A Transcript of the Lecture in Logarithmic Functions

Lecture Objectives:
The lecture seeks to impart some basic concepts on logarithms and its application to real-world situations.

Referenced Used:
Blitzer, R. (2018). College Algebra. 7th edition. United States of America: Pearson Education, Inc.
Lippman, D. and Rasmussen, M. (2014). Precalculus: An Investigation of Functions. San Francisco,
California: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0.

Stewart, J., Redlin, L., and Watson, S. (2016). College Algebra. United States of America: Cengage Learning.

Young, C. Y. (2013). Algebra and Trigonometry. 3rd edition. United States of America: John Wiley and Sons,
Inc.

On Radio Carbons. Taken from: https://www.radiocarbon.com/about-carbon-

dating.htm#:~:text=Radiocarbon%20dating%20is%20a%20method,that%20originated%20from%20li
ving%20organisms.&text=An%20age%20could%20be%20estimated,an%20internationally%20used%2
0reference%20standard.

Lecture 4.1
Logarithmic Functions

Introduction

In the previous lesson, recall that an exponential function is one-to-one, therefore, it must have an inverse
which is also a function. The inverse function of the exponential function is what we call logarithmic
functions.

Lesson Proper

Def. Logarithmic Function

For 𝑥 > 0, 𝑏 > 0, and 𝑏 ≠ 1, the logarithmic function with base 𝑏 is denoted by 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑏 (𝑥), where

log 𝑏 (𝑥) = 𝑦 if and only if 𝑏 𝑦 = 𝑥

Remark. The definition of a logarithm can be used to switch back and forth between the logarithmic form
and the exponential form. That is,

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 (𝑥) = 𝑦 ⟺ 𝑏 𝑦 = 𝑥

Example 4.1.2. Write each equation in equivalent exponential or logarithmic form.

a) log 2 (8) = 3 d) 16 = 24
1
b) log 9 (3) = 2 e) 9 = √81
1 f) 𝑥 𝑎 = 𝑧
c) log 5 (25) = −2
Answers to Example 4.1.2.
a) 23 = 8 d) log 2 (16) = 4
1 1
b) 9 = 3
2 e) log 81 (9) =
2
1
c) 5−2 = 25 f) log 𝑥 (𝑧) = 𝑎

Remark. It is imperative to understand that log 2 (8) is basically an exponent. This will help us in evaluating
logarithms without the need of a calculator.

Example 4.1.3. Find the exact values of the following logarithms:

a) log 3 (81) 1
c) log 5 (5)
b) log169 (13)
d) log 4 (256)

Answers to Example 4.1.3.

a) log 3 (81) = 4, because 34 = 81
1
1
b) log169 (13) = 2, because 1692 = 13
1 1
c) log 5 (5) = −1, because 5−1 = 5
d) log 4 (256) = 4, because 44 = 256

Example 4.1.4. Using a calculator, approximate the values of the following up to four (4) decimal places.
a) log 3 (10)
b) log 5 (37)
c) log 4 (100)

Answers to Example 4.1.4.

a) log 3 (10) ≈ 2.0959
b) log 5 (37) ≈ 2.2436
c) log 4 (100) ≈ 3.3219

Remark. If the base 𝑏 of the logarithmic function is 10, then we call it as the commom logarithmic function.
Its notation is written as “log”. On the other hand, the natural logarithmic function is a logarithmic function
that has the base 𝑒, its notation is written as “ln”. The actual illustration of the notation is shown below

log(𝑥) also means log10 (𝑥)

ln(𝑥) also means log 𝑒 (𝑥)

Remark. Since the inverse of an exponential function is the logarithmic function, the properties of the
logarithmic function can be derived through applying the inverse properties to the properties of the
exponential function. The properties are given below

Properties of the Logarithmic Functions of the form 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑏 (𝑥)

when 𝑏 > 1 when 0 < 𝑏 < 1

Domain {𝑥|𝑥 > 0} Domain {𝑥|𝑥 > 0}

 Range {𝑦|𝑦 ∈ ℝ} Range {𝑦|𝑦 ∈ ℝ}

𝑥-intercept (1,0) 𝑥-intercept (1,0)

