Unit - 3

Teaching Vocabulary, Study and Reference Skills

Structure
3.1 Selection and Grading of Vocabulary Items
3.2 Techniques of Teaching Vocabulary
3.3 Vocabulary Games
3.4 Techniques of Teaching Study Skills:
Note – Making and Note – Taking
Mind Mapping
Brain – Storming
3.5 Techniques of Teaching Reference Skills:
Dictionary
Thesaurus
Encyclopaedia
Bibliographies
3.6 Summary
3.7 Review Questions
3.8 References

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Introduction
Any language is made up of words, and having a large vocabulary is necessary for
properly using any language since it allows for the expression of thoughts and feelings in
both written and spoken form.
The importance of teaching vocabulary is equal to that of teaching structures. A
strong understanding of English syntax and the ability to employ the language's basic
structures is required, but a command of words is also required. This is because language is
intended for communication, and concepts and ideas are implanted in words. No
communication is possible without the use of meaningful language. Before discussing
vocabulary teaching methods or strategies, it is vital to have a basic understanding of the
English language.
Vocabulary holds such an important place in teaching and learning. While speaking
and writing one can make use of a minimum vocabulary of 3,000 words or so as one can
choose one's words. However, listening and reading require a large vocabulary because you
cannot choose words. According to Robert Lado, reading requires a vocabulary of 7,000
words.
Here is the question, which words or structures are to be taught and learnt? The
answer seems to be that we need to select and grade the vocabulary and structures which are
to be taught and learnt. A careful selection and grading by the teacher will have a great effect
on teaching the lesson and the revision work at later stages.

Objectives:
After completion of this lesson you will be able to
 understand the meaning of Vocabulary and its types.
 explain the standards for selection and gradation of vocabulary and Structures.
 realise the various Techniques of Teaching Vocabulary.
 make use of Vocabulary Games.
 learn the use of Techniques of Teaching Study Skills.
 recognise the Techniques of Teaching Reference Skills.
 understand the importance of Dictionary, Thesaurus, Encyclopaedia, and
Bibliography in Learning and Teaching of English.

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Definitions of Vocabulary
Vocabulary means the words used by a person in his day to day life to express his
feelings and thoughts. Every man has certain stock with him to give on outlet to his ideas i.e.,
in the working vocabulary of that person.
Characteristics
1. it consists of simple everyday English
2. it relates to pupils environment and experiences.
3. It is not literary.
4. It is well balanced.
“The most important criterion of word is that it is the small unit that containordinary usage
function alone as a sentence.”Strange
“A free from which is not phrase, is a word.”Bloom Field
“Words are pegs to hang ideas on”….. H.W.Beecher,
“Collection of words”
“If language structures make up the skeleton of a language, then it is vocabulary that
provides the vital organs and flesh”.

Meaning of Word
The definition of a word, according to Fries, is "a combination of sounds working as a
stimulus to bring to attention the experience to which it has become associated through use."
As a result, each word has a distinct meaning. The meaning of the word varies depending on
the experience it transmits in the context and the word collocation it is used with.
The dictionary definition of a word is not generally the same as what it practically
means. The connotation of a word is more essential than its denotation in a given situation,
and it is sometimes the only meaning warranted by the context in which it is employed. The
qualities, attributes, and characteristics implied by the term are referred to as connotation.
Connotation is the indication of anything other than the recognised or primary meaning.

Some Characteristics of words

For an effective teaching of vocabulary the teacher must know the characteristics of
words which are as follows:
(1) A word can have more than one meaning. Generally a word has these levels of meaning:
(a) Lexical: that meaning which is given in the dictionary.

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 (b) Syntactical: that meaning which is conveyed by the word order.
(c) Morphological: that meaning which is conveyed through the forms of words.
(d) International: that meaning which is conveyed by the way the word is pronounced.
(e) Cultural - that meaning which is related to some culture.
(2) Words convey their meaning in the context.
(3) There are no exact synonyms with in a language.
(4) Words change their meaning.

KINDS OF WORDS:
Words in English may be divided into two broad categories:
1. Function or Structure Words:
These are the words which primarily operate as means of expressing relations of grammatical
structure.
These words include:
1. All the prepositions like in, on, for, among, with, from, over, through, of, etc....
2. All the pronouns like: I, we, you, me, my our, your, them, etc.
3. All the helping verbs like: do, did, may, could, shall, will should, would, can, etc.
4. All the conjunctions likeand, but, because, either, so, although, unless, therefore, etc...
5. All the relatives like who,which,whom,whose, why, how, etc.
6. Some structural adjectives like this,that,some,any, etc.
7. Some structural adverbs likealways,again,even,more, etc.
Function words, also called structure words, are very important for the construction
of sentences. They are the most difficult words to teach and occur as teaching points in the
structural syllabus.

2. Content Words:
These are the words that stand for things, actions and qualities. The total number of
function words is nearly 300, the rest of the words in the dictionary are content words.
Observe that the newspaper headlines are prepared mainly with content words.
The content words have been divided into three classes:
I. Words for things,ideas, and entities e.g., book pencil, table
II. Words for actions e.g., departure, work, read.
III. Words used to describe the qualities of things or actions, e.g., honest, beauty.

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3. Substitute words: These are the words which are used to substitute other words, e.g., I,
he, she, they, we, anybody, everybody, none.

4. Further Division of Vocabulary

a. Recognition Vocabulary or Passive Vocabulary The vocabulary that conveys
meaning to us is our Recognition Vocabulary,
Recognition vocabulary is his passive vocabulary (i.e., the vocabulary he recognises when
spoken to or while reading).
b. Production Vocabulary or Active Vocabulary: The vocabulary that is used by us
for communication through speech or written is our Production Vocabulary. It is
referred to as the active vocabulary (i.e., the vocabulary he is expected to use in
speaking and writing)

3.1 Selecting and Grading Vocabulary Items

The primary objective of teaching vocabulary is not to teach all of the English words.
It is not possible either. The conference of professors of English held in New Delhi in ( 1953)
observed , " The course of English should consist of a detailed study of texts of simple
modern English prose written within a vocabulary of about 2,500 essential words , non -
detailed study of books in prose and verse with a large vocabulary for rapid reading and
simple composition . " The conference of 1963on the teaching of English held in New Delhi ,
recommended that ' It was possible to cover approximately 2,500 words to form the active
vocabulary and some 500 more words to form the recognition vocabulary of pupils , in a six
or seven years course of English. It is possible to develop a new vocabulary of 3,000 terms
that would cover 95% of everyday English. Secondary pupils should learn roughly 3,000
words, which seems appropriate.

