➢ OUTCROP CONFIDENCE

- Outcrop confidence is the relative

measure of the predictability or
homogeneity of the structural domain
and the lithology of the rock unit from
one exposure to another or to the
proposed site of investigation.
➢ THREE LEVELS OF OUTCROP
CONFIDENCE
1. High-rock units are massive and
homogenous, and are vertically and
laterally extensive. Site geology has a
➢ WHAT IS AN OUTCROP? history of low tectonic activity.

➢ An outcrop is simply defined as an 2. Intermediate-rock characteristics are

exposure of a solid rock on the surface of generally predictable, but have
the earth. expected lateral and vertical variability.
Structural features produced by
➢ Outcrops crucial for understanding the tectonic activity tend to be systematic
geologic time scale of the earth’s history. It in orientation and spacing
is also important for understanding the
fossil assemblages, paleoenvironments, 3. Low-rock conditions are extremely
and evolution. variable because of complex
depositional or structural history, mass
movement, or buried topography.
➢ CAUSE OF AN OUTCROP Significant and frequent lateral and
vertical changes can be expected.
➢ When weathering and erosion expose part
of a rock layer or formation, AN
OUTCROP APPEARS. ➢ OUTCROP PATTERNS
• FLAT-LYING BEDS - BEDS THAT ARE
EXAMPLES OF OUTCROPS ACROSS HORIZONTAL OR ALMOST horizontal ARE
THE WORLD: KNOWN AS FLAT-LYING BEDS. Their contacts
must be horizontal as well, because contacts
1. PRECAMBRIAN OUTCROP IN on maps are roughly parallel to contour lines.
FINLAND The different colors used to classify rock units
are limited by contour lines and thereby
2. GRANITE OUTCROPS AT
accentuate the topography on geologic maps
SILESIAN STONES MOUNTAIN
depicting flat-lying rocks.
IN SOUTHWESTERN POLAND
• RULE OF V’S - The rule of v’s is a visual,
3. OUTCROP NEAR YANA, INDIA qualitative method to determine dip direction
4. OUTCROP IN THE VASQUEZ by examining the map pattern of the contact
ROCKS NATURAL AREA PARK between two dipping units as it crosses a
OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA stream or a valley. It is not used to describe
the behavior of topographic contour lines.
• HORIZONTAL STRATA

