about two thirds of the
diameter of the reactor. Where viscous products are handled, anchor shaped
paddles are often used which have a close clearance between the blade and
the vessel walls.
Most batch reactors also use baffles. These are stationary blades which break
up flow caused by the rotating agitator. These may be fixed to the vessel cover
or mounted on the interior of the side walls.
Despite significant improvements in agitator blade and baffle design, mixing in
large batch reactors is ultimately constrained by the amount of energy that can
be applied. On large vessels, mixing energies of more than 5 Watts per liter can
put an unacceptable burden on the cooling system. High agitator loads can also
create shaft stability problems. Where mixing is a critical parameter, the batch
reactor is not the ideal solution. Much higher mixing rates can be achieved by
using smaller flowing systems with high speed agitators, ultrasonic mixing
or static mixers.

2. Heating and cooling system

Products within batch reactors usually liberate or absorb heat during processing.
Even the action of stirring stored liquids generates heat. In order to hold the
reactor contents at the desired temperature, heat has to be added or removed by
a cooling jacket or cooling pipe. Heating/cooling coils or external jackets are used
for heating and cooling batch reactors. Heat transfer fluid passes through the
jacket or coils to add or remove heat.
Within the chemical and pharmaceutical industries, external cooling jackets are
generally preferred as they make the vessel easier to clean. The performance of
these jackets can be defined by 3 parameters:

 response time to modify the jacket temperature

 uniformity of jacket temperature
 Stability of jacket temperature.
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It can be argued that heat transfer coefficient is also an important parameter. It
has to be recognized however that large batch reactors with external cooling
jackets have severe heat transfer constraints by virtue of design. It is difficult to
achieve better than 100 Watts/liter even with ideal heat transfer conditions. By
contrast, continuous reactors can deliver cooling capacities in excess of
10,000 W/liter. For processes with very high heat loads, there are better solutions
than batch reactors.
Fast temperature control response and uniform jacket heating and cooling is
particularly important for crystallization processes or operations where the
product or process is very temperature sensitive. There are several types of batch
reactor cooling jackets they include;
a. Single external jacket
The single jacket design consists of an outer jacket which surrounds the
vessel. Heat transfer fluid flows around the jacket and is injected at
high velocity via nozzles. The temperature in the jacket is regulated to
control heating or cooling.
The single jacket is probably the oldest design of external cooling jacket.
Despite being a tried and tested solution, it has some limitations. On large
vessels, it can take many minutes to adjust the temperature of the fluid in
the cooling jacket. This results in sluggish temperature control. The
distribution of heat transfer fluid is also far from ideal and the heating or
cooling tends to vary between the side walls and bottom dish. Another
issue to consider is the inlet temperature of the heat transfer fluid which
can oscillate (in response to the temperature control valve) over a wide
temperature range to cause hot or cold spots at the jacket inlet points.

b. Half coil jacket

The half coil jacket is made by welding a half pipe around the outside of the
vessel to create a semi circular flow channel. The heat transfer fluid passes
through the channel in a plug flow fashion. A large reactor may use several
coils to deliver the heat transfer fluid. Like the single jacket, the
temperature in the jacket is regulated to control heating or cooling.
The plug flow characteristics of a half coil jacket permits faster
displacement of the heat transfer fluid in the jacket (typically less than 60

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seconds). This is desirable for good temperature control. It also provides
good distribution of heat transfer fluid which avoids the problems of non
uniform heating or cooling between the side walls and bottom dish. Like
the single jacket design however the inlet heat transfer fluid is also
vulnerable to large oscillations (in response to the temperature control
valve) in temperature.

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2.3.6. Semi batch reactor
Semi batch (semi flow) reactors operate much like batch reactors in that they
take place in a single stirred tank with similar equipment. However, they are
modified to allow reactant addition and/or product removal in time. A normal

batch reactor is filled with reactants in a single stirred tank at time and the
reaction proceeds. A semi batch reactor, however, allows partial filling of
reactants with the flexibility of adding more as time progresses. Stirring in both
types is very efficient, which allows batch and semi batch reactors to assume a
uniform composition and temperature throughout.

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Fig2
Fig2

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