3.1.2 Principle of Selecting Vocabulary

How to select 3,000 words out of some 5 lakh words in the English language? The
following principles may be kept in view while selecting words:

(a) Word frequency

(b) Environmental Applicability.

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(c) Structural Considerations.
(d) Material Association.
(e) Universality.
(f) Range of Applicability.
(g) Words Productivity

(a) Word Frequency:

It refers to how frequently a term appears in normal reading material. There are words
that are frequently used and terms that are hardly ever used. It simply means that some words
are used in speech and writing more frequently than others. This aspect should be considered
by the teacher as they choose the vocabulary to be taught. He needs to be careful to make
sure that words that are commonly used come first and that terms that are less important wait
until the student has mastered the first group of words. Thorndike has created a frequency list
which can be of great value to teachers. Based on a four million word count, it was created. It
gives 10000 of the most used words in English, grouped in sections of roughly 500 words
each in a decreasing scale of frequency.

(b) Environmental Applicability:

Environment has a significant impact on language learning. When learning a new vocabulary,
a child picks up words that are relevant to his surroundings quickly. Therefore, a teacher
should begin by teaching the words that describe his environment and the experiences that he
encounters on a daily basis. A youngster will become interested in the language as a result.

(c) Structural Considerations: The structural factors should be taken into account when
choosing words. a well-known linguist says. Because of their high importance and frequent
frequency, function words should be taught as early as possible. The structure words that are
used most frequently should be introduced earlier than the less common ones. The pronouns
(I, you, she, my, your, your, his, and her) should thus occur before the prepositions (in, on,
under, from, with, over).
(d) Material Association: A teacher must think about the possibility of material association
while choosing terminology. This means that he should use phrases that the child will
associate with the things he sees or uses around him to become concrete. Additionally,
association may help students understand a variety of additional words that unintentionally
enter the teaching process.
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(e) Universality: This refers to universality with regard to location. The vocabulary taught
must be applicable anywhere and in any environment. A student from Kerala who happens to
reside in Bengal ought to have a large enough vocabulary to avoid any problems.

(f) Range of Applicability: The vocabulary taught should be broad enough to cover a range
of topics. Therefore, a teacher should take extra care to teach vocabulary that are not
restricted to one subject and can be utilised in a number of ways.

(g) Word's Productivity: The words used should be useful in word construction. "They must
be words that can be used as the basis for new words by adding prefixes and suffixes, such as
use, useless, (un)used, and (un)usable.

3.1.3 Principles of Gradation of Vocabulary:

Graduating vocabulary is crucial since roughly 2500 words must be taught in six or seven
years, not just from year to year but also from term to term. The gradation of vocabulary is
governed by much the same principles as the gradation of structures. These are given below:
 Principle of Usefulness
 Principle of Teachability
 Principle of Structural Value
 Principle of Simplicity

Principle of Usefulness:
The teacher should be careful to teach the student essential words first before evaluating the
vocabulary items. For beginners, nouns like "book," "pen," "black board," etc. are more
helpful than "diamond," "daffodils." Liliy, etc.
Principle of Teachability :
Some words are easier to teach than others because it is possible to demonstrate the items or
acts they stand for. Chair is simpler to teach than strength, and walking is simpler to teach
than wandering.

Principle of Structural Value:

Early on, the teacher is expected to introduce structural words. Also to be graded are
these words. It's important to start teaching young children the words that connect the content

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words. These are essential terms. Their significance can be determined from the fact that 95
of the first 100 terms in Thorndike's frequency list are structural words.
Principle of Simplicity:
Some words are simpler to say than others. The teacher and the students both benefit
from the proper grading of the vocabulary items. Therefore, the gradation of vocabulary
pieces needs to be given significant consideration. Words should be simple to understand.
Regarding its spelling, pronunciation, form, and meaning, simplicity is desirable. We must
also grade the meaning.

3.2 Techniques of Teaching Vocabulary

When presenting the words, the teacher should be careful to convey to the students the word's
pronunciation, sense, and spelling as well as its sound, sense, and shape. The teacher should
focus on encouraging the students to use the words in context. There are many different ways
to teach a word's meaning. The teacher needs to keep in mind the 3 Ps - Presentation - of the
vocabulary; Practice - drilling, examples, etc.; Production - applying or using the vocabulary
learnt.
Presentation of Vocabulary
Under presentation, the teacher may use the following methods to present the vocabulary to
the students.
1. Use Objects Use Pictures
Use objects and models that are present in the class. Use slides, films, etc.
2. Using Gestures and Symbols
- Descriptive adjectives - tall, thin, lappy, dumb, lame, etc.
- Prepositions of place - on, in, over, into, under, etc.
- Action verbs - go, sing, hop, jump, throw, etc.
- Symbols for morning and night.
3. Using Word Categories
Stationary - pen, paper, pencil, ink.....
Cosmetics-cream, oil, powder, soap...
Utensils - spoon, cup, mug, kettle..
Furniture chairs, desk, table, cot......
A number of related words can also be introduced under a particular category.
Farm-farm, farmer, plough, harvest, sow, reap...

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Meals (food) - breakfast, lunch, dinner, cream, rice, curry
4. Substitution
The meaning can be simplified by using a familiar or simple word in place of a difficult
word. Example: He fell in slumber (deep sleep).
5. Synonym
By giving the nearest synonym, the meaning of a new word can be easily explained.
Example: determination - decision, sufficient - enough.
6. Antonym
Sometimes the correct definition of a new term can be found in its appropriate opposite word
Example: the bottle is empty.
empty x full.
7. Meaning in the mother tongue
Although it shouldn't be used often in English classes, translation might be employed
periodically to clarify the meaning of a few words.
righteousness - neethi (నీతి) snowmanchu( మంచు)

Apart from, the teacher may also use techniques like drawing match stick figures on the black
board, miming, dramatization, etc. With interest and creativity, a teacher may be able to make
the learning of vocabulary easy and interesting to the students.