• VERTICAL STRATA

• DIPPING STRATA

➢ IMPORTANCE OF OUTCROP IN CIVIL

ENGINEERING
- Most civil engineering projects involve
some excavation of soils and rocks, or
involve loading the earth by building
on it. In some cases, the excavated
rocks may be used as constructional
material, and in others, rocks may form
a major part of the finished product,
such as a motorway cutting or the site f
or a reservoir. The feasibility, the
planning and design, the construction
and costing, and the safety of a project
may depend critically on the geological
conditions where the construction will
take place. This is especially the case
in extended ‘greenfield’ sites, where
the area affected by the project
stretches for kilometers, across
comparatively undeveloped ground.
 • 1815
- William Smith was a renowned
geologist for his achievement of
depicting a whole country’s worth of
formations, and rendered the first
‘modern’ geological map. Smith’s
Geological Map of England, Wales,
and Part of Scotland was the first
geologic map to cover such a broad
area in such excellent detail.
➢ Geological Maps ➢ Types of Geological Maps
• Two dimensional (2D) representation of 1. Schematic Geological Map
geologic formations and structures at the
Earth’s surface, including formations, - contains geological data based on
folds, faults, inclined strata, and rock topography.
types. 2. Outcrop Map
• From geological map, we can obtain type - contains about the discovery of the
of rocks, thickness, lithological bearing, location of the rock. This type of maps
faults, folds, fractures, or many processes are generally in large scale
have had occurred in earlier times.
3. Thematic Geological Map
• Typically, they use different colors to
distinguish between different geologic - contains geological information about
units. natural resources and potential energy
in certain locations.
• Units (members, formations, groups etc.)
meet at a contacts, which can be of several 4. Structure Map
varieties. - the appearance of the depth of lines
• Many geologic maps include cross- explains certain layers under the
sections, which show a conceptual “slice” surface. These maps usually have
through the Earth along a straight line or medium to large scale.
multi-segment “polyline” on the map. The 5. Surface Geological Map
patterns that rock units make can convey
key information about the geologic history - contains geological information below
of region. the surface. This maps have various
scales, 1:50,000 or greater.
➢ History of Geologic Maps
6. Overview Geological Map
• 1150 BCE
- gives information about formations
- The oldest known use of mapping to which have been revealed, as well as
depict the distribution of rock types on the location of the extrapolation of
Earth’s surface was the Turin Papyrus formations is still covered by a layer of
Map, made in central eastern Egypt. Holocene. These maps usually have
scales 1:100,000 or smaller.
• 1746
9. Photogeological map
- The use of landscape color was
reintroduced again when French - result of aerial photographs adapted to the
geologists Jean-Etienne Guettard and actual condition on field.
Philippe Buache published their map
of chalk deposits.
10. Hydrological Map 3. Symbolizing Geology
- shows the condition of ground water in certain - the map also puts rock types, geologic
location and whether the formation is permeable. structures, and more onto the printed
page through colors, patterns, and
symbols.
➢ Geological Maps and Natural Hazards
4. Contacts, Faults, Strikes, and Dips
- Geological maps help in assessing the
- these are lines on the map outline
likelihood, prepare for, and minimize
various rock units, or formations.
damage from natural hazards such as:
5. Geologic age and formation symbols
1. Landslides
- the letter symbols signify the name and
- Geological maps can pinpoint areas at
age of the rock units in an area. The
risk of rock falls and debris flow,
first letter refers to the geologic age, as
because such landslides pose risks to
shown below. The other letters refer to
people and property.
the formation name or the rock type.
2. Earthquakes
- geologic maps identify fault zones,
some of which are still active and
cause earthquakes.
3. Volcanic Eruption
- Geological maps can pinpoint areas at
risk of rock falls and debris flow,
because such landslides pose risks to
people and property.
4. Flooding
- people rely on geologic maps to show
the locations of flood basins, which
often are swampy, and flood plains ➢ Geologic Map Symbols
often rich with sediment deposits. • Strike and Dip Symbols
➢ Elements in Geologic Maps - Strike and dip are a way of
representing the three-dimensional
orientation of a planar surface on a
1. Topography on Maps two-dimensional map. The strike is the
compass direction of a horizontal line
- the shapes of the hills and dales are
on the plane. All the horizontal lines on
depicted on the map by fine lines that
a plane are parallel, so they all have the
are contours-lines of equal elevation.
same characteristic compass direction.
2. Topographic map symbols The dip is the angle at which the plane
slopes downhill from the horizontal, at
- other than contours, geological maps
it’s maximum slope, which is at right
use symbols to indicate the type of
angles (90) from strike.
roads, significant buildings, power
lines, and additional details. The USGS
uses hundreds of different symbols on
its topographic maps.
• Geologic Fault Symbols
- Faults are marked on geologic maps
with bold lines. These lines are broader
than lines used to mark contacts
between rock units.

• Geologic Fold Symbols

- On a geologic map, anticlines are
usually recognized by a sequence of
rock layers that are progressively older
toward the center of the fold because
the uplifted core of the fold is
preferentially eroded to a deeper
stratigraphic level relative to the
topographically lower flanks.

➢ Application of geological maps to civil

engineering profession
- Geological maps, in general, and
engineering geological maps, in
particular, are far more varied,
covering a range of topics, being
interpretative and factual and
increasingly, digital.
- Engineering geological maps and plans
are used mainly for planning and civil
engineering purposes. They provide
planners and engineers with
information which assists them in the
planning of use of land, and the
location, construction and maintenance
of engineering structures of all type.
 •Limbs
•Axial Planes
•Crest
•Trough
•Crest plane
•Hinge Line
•Trough plane
➢ Study of Structures: Folds, Faults and •Plunging folds
Joints
•Open folds
- Structural geology is concerned with
•Overturned folds
the description, spatial representation,
and analysis of structural features •Recumbent folds
ranging from microscopic to
megascopic. It controls the migration ➢ Plunging folds: They are folds in which
of groundwater, oil, gas, and natural hinge line is not horizontal, where surfaces
minerals. have been levelled by erosion, plunging
folds form V- or horseshoe-shaped patterns
➢ What determines if a rock folds (bends or of exposed rock layers (beds).
faults (breaks)
•Open folds: They have limbs that dip gently,
• Type of force applied whereas isoclinal folds have parallel limbs.
• Pressure •Overturned folds: They have limbs that dip in the
same directions.
• Temperature
•Recumbent folds: They are overturned to the
• Rock (mineral) composition
point of being horizontal.
➢ Folds
- Folds shows arches and troughs in
➢ Bearing on Engineering Constructions of
alternate manner they are best
Folds
displayed by the sedimentary rocks. Its
size varies from few cm to in km. •Thus, the aforementioned physical effects
produced in rocks due to folding are very
➢ Parts of Folds
important from the civil engineering point of view,
•Hinge particularly in construction, location of dams,
reservoirs, tunneling, quarrying, roads and
•Limbs
railways.
•Axial Planes
•Crest
➢ Faults
•Trough
- Faults are the fractures in bedrock
•Crest plane along which movement has occurred.
They are categorized by type of
•Hinge Line movement as dip-slip, strike-slip, or
•Trough plane oblique-slip fault.

