Ch 02 Cooling and Heating Load Estimation

•●Cooling Load Estimation

The selection of heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) system

components and equipment should always be based on an accurate
determination of the building heating and cooling loads.

During this period we will estimate the cooling loads for a single space in a
single-story office building. In Period Four we will estimate the heating loads
for this same space. As stated in the preface, this clinic is intended to
introduce the concepts of estimating building cooling and heating loads and is
not intended to cover all of the details. The Cooling Load Temperature
Difference/Solar Cooling Load/Cooling Load Factor (CLTD/SCL/CLF) load
estimation method *, used throughout Period Two, is a simplified hand
calculation procedure developed long ago by ASHRAE. Because of its
simplicity, it is the most common method used for basic instruction on
.estimating cooling loads

•●Cooling Load Components

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 Ch 02 Cooling and Heating Load Estimation

The space cooling load is the rate at which heat must be removed from a space in
order to maintain the desired conditions in the space, generally a dry-bulb
temperature and relative humidity. The cooling load for a space can be made up of
many components, including:
• Conduction heat gain from outdoors through the roof, exterior walls, skylights, and
windows. (This includes the effects of the sun shining on these exterior surfaces.)
• Solar radiation heat gain through skylights and windows.
• Conduction heat gain from adjoining spaces through the ceiling, interior partition
walls, and floor.
• Internal heat gains due to people, lights, appliances, and equipment in the space.
• Heat gain due to hot, humid air infiltrating into the space from outdoors through
doors, windows, and small cracks in the building envelope.

In addition, the cooling coil in the building HVAC system has to handle other
components of the total building cooling load, including
• Heat gain due to outdoor air deliberately brought into the building for ventilation
purposes.
• Heat generated by the fans in the system and possibly other heat gains in the
system.
Throughout this period, we will assume that the space has no plenum (the space
between the ceiling
and roof). Therefore, all of the heat gain due to the roof and lighting affects the space
directly.

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 Ch 02 Cooling and Heating Load Estimation

These load components contribute sensible and/or latent heat to the space.
Conduction through the roof, exterior walls, windows, skylights, ceiling, interior
walls, and floor, as well as the solar radiation through the windows and
skylights, all contribute only sensible heat to the space.

The people inside the space contribute both sensible and latent heat. Lighting
contributes only sensible heat to the space, while equipment in the space may
contribute only sensible heat (as is the case for a computer) or both sensible
and latent heat (as is the case for a coffee maker). Infiltration generally
contributes both sensible and latent heat to the space.

The cooling coil has to handle the additional components of ventilation and
system heat gains. Ventilation contributes both sensible and latent heat to the
coil load. Other heat gains that occur in the HVAC system (from the fan, for
example) generally contribute only sensible heat.

One of the more difficult aspects of estimating the maximum cooling load for a
space is determining the time at which this maximum load will occur. This is
because the individual components that make up the space cooling load often
peak at different times of the day, or even different months of the year.

For example, the heat gain through the roof will be highest in the late
afternoon, when it is warm outside and the sun has been shining on it all day.
Conversely, the heat gain due to the sun shining through an east-facing
window will be highest in the early morning when the sun is rising in the east
and shining directly into the window.

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 Ch 02 Cooling and Heating Load Estimation

Outdoor Design Conditions

In this step we will estimate the cooling load of a space is to determine the highest,
frequently-occurring outdoor air temperature. In the summer, for example, when the
temperature outside is high, heat transfers from outdoors to indoors, thus contributing
to the heat gain of the space

Obviously, HVAC systems would be greatly oversized if cooling load calculations

were based on the most extreme outdoor temperature ever recorded for the location.
Instead, outdoor design temperatures are based on their frequency of occurrence.
Design outdoor conditions for many locations can be found in the ASHRAE
Handbook—Fundamentals.