In addition to the presentation practice and production of the vocabulary in the

classroom teacher has to inculcate the following best practices among the students to increase
the level of stock vocabulary.
1. By Bringing Real or Actual Objects (realia)
If the things are small enough to be brought into the classroom, we can illustrate the
object that a word represents when teaching vocabulary. Such real objects used are known as
‘realia’. When realia are used, mother tongue need not be used in the classroom. Pupils pick
up the new words very fast. Ball, balloon, candle, watch, and shirt can be shown directly in
the class.Many classroom objects can also be utilised as realia while teaching words

2. Picture and Matchstick Diagrams

Pictures and photos gathered from a variety of sources, such as newspapers,
magazines, and the internet, help in the teaching of vocabulary. Pupils easily understand the
words introduced just by looking at them. Matchstick diagrams too help us a lot in teaching

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translated.

ily
m
a
F
vocabulary. Children can grasp what these words actually mean even if they are not

3. Teaching New words through Association:

The English teacher must be skilled at linking new words with vocabulary that the
students already know. The words provided to first-generation learners who have not yet
begun studying English are as follows.

4. Drawing Figures on
An English
Blackboard
teacher
should be able to draw birds, animals, and other objects on the blackboard and should know
how to do so. This will assist the students in developing concrete concepts about the words as
well as generating class activities.

5. By Using the Words in Sentences:

Because different contexts can have different meanings for the same word, the teacher
should teach the words by employing them in appropriate phrases. Sentences should be
written in such a way that the word's meaning is clear. Furthermore, words should be used in
short sentences so that even the most inexperienced pupil may grasp them. Give students the
opportunity to use these words in their own sentences.
6. Explaining in simple, everyday language
Either teaching hard words, new words or critical vocabulary or teaching any new
context teacher has to explain them simple, easy to understand words, so that among the
pupils we can create interest.

7. Encouraging Extensive Reading

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 In the teaching-learning process, our students are expected to read more than just text.
“Text is only a simulated semblance. Let your pupil read whatever is interesting to him/her.
You can suggest the reading abridged books with graded vocabulary published by different
publishers and English News Papers.

8. Maintain Classroom Library

It might be a good idea to keep a ‘classroom library’ with different graded Vocabulary
Books, Comics, Pictionary, Short Story Books, and Hymn Books. Encourage children to use
this library in their leisure time.

9. By using the Students Mother Tongue

Sometimes, and in certain situations, the teacher may discover that communicating an
idea or concept to the class is difficult and time-consuming. He had no choice but to use the
vocabulary of the kids in his explanation at the time. However, such a chance would be
extremely rare, only occurring once or twice in his class during a session. Otherwise, it's best
to avoid it.

10. Prescribing A Dictionary and A Note Book:

For pupils' reference, the teacher should provide a standard, excellent dictionary to the
class. He should personally request that they create their own word lists of various kinds.
Lists can be made for the words looked up, synonyms, antonyms, body parts, animal screams,
terms for insect, bird, and flower collectives, thieves, voices, musical instruments, tools, and
keys, among other things. As part of their class work, students should be asked to create word
lists of various types. These must be examined.

3.2.1 Expansion of Vocabulary

After the teacher has guided students in establishing mastery of fundamental
vocabulary, the next phase is to broaden their vocabulary control. Students will be better able
to use this crucial tool of the English language once their vocabulary has grown.
The following approaches can be used by the teacher to help students enhance their
vocabulary.
1. Expanding through Word – Lists

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 The pupils are asked to prepare word - lists by grouping words around a key - word.
For example,
Key - word: School
School, peon, teacher, headmaster, office, play - ground, laboratory, library etc.

2. Expanding through Word - Families:

Lists of words related in some feature to the key - word are prepared.
For example,
Key - word: Hope.
Word - Family : Hope , hopes , hoped , hoping ; hopeless , hopeful , hopelessly , hopefully .
In preparing word - families, the use of prefixes and suffixes is made. A few more
word - families are:
Enjoy: Enjoys,enjoyed,enjoying,enjoyable,enjoyably, etc.
Use: Used, using, useless, useful, uselessly, usefully.

Use of prefixes/suffixes
Un – unkind, unfit, unite, unhealthy, etc.
-ful – useful, helpful, playful, sinful, etc.,

3. Expanding through Associations:

This is the device which can be used to group words by associating new words with
the given idea, or sound, or context, or some similar way.
Examples are:

(a) Similar idea: Beginnings - Begin, start, commence, origin, dawn. Endings - End,
close, finish etc.

(b) Opposite idea: Good - bad; Begin - end; Inside - outside; Superior - inferior Active -
lazy.

(c) Same Sound:

Hair: hare Sight: site fair: fare

(d) Same context:

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Shape Cap, hat, turban, and helmet. Opposite. Sex Boy / girl; man / woman; father / mother.
Speed Walk, run, crawl, and move. Sound Intensity: Call, shout, shriek, and whistle.

(f) Parents, their young ones and their dwellings

Father Mother - child – home King - queen - prince – palaceHorse - mare - colt - stable.

(g) Compound words with a certain part common

Postman - workman - gentleman - lineman - statesman. workman - workshop - work - house -
work - room.

4. Word Exercises:
A useful device for expanding pupils ' vocabulary is to prepare a variety of word -
exercises in which different ideas can be used. A few specimen exercises are given below.
(i) Matching words with opposite meanings:
(A) (B)
happy hard
sad pretty
soft ugly

(ii) Matching Words with Similar Meanings

(A) (B)
beautiful tender
cry happy
merry shout
soft pretty

5. Word Games
Language games are another effective method for motivating pupils to learn. The
daily routine is spiced up with these games. They provide a pleasant break as well as valuable
practice.These games would have a competitive element to them, which would stimulate
learning. Language games can help students learn and teach all aspects of the English
language, including listening, speaking, reading, and writing.