𝑦-intercept none 𝑦-intercept none

1 1
Passes through (𝑏, 1) and ( , −1) Passess through (𝑏, 1) and ( , −1)
𝑏 𝑏

Asymptote 𝑥 = 0 or the 𝑦-axis Asymptote 𝑥 = 0 or 𝑦-axis

Basic Shape Increasing Basic Shape Decreasing

Example 4.1.5. Enumerate the properties and sketch the graph of the logarithmic functions below.
a) 𝑦 = log (𝑥)
b) 𝑦 = log 0.75 (𝑥)
c) 𝑦 = ln (𝑥)

Answer to Example 4.1.5

a) Since 𝑦 = log (𝑥) is of the form 𝑦 = log b (𝑥), then we know that it will have the following properties:

Domain: {𝑥|𝑥 > 0}

Range: {𝑦|𝑦 ∈ ℝ}
𝑥-intercept: (1,0)
1
Passes through (10,1) and (10 , −1)
Asymptote: 𝑦-axis or 𝑥 = 0 (or alternatively we say, as 𝑥 approaches 0 from the right, the function
approaches negative infinity.)
The graph is increasing.

Graph of 𝑦 = log (𝑥)

b) Domain: {𝑥|𝑥 > 0}
Range: {𝑦|𝑦 ∈ ℝ}
𝑥-intercept: (1,0)
Contains (0.75,1) and (1.33, −1)
Asymptote: 𝑦-axis or 𝑥 = 0
The function is decreasing

Graph of 𝑦 = log 0.75 (𝑥)

c) Domain: {𝑥|𝑥 > 0}

Range: {𝑦|𝑦 ∈ ℝ}
𝑥-intercept: (1,0)
1
Contains (𝑒, 1) and (𝑒 , −1)
Asymptote: y-axis or 𝑥 = 0
Increasing

Graph of 𝑦 = ln (𝑥) using Desmos

Remark. Recall that the domain of the logarithmic function following the form

𝑦 = log 𝑏 (𝑥)

is the set of real numbers greater than zero. In fact, in order for all logarithmic functions to be defined, the
values of 𝑥 that we should use must make the argument of the logarithm positive. Thus, the mechanical
way of finding the domain of a logarithmic function is to set the argument of the function to be greater than
zero. After that, we solve the resulting inequality. For example,

Example 4.1.6. Find the domain of each of the given logarithmic functions.
a) 𝑓(𝑥) = log 6 (𝑥 − 3)
b) 𝑝(𝑥) = ln (𝑥 − 5)
c) 𝑔(𝑥) = log169 (5 − 2𝑥)
d) 𝑟(𝑥) = log 3 (|𝑥 + 3|)

Solution to Example 4.1.6

a) Recall that the logarithm is only defined when we use values that makes the argument positive. And
so, we can solve for the domain of 𝑓(𝑥) by setting the argument 𝑥 − 3 to be greater than 0, then
we solve for 𝑥. Doing this we have

𝑥−3>0
𝑥>3

Therefore, dom 𝑓: {𝑥|𝑥 > 3}.

b) Using the same method of solving used previously, it is clear that dom 𝑝: {𝑥|𝑥 > 5}.

c) First we set 5 − 2𝑥 > 0, then we solve for the inequality

5 − 2𝑥 > 0
−2𝑥 > −5
−2𝑥 −5
<
−2 −2
5
𝑥<
2

(Note that the inequality is reversed when we multiply or divide a negative quantity to both sides
of the inequality)

5
which means to say that dom 𝑔: {𝑥|𝑥 < 2}.

d) The domain of 𝑟(𝑥) can be solved algebraically using the properties of the absolute value and the
techniques for solving inequalities. However, it is not difficult to see that there is no real number
value that will will make the argument negative; also it is only the value negative three (−3) that
makes the argument equal to zero. And so, dom 𝑟: {𝑥|𝑥 ∈ ℝ except − 3}.

Example 4.1.7. Find the value of 𝑏 so that 𝑚(𝑥) = log 𝑏 (𝑥) passes through the point (2,2).

Solution to Example 4.1.7.

Since the function passes through (2,2), 𝑚(𝑥) = 2 and 𝑥 = 2. In this regard, we can form the equation,

2 = log 𝑏 (2)
𝑏2 = 2
𝑏 = √2
𝑏 ≈ 1.41

Remark. Many naturally occuring phenomena are modeled by logarithmic functions. Some of them are the
magnitude of an earthquake, intensity of sound, and carbon dating.