Loads calculations

A)-External loads:

A-1)- Heat Conduction through Surfaces:

Conduction is the process of transferring heat through a solid, such as a wall,

roof, floor, ceiling, window, or skylight. Heat naturally flows by conduction from
a higher temperature to a lower temperature. Generally, when estimating the
maximum cooling load for a space, the temperature of the air outdoors is
higher than the temperature of the air indoors

We will focus on the most common conduction heat gains to a space: through
the roof, external walls, and windows.

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 Ch 02 Cooling and Heating Load Estimation

Conduction through a Shaded Wall

Q=U× A× ΔT
Although often not applicable, a simplifying assumption when estimating the
conduction heat gain through an exterior surface is to assume that the surface
is completely shaded at all times. With this assumption, the amount of heat
transferred through the surface is a direct result of the temperature difference
between the space and outdoors. This assumption however, does not include
the additional heat transfer that occurs because of the sun shining on the
surface. This will be discussed next

The amount of heat transferred through a shaded exterior surface depends on

the area of the surface, the overall heat transfer coefficient of the surface, and
the dry-bulb temperature difference from one side of the surface to the other.
The equation used to predict the heat gain by conduction is:

Q = U x A x ΔT
where,
• Q = heat gain by conduction, Btu/hr [W]
• U = overall heat-transfer coefficient of the surface, Btu/hr•ft 2•°F [W/m2•° K]
• A = area of the surface, ft2 [m2]
• ΔT = dry-bulb temperature difference across the surface, ºF [°C]
In the case of a shaded exterior surface, this temperature difference is the
design outdoor dry-bulb temperature (T o) minus the desired indoor dry-bulb
temperature (Ti).

The overall heat transfer coefficient is also called the U-factor. The U-factor
describes the rate at which heat will be transferred through the structure

Walls and roofs are typically made up of layers of several materials. The U-
factor for a specific wall or roof is calculated by summing the thermal
resistances (R-values) of each of these layers and then taking the inverse.
The ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals tabulates
* the thermal resistance of many common materials used in constructing
walls, roofs, ceilings, and floors.

A-2)- Sunlit Surfaces:

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 Ch 02 Cooling and Heating Load Estimation

Most exterior surfaces of a building, however, are exposed to direct sunlight

during some portion of the day. Solar heat energy is generated by the sun and
radiated to earth. Radiant heat is similar to light, in that it travels in a straight
line and can be reflected from a bright surface. Both light and radiant heat can
pass through a transparent surface (such as glass), yet neither can pass
directly through an opaque or non-transparent surface (such as a brick wall).
When the sun’s rays strike an opaque surface, however, a certain amount of
radiant heat energy is transferred to that surface, resulting in an increase in
the surface temperature. The amount of heat transferred depends primarily on
the color and smoothness of the surface, and the angle at which the sun’s
rays strike the surface.

When the sun’s rays strike the surface at a 90º angle, the maximum amount
of radiant heat energy is transferred to that surface. When the same rays
strike that same surface at a lesser angle, less radiant heat energy is
transferred to the surface. The angle at which the sun’s rays strike a surface
depends upon the latitude, the time of day, and the month of the year. Due to
the rotation of the earth throughout the day, and the earth orbiting the sun
throughout the year, the angle at which the sun’s rays strike a surface of a
building is constantly changing. This varies the intensity of the solar radiation
on an exterior surface of a building, resulting in a varying amount of solar heat
transferred to the surface throughout the day and throughout the year.

As mentioned previously, the assumption that the surface is completely

shaded does not account for the additional heat gain that occurs when the

sun shines on a surface. Solar heat, therefore, must be considered, as it

constitutes an important part of the total cooling load of most buildings.

The walls and roof that make up a building’s envelope have the capacity to
store heat energy. This property delays the heat transfer from outdoors to the
space. The time required for heat to be transferred through a structure into the
space is called the time lag.

Conduction through Sunlit Surfaces

Q = U × A × CLTD
A factor called the cooling load temperature difference (CLTD) is used to
account for the added heat transfer due to the sun shining on exterior walls,
roofs, and windows, and the capacity of the wall and roof to store heat. The
CLTD is substituted for ΔT in the equation to estimate heat transfer by
conduction

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 Ch 02 Cooling and Heating Load Estimation

This particular table * includes CLTD factors for facing wall

Tables for various wall and roof types, as well as correction factors for applications
that differ from these assumptions, can be found in the 1997 ASHRAE Handbook—
Fundamentals and ASHRAE’s Cooling and Heating Load Calculation Principles
manual.