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6. Extensive Reading:
Students should not be forced to rely solely on reading in class. They should be
encouraged to read as much as they can. The teacher should lend books from the class library
to students so that they can read about a variety of topics. Many new words will be spoken in
front of their eyes. A few of these phrases are sure to stick in their heads.Students should be
encouraged to add new terms to the Word Dictionary on the appropriate page for each letter
of the English alphabet. Students will benefit greatly from using this personal dictionary on a
regular basis to expand their vocabulary.

6. Crossword puzzles:

3.3 Vocabulary Games

1. Letter Scramble

Write a scrambled version of each word from a list of words

your children have just learnt on the board. Give pupils the
opportunity to decode the words on their paper. The winner is
the first person to correctly decode every word.

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 2. Word search
Word searches are common classroom vocabulary games. These activities work well for
handouts.

Label It.
This works well with newcomers of all ages who need an introduction to basic vocabulary.
As long as the learners are able to identify beginning letter sounds, they should be able to do
this activity. To familiarize my students with names of objects found in the classroom, I label
everything with an index card that has the
item's name on it. Then I have them repeat
what I read as they point to the item. The
next day, I remove the cards and go through
them one at a time and we place them on the
correct item together. The third day, I let
them label whatever they can on their own. I
continue this for a few days. When they are
able to independently label most of the items, I surprise them by having them labelled
incorrectly. Then they have to straighten out the mess. You can adapt this to any noun-based
vocabulary list (e.g. types of foods, body parts, parts of a room in a house, animals, etc.).

Blindfold Guess.
Blindfold a student and give him/her an object to feel. The student must guess what the object
is just by feeling its shape. This works well with plastic food and plastic animals as they are a
little challenging to guess (I always throw in a toy plastic dinosaur to spice things up!). Make
sure students use the structure "Is it a/an ...?".

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Hangman.
The old favourite. Very good for reviewing vocabulary from past lessons. You can play this
game either with all students playing against each other (for points) or as a team game. You
can also have students play in pairs - give the class a category, such as food, and each pair
plays hangman together deciding on the words themselves.

Touch.
Have students run around the classroom touching things that teacher orders them to do (e.g.
"Touch the table" "Touch a chair" "Touch your bag"). Colors work well for this, as students
can touch anything of that color (e.g. "Touch something green").

3.4 Techniques of Teaching Study Skills

Study Skills
Learners can study more efficiently with the use of study skills. For two purposes, it is
necessary to teach the students these abilities.
To improve their understanding of the topic.
To help to increase their capacity to learn new subjects on their own initiative and at will.
The process of study consists of four activities (1) Perception (2) comprehension (3)
Retention (4) Retrieval.

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1. Before studying any subject or article, students must first determine what is essential and
then choose only those topics that are necessary or important.
2. They must then read the information and comprehend it because comprehending is a
prerequisite for learning.
3. After that, Learner must work to recall or retain what they have learned.
4. The ability to recall or summarise what was learned and present it as feedback is the last
requirement.
Based on the above process, there are three main categories of study skills.

Gathering skills or Reference skills (Perception and comprehension)

Storage skills or note making and note taking skills (Retention skills).

Retrieval skills (Retrieval communication)

Storing skills are of two major categories.

They are 1. Note Making skills 2. Note Taking skills.

Note Making
The ability to take notes can help you improve your reading comprehension, text
analysis, and note-taking skills. Your notes help you and anyone who use them to understand
things. Let's learn how to practise taking notes and making notes immediately.
A piece of writing often goes through three stages: pre-writing, writing, and re-writing
or editing. Examples of these stages include simple compositions, paragraphs, notes, reports,
summaries, and essays. Once more, these writing stages are subject to more precise
procedures, such as:
Generating ideas (Brain storming, jotting down points connected with the topic)
Identifying the purpose
Obtaining a clear idea of your audience
Skimming through the relevant sources (books) to get a feel of the topic
Organizing ideas clearly and logically
Drafting, re-writing
Writing the final draft

Definition of Note-Making

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 Making notes is a systematic process that involves organising them in a specific order.
When you make notes, you read, absorb, and analyse the text to separate the important details
from the unnecessary material.When you do so, you separate the text into primary and
supporting parts and organise them in a specific sequence in accordance with predetermined
standards.Making such notes is called Note-making. Through the notes which you make, you
can remember a text which you had read sometime back. This is not a personal exercise;
anyone can understand your notes. It serves as a guide or outline for completing additional
exercises, such as writing an abstract, report, summary, précis, or essay.It is something like a
model prepared by an architect before the actual building comes up.

Uses of note-making
To instantly refer to it before giving a lecture a lesson on a particular subject or reading over
a material before an exam.
To maintain a lengthy content in a clear, concise style.
To make it simple to summarise and reassemble the text you've previously read.
To arrange your ideas in a clear, orderly fashion.
To develop the abilities of reading comprehension, text analysis, and note-taking.

Some of the characteristics of note-making

Short
Includenecessary points only
Filters the whole matter and sets aside the inappropriate and minor points
Presents the text in a nutshell
Points are in a note form
Uses abbreviations and symbols
Complete sentences are not used
Helps to recapitulate the whole text at a later date also

Process of Making Notes

Read and Reread the entire book, at the very least. Choose the text's title first if one is not
given. The chapter should be condensed into an outline while retaining all of the core
ideas.Based on the title you have provided, divide and arrange the entire material into main

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and supporting points. Put the text in a main-and-sub-point format with numbers as shown in
the model:
Roman numerals should be followed by capital letters for large numbers and small
letters for small numbers.

Use standard abbreviations and symbols.