Earthquake Magnitude on the Richter Scale

Def. Magnitude of an Earthquake

The magnitude 𝑅 of an earthquake is given by

2 𝐸
𝑅= ∙ log ( 4.40 )
3 10

where 𝐸 (in joules) is seismic energy released by an earthquake. The quantity 104.40 is the energy
released by a reference earthquake.

Example 4.1.8. The 1990 Luzon earthquake (infamously known as the 1990 killer earthquake) happened
on July 16, 1990. Its epicenter was located at Cabanatuan City, Nueva Ecija. The 1990 killer earthquake
lasted for about a minute, and according to experts, it released 4 × 1015 joules of energy. Juancho Ibarra,
a resident of Cabanatuan City, recalls the event as he said:

“Dust, smoke, and silence shrouded the place immediately after the earthquake hit us. When the dust
cleared, a dreadful sight was revealed---towering structures turned to rubbles; vehichles collided
everywhere; and hundreds of people (who are seemingly dead) are lying on the ground…”

He added:

“Despite the horrific sight, I still count the Cabatueños lucky. In Baguio City, thousands of people were
buried alive during the catastrophic event and nearly 70% of the establishment were destroyed. People
slept on the streets because of the fear of possible aftershocks.”

Question: Given the energy released, what was the magnitude of the 1990 earthquake?

Solution to example 4.1.8

To solve for the magnitude, substitute the value of 𝐸 on the formula and simplify.

2 𝐸 2 4 × 1015
𝑅= ∙ log (104.40 ) = 3 ∙ log ( ) = 7.47
3 104.40

Thus, the 1990 earthquake in Cabanatuan City measured 7.47 on the Richter scale.

(Best to look at the richter scale when to make sense of this answer)
Example 4.1.9. On October 17, 1989, just moments before Game 3 of the World Series between the Oakland
A’s and the San Francisco Giants was about to start-with 60,000 fans in Candlestick Park-a devastating
earthquake erupted. Parts of interstates and bridges collapsed, and President George H. W. Bush declared
the area a disaster zone. The earthquake released approximately 1.12 x 1015 joules of energy. Calculate
the magnitude of the earthquake using the Richter scale.

Solution to Example 4.1.9

2 1.12 x 1015
Clearly, 𝑅 = 3 ∙ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( ) = 7.1 magnitude
104.40

Example 4.1.10. On September 25, 2003, an earthquake that measured 7.4 on the Richter scale shook
Hokkaido, Japan. How much energy (joules) did the earthquake emit?

Solution to Example 4.1.10

To solve for the energy emitted by the earthquake, we solve the equation

2 𝐸
7.4 = log ( 4.40 )
3 10
111 𝐸
= log ( 4.40 )
10 10
111 𝐸
10 10 = ( 4.40 )
10
111
𝐸 = (10 10 ) (104.40 )
𝐸 = 3.16 × 1015 joules

Sound Intensity

Def. Decibel Level of a Sound

The decibel (dB) level of a sound is defined by the formula

𝐼
𝐷 = 10 ∙ log ( )
10−12

where 𝐷 is the decibel level (dB); 𝐼 is the sound intensity measured in watts per square meter. The
constant 10−12 is the intensity threshold of the least audible sound a human can hear (in watts per meter
squared).

Remark.

Sound Source Sound Intensity Decibels

Noisy Classmate 10−6 60
iPod 10−2 100
Threshold of Pain 104 160 dB

Example 4.1.11. Kiss’ open concerts are notoriously known for having a high overall sound intensity.
Calculate the approximate decibel associated with the threshold of hearing given that the sound intensity
of their concerts, on the average, measures 𝐼 = 1 × 101 watts per meter squared.
Solution to Example 4.1.11.
To solve for 𝐷, we do the following:

𝐼
Given the formula for the decibel level 𝐷 = 10 ∙ log (10−12 )

1×101
Substitute 𝐼 = 1 × 101 in the formula 𝐷 = 10 ∙ log ( 10−12 )

Simplify 𝐷 = 10 ∙ log(1 × 1013 )

Evaluate 𝑙𝑜𝑔(1010 ). (𝑙𝑜𝑔(1010 ) = 10) 𝐷 = 10 ∙ 13

𝐷 = 130 dB

Carbon Dating

Radiocarbon dating is a method that provides objective age estimates for carbon-based materials that
originated from living organisms. An age could be estimated by measuring the amount of Carbon-14
present in the sample and comparing this against an internationally used reference standard.