Notice that the CLTD increases later in the day, and then begins to decrease in the
evening as the stored heat is finally transferred from the wall into the space.

Estimating the heat gain by conduction through a window is very similar to

walls and roofs.

•●Solar Radiation through Glass

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 Ch 02 Cooling and Heating Load Estimation

Previously, we estimated the heat transferred through glass windows by the

process of conduction. A large part of the solar heat energy that shines on a
window or skylight is radiated through the glass and transmitted directly into
the space. The amount of solar heat radiated through the glass depends
primarily on the reflective characteristics of the glass and the angle at which
the sun’s rays strike the surface of the glass.

While glass windows of double- or triple-pane construction do an excellent job

of reducing heat transfer by conduction, they do not appreciably reduce the
amount of solar directly into a space. To limit the amount of solar radiation
entering the space, heat-absorbing glass, reflective glass, or internal or
external shading devices can be used.

Solar Radiation through Glass

Q = A × SC × SCL
Although the 1997 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals contains new, more
advanced methods of estimating solar heat gain through glass, they are
beyond the scope of this clinic.

The equation used to predict the solar heat gain through glass is:

Q = A x SC x SCL

where,
• Q = heat gain by solar radiation through glass, Btu/hr [W]
• A = total surface area of the glass, ft2 [m2]
• SC = shading coefficient of the window, dimensionless
• SCL = solar cooling load factor, Btu/hr•ft2 [W/m2]

•●Solar Cooling Load Factor depends on:

􀂌 Directionthat the window faces

􀂌 Time of day
􀂌 Month
􀂌 Latitude
􀂌 Construction of interior partition walls
􀂌 Type of floor covering
􀂌 Existence of internal shading devices

The solar cooling load (SCL) factor is used to estimate the rate at which
solar heat energy radiates directly into the space, heats up the surfaces and

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 Ch 02 Cooling and Heating Load Estimation

furnishings, and is later released to the space as a sensible heat gain. Similar
to CLTD, the SCL factor is used to account for the capacity of the space to
absorb and store heat.

The value of SCL is based on several variables, including the direction that
the window is facing, time of day, month, and latitude. These four variables
define the angle at which the sun’s rays strike the surface of the window. The
next two variables, the construction of the interior partition walls and the type
of floor covering, help define the capacity of the space to store heat. This
affects the time lag between the time that the solar radiation warms up the
space furnishings and the time that the heat is released into the space. The
last variable, whether or not internal shading devices are installed, affects the
amount of solar heat energy passing through the glass.

The 1997 ASHRAE Handbook—Fundamentals contains tables of SCL values

for common space types, based on combinations of these variables. Table 7
[Table 8] * is an excerpt from the handbook and includes SCL factors.

Shading Coefficient:
The shading coefficient (SC) is an expression used to define how much of
the radiant solar energy, that strikes the outer surface of the window, is
actually transmitted through the window and into the space. The shading
coefficient for a particular window is determined by comparing its reflective
properties to a standard reference window. The table on this slide includes
shading coefficients for common window systems. When the value for the
shading coefficient decreases, more of the sun’s rays are reflected by the
outer surface of the glass

A-3)-Shading Devices:

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 Ch 02 Cooling and Heating Load Estimation

Installing internal shading devices, such as venetian blinds, curtains, or

drapes, can reduce the amount of solar heat energy passing through a
window. The effectiveness of these shading devices depends on their ability
to reflect the incoming solar radiation back through the window, before it is
converted into heat inside the space. Light-colored blinds or drapes lined with
light-colored materials, therefore, are more effective than dark-colored
shading devices. The type of internal shading device used affects the shading
coefficient of thev
External shading devices, such as overhangs, vertical fins, or awnings, can
also reduce the amount of solar heat energy passing through a window. They
can be used to reduce the area of the glass surface that is actually impacted
by the sun’s rays.