Symbols Meaning
= equal to
≠ notequal to
& and
 grater than
 less than
 therefore
∵ because
Some of the Abbreviations
e.g. for example
i.e. that is
et al and others
viz. namely
ref. reference
bet between
w/o without
Depending on the nature and intricacy of the subject, there are various ways
to take notes. Each writer (learner) opts most suitable model.The only ultimate test for
any notes is that either the writer or some others can reconstruct the original passage
from the notes at a later date. Additionally, the author should double-check notes to
make sure not to miss any crucial passages. Overall, the prepared notes ought to
correspond to the original text's logical organisation, as if it were a map.
One of the common methods of making notes is the division of the main and
subordinate points using the conventional number and divisions as shown below.

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1………………………Main points
1.1………………(Sub-heading)
1.1.1……………..(Sub-sub-heading)
1.2………………. (Sub-heading)
1.2.1………………(Sub-sub-heading)
2……………………… Main points
2.1………………(Sub-heading)
2.1.1……………..(Sub-sub-heading)
2.2………………. (Sub-heading)
2.2.1………………(Sub-sub-heading)

Note Taking
When reading a text, you can read at your own pace; yet, when listening to a
lecture, you must adjust yourself to the speaker's thoughts and pace. As a result, it is
challenging to understand and integrate the new information.A preparation before the
lecture helps you a lot. If you are aware of the lecture's topic in advance, attempt to
complete some homework by thinking about the topic, your expectations for it, and
your interests in related areas. Such a practice equips you to take the knowledge in
with a pleasant outlook. Besides this, you have to be ready with some paper/notebook
and a pen.
In the previous is to select the main points and subordinate sub points in a
lecturer.
Usually, the speaker makes her in main ideas clear to the listener by using
semantic markers like.
 I would like to emphasize....
 the general point you must remember is.....
 it is important to note that.....
 I repeat that
 the next point is crucial to my argument .....
speakers make their main points clear by visual display using blackboard or
overhead projector. They very often, list their main points. They also use facial

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 expressions and gestures to bring about the importance of the points. The speakers, by
using the following phrases, elaborate their points.
 let me give you some examples
 for example
 I might add...
 to illustrate this point...
To add variety and flavour to their lectures, speakers will occasionally stray
off topic and cite relevant experiences or quote someone. Learner need not record
such thoughts.
The students may be asked to summarise certain passages in their in-depth
and extended reading in order to develop this competence. They might also be
requested to summarise or sum up the main points of the entire lecture. The students
should be instructed to make notes of key themes and then articulate them in their
own words within the allotted word count.

Mind Mapping
One effective way for taking notes is mind mapping. In addition to
emphasising key information, mind maps also reveal a subject's general organisation and the
relative importance of its many components. They can assist you in creating new connections
between thoughts and are excellent when you need to think creatively.
Mind mapping is an alternate strategy that some people engage both hemispheres of
the brain by utilising its powers of visualisation and association, enhancing both memory and
original thought.

Mind Mapping Definition

Using images, lines, and linkages, mind mapping is a technique for connecting
important ideas. Lines connect a fundamental thought to additional concepts, which are then
connected to other related ideas. The technique is comparable to concept mapping and spider
diagrams, with the exception that true mind mapping entails creating a hierarchy of concepts
as opposed to using purely random association.

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 The term "radiant thinking" is used in mind mapping to describe how ideas spread out
from a central idea, which is frequently represented by an image. Branches radiate outward
and inward from and towards the main notion.

Origin
Although Porphyry of Tyros employed comparable techniques to
conceptualise the ideas of Aristotle, Leonardo da Vinci, and Picasso, to mention a few, in the
third century, mind mapping is typically associated with the well-known psychologist Tony
Buzan. However, Tony Buzan contributed significantly to the popularisation and
schematization of mind maps in 1960s and 1970s.

How to Mind Map

 One key idea is frequently illustrated graphically via a picture.
 Radiating out from the primary idea or image are branches, each of which
contains a secondary idea that is a subset of the primary idea.
 Other branches that stand in for less significant ideas are connected to these main
branches.
 A nodal structure is created when the branches and centre picture come together.

A mind map has the following four essential qualities:

1. Choose your main topic or image.
2. The Basic Organising Ideas, which are the primary branches and are represented by
branches extending outward from the central notion, should be created as the foundation for
organising your ideas.
3. Put down the BOI-related terms on the lesser branches that are connected to the main
branch.
4. Review your mind map, sorting and numbering the branches as you go. Rewrite it if
necessary on a different sheet of paper.

Uses of Mind Maps

Mind maps can be used for a variety of purposes, including brainstorming,
resolving domestic disputes, conducting business, taking notes during lectures or readings,

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and organizing a whole season of television. However, the following will be most beneficial
to you as a student:
Keeping a journal of books and other secondary sources.
Writing down lecture notes.
Note-taking for essays or presentations.

Mind Mapping

3.4.4 Brain Storming

The practise of brainstorming is a popular way to come up with ideas. The moderator
may be the instructor present in the class. He explains the situation and asks the pupils for as
many possible answers to the issue. No matter how strange, foolish, unrealistic, impossible,
or unimportant an idea may seem, it is accepted without comment, and every new one is
instantly recorded. This will inspire pupils to think creatively and generate a wide range of
ideas. As the flow of ideas stop, conclude the session. In the end, all the ideas produced can
be examined thoroughly and the best ones can be accepted while the irrelevant ones could be
dropped.
This method of brainstorming typically places more emphasis on divergent than
convergent thinking. It offers circumstances that are left open-ended and does not demand a
single right response. Additionally, it stimulates curiosity, helps to stimulate the imagination,