In living organic material, the ratio of the number of radioactive carbon isotopes (Carbon 14) to the number
of nonradioactive carbon isotopes (Carbon 12) is about 1 to 1012. When organic material dies, its carbon
12 content remains fixed, whereas its radioactive carbon 14 begins to decay with a half-life of about 5700
years. To estimate the age of dead organic material, scientists use the following formula which denotes the
ratio of carbon 14 to carbon 12 present at any time 𝑡 (in years).

Def. Ratio of Carbon 14 to Carbon 12

The Ratio of Carbon 14 to Carbon 12 is defined by the formula

1 −𝑡
𝑅= 12
𝑒 8223
10

Where 𝑅 is the ratio of Carbon 14 to Carbon 12; 𝑡 is the time in years.

Example 4.1.12. Estimate the age of a newly discovered fossil for which the ratio of carbon 14 to carbon
1
12 is 𝑅 = 1013 .

Solution to Example 4.1.12.

To solve for 𝑅, we solve the following equation

1 −𝑡
𝑅= 12
𝑒 8223
10
 1 1 −𝑡
13
= 12 𝑒 8223
10 10

Next, we use a graphing utility to graph the formula for the ratio of carbon 14 to carbon 12 at any time 𝑡.
−𝑥
1 1
And so, let 𝑡 = 𝑥 , we put the following equations into a graphing utility: 𝑦1 = 1012 𝑒 8223 , and 𝑦2 = 1013 .

The abscissa of the intersection of the two graphs is the solution to the given equation. Based on the graph,
the estimated value is 18,934. So, to the nearest thousand years, the age of the fossil is about 19,000 years.

Supplementary Exercises

The following exercises (Parts I-V) are taken from the e-Book:

Part I. True or False

a) The function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔0.1 𝑥 is a logarithmic function.
b) The domain of 𝑔(𝑥) = log(𝑥 − ) is {𝑥|𝑥 > }
c) The vertical asymptote of ℎ(𝑥) = ln(−𝑥) is the line 𝑦 = −1.
d) The graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔4 𝑥 and 𝑘(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔4 (𝑥 + 3) have the same range.
e) The equation 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑥 = 0 has NO solution.

Part II. Solve for 𝑘.

a) log 2 (𝑘) = 6
b) 2log 1 (25) = 𝑘
5
c) log(100) = 𝑘 + 5
1
d) log 𝑘 (49) = −2
e) ln(3𝑘 − 4) = 7

Part III. Convert the following from exponential to logarithmic form, and vice versa.
a) 43 = 64
b) 90 = 1
c) log 8 (512) = 3
d) log(0.0001) = −4
1
e) log 5 (125) = −3
Part IV. Solve for each of the following problems completely.
a) If 𝑓(𝑥) = log(𝑥), then what is 𝑓(1,000)?
b) Evaluate log 2 (log 3 (6,561)) without a calculator.
c) Which is greater: ln(log 10) or log(ln (𝑒)) without a calculator. Justify your answer.
1
d) Evaluate (log 4 16)log636 without a calculator.

Part V. Find the domain of the following functions:

a) 𝐹(𝑥) = log 𝑥 (𝑥 − 6)
b) 𝐻(𝑥) = ln (2𝑥 − 5)
c) 𝐺(𝑥) = log 4 (𝑥 + 7)
d) 𝐼(𝑥) = − log(3𝑥 + 4) − 2

Part VI. Answer the following word problems. Provide a complete solution.

a) During the Good Friday in 1964, one of the most severe North American earthquakes ever recorded
struck Alaska. The energy released measured 1.41 × 1017 joules. Calculate the magnitude of the
1964 Alaska earthquake using the Richter scale.

𝐼
b) The decibel level of sound is given by 𝐷 = 10 log (10−12 ) , where 𝐼 is the sound intensity measured
in watts per square meter. What is the intensity of a sound which has level reading of 45 decibels?

- End of the Lecture Transcript -