B)-Internal loads:

The next component of the space cooling load is the heat that originates
within the space. Typical sources of internal heat gain are people, lights,
cooking processes, and other heatgenerating equipment, such as motors,
appliances, and office equipment.

While all of these sources contribute sensible heat to the space, people,
cooking processes, and some appliances (such as a coffee maker) also
contribute latent heat to the space.

.
B-1)-Heat Generated by People:

As mentioned in Period One, people generate more heat than is needed to

maintain body temperature. This surplus heat is dissipated to the surrounding
air in the form of sensible and latent heat. The amount of heat released by the
body varies with age, physical size, gender, type of clothing, and level of
physical activity. This table * is an excerpt from the1997 ASHRAE Handbook
—Fundamentals. It includes typical sensible and latent heat gains
per person, based on the level of physical activity. The heat gains are
adjusted to account for the normal percentages of men, women, and children
in each type of space.

The equations used to predict the sensible and latent heat gains from people
in the space are:
QS = number of people x sensible heat gain/person x CLF
QL = number of people x latent heat gain/person

Similar to the use of the CLTD for conduction heat gain and SCL for solar heat gain,
the cooling load factor (CLF) is used to account for the capacity of the space to

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 Ch 02 Cooling and Heating Load Estimation

absorb and store heat. Some of the sensible heat generated by people is absorbed
and stored by the walls, floor, ceiling, and furnishings of the space, and released at a
later time. Similar to heat transfer by conduction through an external wall, the space
can therefore experience a time lag between the time that the sensible heat is
originally generated and the time that it actually contributes to the space cooling load.
For heat gain from people, the value of CLF depends on 1) the construction of the
interior partition walls in the space, 2) the type of floor covering, 3) the total number
of hours that the space is occupied and 4) the number of hours since the people
entered the space.

Figure37, * CLF Factors for People, is an excerpt from the 1997 ASHRAE Handbook
— Fundamentals. It shows that one hour after people enter the space, 35% (1 –
0.65) of the sensible Fundamentals. It shows that one hour after people enter the
space, 35% (1 – 0.65) of the sensible actual cooling load in the space. Following the
table to the right, however, you see that, as the longer absorb as much heat, and
they release the heat that was absorbed earlier in the day. For example, if the people
enter the space at 8 a.m. and remain for a total of 8 hours, at 2 p.m. (6 hours after
entering) 91% of the sensible heat gain from the people is seen as a cooling load in
the space. Only 9% is absorbed by the surfaces and furnishings of the space.
If the space is not maintained at a constant temperature during the 24-hour period,
however, the CLF is assumed to equal 1.0. Most air-conditioning systems designed
for non-residential buildings either shut the system off at night or raise the
temperature set point to reduce energy use. Thus, it is uncommon to use a CLF other
than 1.0 for the cooling load due to people.

B-2)- Heat Gain from Lighting :

Heat generated by lights in the space is a significant contribution to the
cooling load. Fo example, a 120-watt light fixture generates 410 Btu/hr [120
W] of heat–approximately thesame amount of heat gain from an average
office worker.
Additionally, when estimating the heat gain generated by fluorescent lights,
approximately 20% is added to the lighting heat gain to account for the
additional heat generated by the ballast.

The equation used to estimate the heat gain from lighting is:
Q = watts x ballast factor x CLF

Similar to the sensible heat gain from people, a cooling load factor (CLF) can
be used toaccount for the capacity of the space to absorb and store the heat

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 Ch 02 Cooling and Heating Load Estimation

generated by the lights. If the lights are left on 24 hours a day, or if the air-
conditioning system is shut off or set back at night, the CLF is assumed to be
equal to 1.0.