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and stokes the drive to learn and explore. This creative thinking technique was suggested by
Alex Osborn.
Goals and Purpose of Brainstorming Technique
The main objectives of the brainstorming technique are to help us break out from our
habitual thought patterns and to generate a pool of ideas from which we can select.
The goal of brainstorming is to generate as many ideas as you can, regardless of their
quality, with the participation of as many students as you can. Even the most outrageous
ideas are accepted and recorded since quantity is much more essential. The most crucial
guideline is to put your judgement on hold. Students think flexibly.
Process of brainstorming
Set up the chairs so that everyone can see the blackboard on which the participants'
thoughts have been written in big letters and concise sentences. Give the pupils a brief
explanation of the problem, issue, or topic. One pupil should write the concepts down.
Without comment or criticism, accept all ideas. Review the concepts when they have all been
given, add or delete, classify, and then summarise.
Advantages of Brainstorming
1. Consolidates prior knowledge and enables participants to come up with ideas quickly
and impulsively.
2. improves critical and creative thinking abilities. increases communication abilities by
allowing one to speak succinctly in front of others.
3. helps to increase vocabulary. Students look for words to convey their thoughts.
4. increases their capacity for sentence construction. They speak clearly and in full
sentences.
5. excellent exposure to the language Everyone in the class agrees that it was a fantastic
chance to listen to others.
6. increases public speaking assurance.
7. It is possible to learn the skills of analysis, synthesis, consolidation, and conclusion.
8. promotes acceptance and a lack of judgement or criticism among all participants.
Techniques of Teaching Reference Skills
Reference Skills
They are sometimes referred to as gathering skills. The student can gather information
as soon as possible using these skills. For the purpose, they require two sub skills (a) locating
and (b) comprehending information.

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 The student must first identify the relevant source before obtaining the required
knowledge. In general, books, magazines, manuals, Indian, and catalogues are good sources
of knowledge. etc, In English, the major sources of information which most of the educated
people keep consulting are Dictionary, Thesaurus and Encyclopaedia.
Dictionary
Definition of Dictionary
The word ‘Dictionary’ is combination of two Words
Diction + Array that is
Diction means Printed Text whereas Array means order
i.e., text arranged in order, which is in alphabetical order.
Dictionaries are the most important of all the reference manuals and become an
important part of any learning process at any level. A dictionary is a book that lists and
explains the words of a language which are usually arranged in an alphabetical order. It tells
us how to spell and pronounce a word, and explains to us its meaning, grammar, usage etc..

Various Kinds of Dictionaries

Not all dictionaries impart the same knowledge to us. There are various sorts of
dictionaries for a range of purposes. You should select a certain type of dictionary based on
your requirements and the information you require.It is best for you to be aware of a few
popular dictionaries.While Random House Dictionary of the English Language gives
synonyms and antonyms, Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary lists, in detail, the grammar
and usage of a word. It occasionally adds a separate note on the usage of certain words which
are complex or difficult to use. The Shorter Oxford Dictionary of English gives the
etymology and formation of a word. The research scholars often use the enlarged edition of
the Oxford Dictionary which runs into many volumes. Besides, there are a number of basic
level and bilingual dictionaries.
There is a dictionary exclusively for pronunciation i.e., English Pronouncing
Dictionary compiled by Daniel Jones and Collins dictionary. In addition, we have the
Dictionary of Synonyms and Antonyms, subject-wise dictionaries for computers, medicine,
philosophy, psychology, the Visual Dictionary, Reverse Dictionary are some other kinds; and
give the specific information for which they are designed.

Referring to a Dictionary

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The greatest way to learn how to use a dictionary fast, efficiently, and conveniently is to
comprehend and adhere to some of the dictionary's methods. All reference books, including
dictionaries, use specific methods for quick and simple reference, such as alphabetical
arrangement and abbreviations. While not all dictionaries have all of these devices, others,
including abbreviation lists and key entries, are frequently seen. These methods aid in cutting
down on both the user's time and the book's page count. Let's examine the methods employed
by dictionaries.
Note: All the references and examples in this unit are from oxford Advanced Learner’s
Dictionary, Second Impression (1992).
Certain techniques adopted by the Dictionaries
Some of the techniques used by the Dictionaries are: using Alphabetical order, Guide
Words/Headwords, Introduction, and Key to Entries (at the beginning of a Dictionary),
detailed guide (at the end of a Dictionary) and Appendices. Of all the techniques, alphabetical
order is an important one which facilitates quick reference and is used in all kinds of
reference books besides the dictionary.

1) Alphabetical order
All reference books weigh a lot and have large print. All reference books and
dictionaries conform to the alphabetical sequence for ease of handling and rapid reference.
The English alphabet and its letters' arrangement must first be learned by a pupil before she
may use any dictionary.
The students should also be trained to refer to the 2nd3rd4th……..letters in the same
order
a,b,c,d,e,f,g,h,I,j,k,l,m,n,o,p,q,r,s,t,u,v,w,x,y,z
2) Guide words/headwords
A dictionary typically has two words in bold type (strong black text) at the top of each
page, one in the left corner and the other in the right. The first word on that page is the one on
the left. The last word on that page is the one to the right. These two words are referred to as
headwords or guide words.This arrangement indicates that one can see the words occurring
between those two Guide Words on that page:
For example: Here are 2 Guide Words: deal - death

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 It means the page contains every word that appears between "bargain" and "death."
Do you understand the difference between the words "debate" and "despot"? No, there is a lot
of text in between the two headwords. For verification, consult a dictionary.
3) Some abbreviations often used
Use of abbreviations is another device to promote quick reference and to reduce the
number of pages in a book. Each dictionary generally gives a list of abbreviations in the
introductory pages. Read them and get acquainted with them before you use a dictionary.
Study some of the Abbreviations given in the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary:
Abbreviations Full form Abbreviations Full form
Abr abbreviation conj conjunction
Adj adjective def Definite
Adv adverb det determine
Adv part adverbial particle esp especially
App appendix euph euphemistic
Approv approving aux auxiliary
you can find more abbreviations in dictionary
key to Entries
The Key to Entries section of almost all dictionaries provides a list of the words used in the
dictionary along with a thorough explanation of each one. Each "Headword" and the
associated symbols are highlighted in bold with a long arrow, and on the right side of the
page, detailed information is provided. The list of abbreviations and the key to entries
primarily vary in that the former simply expands the abbreviations used in the dictionary
while the latter provides additional information about a word.
For example, look at the word chat /tfæt/ n [c,u]* friendly informal conversation. I
had a long chat with her (about her job). O That's enough chat - get back to work usage at
Talk*2. -
(*1grammatical information about nouns) (*2reference to usage note where words with
similar meanings are compared.)
Chat v (-tt-)*3 1 [-I, IPr, IP] ~ (away)...