B-4 )- Heat Generated by Equipment :

There are many types of appliances and equipment in restaurants, schools,

office buildings ,types of buildings. This equipment may generate a significant
amount of heat and should be accounted for when estimating the space
cooling load.
The data on this slide * is an excerpt from the 1997 ASHRAE Handbook—
Fundamentals. The handbook contains tables of sensible and latent heat
gains from various types of office and restaurant equipment, although data for
the actual piece of equipment is preferred, if available.

Similar to the sensible heat gain from people and lighting, tables of cooling
load factors (CLF) can be used to refine this estimate. If the equipment is left
on 24 hours a day, or if the air-conditioning system is shut off or set back at
night, the CLF is assumed to be equal to 1.0. In our example, the CLF is 1.0
because the space temperature set point is increased at night.

B-5 )- Infiltration:

In a typical building, air leaks into or out of a space through doors, windows,
and small cracks in the building envelope. Air leaking into a space is called
infiltration. During the cooling season, when air leaks into a conditioned
space from outdoors, it can contribute to both the sensible and latent heat
gain in the space because the outdoor air is typically warmer and more humid
than the indoor air.

Methods of Estimating Infiltration

􀂌 Air change method
􀂌 Crack method
􀂌 Effective leakage-area method

The air change method is the easiest, but may be the least accurate of these
methods. It involves estimating the number of air changes per hour that can
be expected in spaces of a certain construction quality. Using this method, the
quantity of infiltration air is estimated using the equation:
infiltration airflow = (volume of space x air change rate) ÷ 60

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 Ch 02 Cooling and Heating Load Estimation

The crack method is a little more complex and is based upon the average
quantity of air known to enter through cracks around windows and doors when
the wind velocity isconstant. The effective leakage-area method takes wind
speed, shielding, and “stack effect” into account, and requires a very detailed
calculation.

Heat Gain from Infiltration:

[Qsensible = 1,210 × airflow × ΔT ]

[ Qlatent = 3,010 × airflow × ΔW]

C-)- Example Office Space (Room 101):

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 Ch 02 Cooling and Heating Load Estimation

Room 101 is the space that we will use as an example throughout this clinic.
The windows face west and the solar heat gain through these windows will
peak in the late afternoon when the sun is setting and shining directly into the
windows. Because of this, we will assume that the maximum cooling load for
our example space occurs at 4 p.m.

For this example, the following criteria will be used as a basis for estimating
the space cooling and heating loads.

• Open-plan office space located in a single-story office building in St. Louis,

Missouri.
• Floor area = 45 ft x 60 ft [13.7 m x 18.3 m].
• Floor-to-ceiling height = 12 ft [3.7 m] (no plenum between the space and
roof).
• Desired indoor conditions = 78ºF [25.6ºC] dry-bulb temperature, 50% relative
humidity during cooling season; 72ºF [22.2ºC] dry-bulb temperature during
heating season.
• West-facing wall, 12 ft high x 45 ft long [3.7 m x 13.7 m], constructed of 8 in.
[203.2 mm] lightweight concrete block with aluminum siding on the outside,
3.5 in. [88.9 mm] of insulation, and ½ in. [12.7 mm] gypsum board on the
inside.
• Eight clear, double-pane (¼ in. [6.4 mm]) windows mounted in aluminum
frames. Each window is 4 ft wide x5ft high [1.2 m x 1.5 m].
• Flat, 45 ft x 60 ft [13.7 m x 18.3 m] roof constructed of 4 in. [100 mm]
concrete with 3.5 in. [90 mm] insulation and steel decking.
• Space is occupied from 8:00 a.m. until 5:00 p.m. by 18 people doing
moderately active work.
• Fluorescent lighting in space = 2 W/ft2 [21.5 W/m2].
• Computers and office equipment in space = 0.5 W/ft 2 [5.4 W/m2], plus one
coffee maker.
In order to simplify this example, we will assume that, with the exception of
the west-facing exterior wall, room101 is surrounded by spaces that are air
conditioned to the same temperature as this space.