Multiple usages of Dictionaries

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Most of the good dictionaries give you
1. Spelling and Pronunciation 2. Grammar 3. Meaning 4. Usage

1. Spelling and Pronunciation

Dictionary entries include information about a word's spelling, pronunciation, and
syllable division. The alternative spelling, if there is one between the American and British
versions, is also included. Similar to this, the distinction between American and British
pronunciation is also provided. For example, see the word 'colour'. Colour (US color) is
given. It means that 'color' is the American spelling which is different from the British colour.
In Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary (here after referred as Oxford ALD), the
pronunciation of each word is given in slant lines. Some dictionaries give it in square
brackets. For example, the variation of American pronunciation to the word, 'contrast' is
shown as: /kontra:st; US.træst/

2. Grammar of a word
All dictionaries provide you with the grammar of a word, which enables you to
determine whether a word is a noun, verb, adverb, or adjective in addition to its spelling and
pronunciation. If a word is a noun, the dictionary gives the information related to a noun such
as whether it is a countable or uncountable noun, plural or a singular noun, so on and so forth.
If a word is a verb, it is indicated with the symbol, 'v' and tells you whether it is a transitive or
an intransitive verb and the preposition/adverbial particle to be followed and its various tense
forms - past and past participle forms etc.. Verb patterns and symbols are provided as a table
of contents at the conclusion of dictionaries. Such relevant details about a term's grammar
help the learner utilise the word correctly and successfully.
3. Meaning
Every student is aware that dictionaries provide definitions. They should be aware,
however, that a dictionary assigns a range of properties to the meanings of words by utilizing
terms like "formal," "informal," "figurative," "metaphor," "slang," "derogatory," "poetic,"
"archaic," etc. To choose the appropriate contextual meaning from a list of meanings
provided by the dictionary, one needs practice and proficiency. Young students typically
choose the first definition or any other definition out of the several that are provided on a
page. Here, the young learner needs direction and practice in order to master the reference
skill.For example, see the words - bitch and fuzz are marked (sl). It means that those words
are slang and have bad connotation and are not used in a polite society or on formal
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occasions. Some words like adieu are marked (arc). It indicates that a word is archaic if it was
once in use but is no longer. It implies that students are currently unable to use it. Thus, in
addition to a term's fundamental and literary meaning, the dictionary provides many
connotations and shades of meaning for each word.
4. Usage
Knowing how to spell, pronounce, use the grammar, or understand the meaning of a
word is not sufficient. Any term you use in writing should be able to be used accurately,
effectively, and in accordance with the situation. For this reason, dictionaries provide you
with more details, examples, and occasionally a "Note on Usage" for specific words. When
using a term, its meaning alone is insufficient.For example, take the word - agree. The
dictionary gives you agree to (sth)', 'agree with (sb)'. This extra information and the sentence
examples 'Is she going to agree to our suggestion?' Similarly, 'agree with (sb)' is illustrated in
a sentence example. For some words the dictionary gives you additional information like
'passive', 'idiomatic' or 'attributive.' Such extra information helps us to use the word
appropriately and effectively.
The dictionary provides you with thorough use notes for certain words together with
phrase examples under the heading "NOTE ON USAGE." The distinctions in usage between
the related nouns are explained in this note. Look up the words chat, show, and height.If you
master the skill of referring to a dictionary, it is something like keeping a teacher - who is, of
course, inanimate by your side.
In conclusion, a dictionary is one of the most essential reference books and
"unavoidable" (sine qua non) for you at any level in school, college, or university, as well as
when you enter the workforce. The only issue is that you have to switch between dictionaries
depending on your level and needs.To use a dictionary effectively, you should familiarise
yourself with the list of abbreviations, the key to entries, and any other pertinent information
published at the front or end of the dictionary before you begin using it.

Thesaurus
Thesaurus is another important Reference Manual a learner needs at an advanced
level. It shares something in common with a dictionary in adopting certain devices like the
alphabetical order and abbreviations. But, at the same time it differs from it in many
fundamental ways.
Meaning of Thesaurus

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 Thesaurus is a book containing a store of words, specifications, synonyms and
antonyms. It is different from a dictionary; and in fact, it is the opposite of it. A thesaurus
does not define a word or give you the meaning or usage of a word. It helps you to find
related words when we have the meaning of one of the words in our mind. A thesaurus and
dictionary have a complementary role. Both are necessary to the learner at an advanced level.
It is a compulsory asset to journalists and writers and poets.
Purpose of Thesaurus
Thesaurus is a treasure of related words. It gives you synonyms and antonyms,
category wise (noun/verb/adjective). When you have the vague meaning of a word in your
mind and struggle for the exact word, it helps you to get it. Thesaurus will show you how to
use the words according to their precise shades of meaning. Above all, it is a fitting tool to
enhance your repertoire of vocabulary which you can use effectively either in speech or in
writing.
Using a Thesaurus
As noted above, alphabetical order, headwords at the top of the page and
abbreviations for words like verb, noun and adjectives are all common devices adopted by the
thesaurus also. Besides these, we have to look into the introductory pages of thesaurus
wherein we find, 'How to Use this Thesaurus.' Thesaurus gives some words in small capitals
among the list of related words. The words in small capitals refer to another set of related
words and additional synonyms. At the end, you find 'Antonyms' or a reference to Antonyms.
This is an important use of a Thesaurus.
For example, see the entry for the word Education in Roget's Thesaurus:
Education
Teaching, schooling, tuition, tutoring, instruction, pedagogy, andragogy, coaching, training,
tutelage, drilling, preparation, guidance, indoctrination, inculcation, enlightenment,
edification
Cultivation, development, improvement, bettering, didactics, pedagogics, higher education,
higher learning, conditioning, cultivation, preparation, readying, development, direction,
guidance, nurturance, nurturing, edification, improvement.