Solution

Conduction through walls:

Q=U x A x ΔT

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 Ch 02 Cooling and Heating Load Estimation

For wall:

For roof :

Qwall = 0.33 × 36.3 × (35 – 25.6) = 113 W

Qroof = 0.323 × 250.7 × 44 = 3,563 W

Conduction through Sunlit Surfaces:

Q = U × A × CLTD

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 Ch 02 Cooling and Heating Load Estimation

This particular table * includes CLTD factors for a west-facing wall similar to
the type used in our example building. It should be noted that the data in this
table are based on the following assumptions:

• 78ºF [25.6ºC] indoor air

• 95ºF [35ºC] maximum outdoor air
• Average outdoor daily temperature range of 21ºF [11.7ºC]
• 21st day of July
• 40º north latitude
• Dark-colored surface

The wall in our example is classified as Wall Type 9. At 4 p.m. (Hour 17 in this
table), the CLTD for a west-facing wall of this type is 22ºF [12°C]. This means
that, even though the actual dry-bulb temperature difference is only 17ºF
(95ºF – 78ºF) [9.4ºC (35ºC – 25.6ºC)], the sun shining on the outer surface of
this wall increases the “effective temperature difference” to 22ºF [12°C].

• U-factor = 0.63 Btu/hr•ft2•°F [3.56 W/m2•°K]

• Total area of glass = 8 windows x (4 ft x 5 ft) = 160 ft2 [8 x (1.2 m x 1.5 m) =
14.4 m2]
• CLTDhour=17 = 13ºF [7°C]

Qwindows = 3.56 × 14.4 × 7 = 359 W

Solar Radiation through Glass:

Q = A × SC × SCL
The space in our example is classified as Space Type A. The data in this
table is based on the 21st day of July and 40º north latitude. At Hour 17, the
SCL for the west-facing windows in our example space is 192 Btu/hr•ft2 [605
W/m2]

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 Ch 02 Cooling and Heating Load Estimation

Solar radiation heat gain through the windows on the west-facing wall:
• Total area of glass = 8 windows x (4 ft x 5 ft) = 160 ft2 [8 x (1.2 m x 1.5 m) =
14.4 m2]
• SC = 0.74
• SCLhour=17 = 192 Btu/hr•ft2 [605 W/m2]

Qwindows = 14.4 × 0.74 × 605 = 6,447 W

Heat Generated by People:

QS = number of people x sensible heat gain/person x CLF

QL = number of people x latent heat gain/person

Internal heat gain from people:

• Number of people = 18
• Sensible heat gain/person = 250 Btu/hr [75 W]

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 Ch 02 Cooling and Heating Load Estimation

• Latent heat gain/person = 200 Btu/hr [55 W]

• CLF = 1.0 (because the space temperature set point is increased at night)

QS = 18 people x 75 W per person x 1.0 = 1,350 W

QL = 18 people x 55 W per person = 990 W

Heat Gain from Lighting:

Q = watts × ballast factor × CLF

Internal heat gain from lighting:
• Amount of lighting in space = 2 W/ft2 [21.5 W/m2]
• Floor area = 45 ft x 60 ft = 2,700 ft2 [13.7 m x 18.3 m = 250.7 m2]
• Total lighting energy = 2 W/ft2 x 2,700 ft2 = 5,400 W [21.5 W/m2 x 250.7 m2
= 5,400 W ]
• Ballast factor = 1.2 (fluorescent lights)
• CLF = 1.0 (because the space temperature set point is increased at night)

Q = 5,400 x 1.2 x 1.0 = 6,480 W

Heat Generated by Equipment:

Using this table, we estimate that the coffee maker contributes 3,580 Btu/hr
[1,050 W] of sensible heat and 1,540 Btu/hr [450 W] of latent heat to our
example space. Additionally, we are told that there are 0.5 W/ft 2 [5.4 W/m2] of
computers and other office equipment in the space (floor area = 2,700 ft 2
[250.7 m2]).
Therefore, the internal heat gain from computers and office equipment:

Sensible heat gain = 5.4 W/m2 x 250.7 m2 = 1,354 W

*With neglect the effect of infiltration load

Summary of Space Cooling Loads:

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Ch 02 Cooling and Heating Load Estimation

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