Evildoing -Noun
Near Antonyms for Evildoing
decency, goodness, honesty, integrity, probity, rectitude, uprightness
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goodness, righteousness, virtuousness, good, morality, right, virtue
These words differ from each other in their meaning slightly, or sometimes widely. At
other times the words differ in their usage. When you select a particular word among the list
of related words and like to use it, you have to use a general dictionary to know the exact
meaning. Secondly, you might have noticed that all these related words are in categories such
as verbs, nouns and adjectives. For each category again you find a set of related words. At the
end you find a reference to Antonyms.

Encyclopaedia
Columbia Encyclopaedia etc. They are like treasure providing a lot of information on
a subject, person or topic for quick reference.
The Encyclopaedias are also searched for reference in the same way as the
dictionaries. Here, the volumes are in alphabetical order. For example, encyclopaedia
Britannica contains 24 volumes. The first volume provides information on any
subject/topic/person with the alphabets starting from "A to BAP". This is given on the cover
page itself (sideways). The next volume continues in the alphabetical order BAR to CAM and
so on. The last volume is the index volume which provides the information about any subject
in which volume number, the page and column where it is to be found..
For advanced learners, research students, and specialists who need in-depth study on
any subject, these encyclopaedias are more beneficial. The teacher should be aware of how to
direct students to this knowledge gem. In this age of ever expanding knowledge, it is essential
to teach students how to use encyclopaedias as early as possible in their academic careers.
Children's encyclopaedias and scientific encyclopaedias give pupils valuable knowledge.The
many volumes, indexes, abbreviations, alphabetical order, etc. must be taught to the students
so they can turn to them for detailed information on any ambiguous subject, person, or topic.
By referring to these educational books or information gems, they will be able to learn more
and more in their later years.

Bibliography

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 Bibliographies are lists of books or articles about a certain topic. An excellent
textbook or lengthy article will typically have a bibliography at the conclusion. The
bibliography directs the reader to more literature that provide more details on the topic.
The term "bibliography" originally referred to the transcription of books and is
derived from the Greek words "biblios" (book) and "grapho" (to write). The term was
modified to refer to writing about books in the 17th century. The main branches of the subject
are divided into two broad classes for comparison.
A list of books written by a specific author is also referred to as a bibliography. In the
front of books, this kind is frequently found. Greek terminology for bibliography refers to the
authoring or copying of books.
One type of bibliography of the present day describes books as well as listing them. It
tells what each book is about and how it is bound. If several editions have been printed, this
fact is noted. Book collectors often spend hours reading bibliographies that describe rare old
books and state their value.
The term used to describe the science, art, or most common by product of the art of
recording published material is bib-lie-ogre-fe. Bibliography, as a discipline, arranges the
body of knowledge that views books from all angles, whether as merely material things or as
carriers of ideas. The methods for gathering, gathering, organising, and presenting
information on books make up bibliography as an art. A bibliography is a methodical listing
of books with similar qualities for a specific purpose and is the typical output of the art.
The term 'books' includes not only books in the narrow sense but also book-like
objects, including pamphlets, periodicals, newspapers and the articles published in them,
manuscripts; maps; musical compositions; and even micro facsimiles of published material.
Bibliography, in its broadest sense, refers to all research on the material and
intellectual properties of books, to the extent that it advances knowledge of the development
of books, the status of particular works, or the connections between works. As a result,
studies of paper and parchment, bindings, xylography and typography, book illustrations, the
assembly of the pieces into volumes, and the details of authorship, printing, and distribution
are all pertinent to bibliography. Similar to this, bibliographies take note of the intellectual
content of books in order to categorise them according to subject matter rather than to
elaborate on or critique them.
3.6 Summary
This Unit has discussed in detail the following
 Selection and Grading of Vocabulary Items
 Techniques of Teaching Vocabulary and Vocabulary Games
 Techniques of Teaching Study Skills such as Note – Making and Note –
Taking, Mind Mapping and Brain – Storming
 Techniques of Teaching Reference Skills such as Dictionary, Thesaurus,
Encyclopaedia and Bibliographies

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3.7 Review Questions
1. Write the principles of section of vocabulary?
2. What the principles of gradation of vocabulary?
3. What do you mean by Active vocabulary?
4. Why is Passive vocabulary important?
5. How would you prepare an Active vocabulary?
6. What are the ways of expanding vocabulary?
7. What is expansion of vocabulary?
8. Write short notes on: (a) Function, and (b) content words.
9. What do you understand by Presentation and Practice Methods of vocabulary?
10. What is the use of dictionary?
11. What is the use of thesaurus?
12. Write the use of mind mapping?
13. Write the types of bibliography?
14. Writestudy skills and how note making help learners preparing classroom teaching
notes?
3.8 References
1. Dr.C.Grace Indira Pedagogy of English (2018) Sri Nagarjuna Publishers for Master Minds,
Guntur.
2. Dr.R.A.Sharma Sixth Edition (2012) Fundamentals of Teaching English, VinayRakheja
c/o R.Lall Book Depot. Meerut.
3. Dr.R.A.Sharma (2013) Teaching of English (Language and Literature Teaching)
VinayRakheja c/o R.Lall Book Depot. Meerut.
4. A.L.Kohli (1970) Techniques of Teaching English, DhanpatRai Publishing Company (P)
Ltd. New Delhi.
5. A.L.Kohli and L.M.Sharma (2000) Techniques of Teaching English in The New
Millennium, DhanpatRai Publishing Company (P) Ltd. New Delhi.
6. Dr.AnneVijaya Kumari.Ch, (2014) Methods of Teaching English, New Era Publications,
Guntur.
7. Dr.D. VasundharaDr.Katyayani R.K.; Editors: Prof. V.B.B. Sarma, Prof. D. Kanakadurga:
Reprint: 2011, B.Ed.: Methodology of Teaching English. Telugu Akademi Hyderabad

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8. Prof S. Mohanraj, Prof.JayashreeMohanraj, Dr. P. Bharathi, Dr. B.J. Sujani; Editor: Prof.
S. Mohanraj; First Edition: 2016, B.Ed : Pedagogy of English;Telugu Akademi Hyderabad.
Referredwebsiteshttps://www.emeraldgrouppublishing.com/how-to/study-skills/mind-map

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