•Hinge (axis):
➢ Parts of Faults 3. Oblique- slip Faults
• Fault plane: Surface that the movement - They have movement with both
vertical and horizontal components.
has taken place within the fault. On this
➢ Bearing on Engineering Constructions of
surface the dip and strike of the fault is Faults
measured.
- The main significance of faults in
• Hanging wall: The rock mass resting on engineering lies as a plane of weakness
the fault affecting physical properties of rocks.
• Footwall: The rock mass beneath the fault Fault may act as possible source of
plane. movement and may pose problem of
settlement, sliding, seepage and
➢ Faults are the fractures in bedrock along seismicity to the civil engineering
which movement has occurred. They are structures, depending on its nature,
categorized by type of movements dip-slip, disposition and location.
strike-slip, or oblique-slip fault.
➢ Significance of faults on landscape/outcrop
1. Normal Faults formation
- a dip-slip fault in which the block •Destruction of earth surface through
above the fault has moved downward earthquake
relative to the block below. They have
movement parallel to the dip of the •Lowers the stability of land
fault plane. •May play role in origin of earthquake
- In normal faults, the hanging-wall and volcanism
block has moved down relative to the •May results thermal spring in
footwall block. particular area due to friction
- In reverse faults, the hanging-wall •Play role in soil formation through
block has moved up relative to the silicification and weathering
footwall block.
➢ Joint
2. Strike- slip Faults
- A joint is a break(fracture) of natural
- They have a movement that is origin in the continuity of either a layer
predominantly horizontal and parallel or body of rock that lacks any visible
to the strike of the fault plane. A or measurable movement parallel to
viewer looking across to the other side the surface(plane) of the fracture.
of a right lateral strike-slip fault would
observe it to be offset to their right. A - When rock masses are subjected to
viewer looking across to the other side tensional or compressional forces
of a left-lateral strike-slip fault would regular or irregular fractures develops
observe it to be offset to their left. in them. Such fractures along which
there has been no relative
• Right Lateral Strike-Slip Fault displacements are joints.
(DEXTRAL)- Where The side
opposite the observer moves to the - Commonly rock contains a large
right number of joints which lie parallel to
one another. These parallel joints
• Left Lateral Strike- Slip Fault together form a joint set. Two or more
(Sinistral)- Where the side opposite the joints’ sets are called joint system.
observer moves to the left.
➢ Classification of Joint...
Joints are classified on the following
bases:
➢ Geometric classification
•Strike joint: Joints strike in the same
direction of the rock formation
•Dip joint: Joint strike parallel to the dip of
the rock formation.
•Oblique/diagonal joint: The strike of the
joint makes an inclined angle with the
strike of the rock formation.
 ➢ P – WAVES (PRIMARY WAVES)
- P waves travel faster than other seismic
waves and hence are the first signal
from an earthquake to arrive at any
affected location or at a seismograph. P
waves may be transmitted through
gases, liquids, or solids.

➢ WAVES
- disturbances or fluctuations that
transmits energy gradually from point
to point.
- transfer energy from one place to
another
➢ FREQUENCY
- Is the number of waves that pass a
fixed point in a given amount of time.
➢ WAVELENGTH
- Is the distance from one crest to
another, or from one trough to another, ➢ TRANSVERSE WAVE
of a wave.
- Is a wave in which particles of the
➢ AMPLITUDE medium vibrate perpendicular to the
direction that the wave travels. The
- Is the the maximum distance the
high points of a transverse wave are
particles of the medium move from
called crests, and the low points are
their resting positions when a wave
called troughs.
passes through.
➢ S – WAVES (SECONDARY WAVES)
➢ HOW ARE WAVES PRODUCED?
- cause the rocks they pass through to
- Waves are produced as a result of
change in shape. These waves are the
vibrations and can be classified as
second fastest traveling seismic waves
TRANSVERSE or LONGITUDINAL.
(after primary waves) and can travel
➢ LONGITUDINAL WAVE through solids but not through liquids
or gases. Also called shear wave.
- this is where the particles vibrate
parallel to the direction in which the
wave of energy is travelling.
➢ COMPRESSION
- the places where the coils or particles
are bunched together
➢ RAREFACTION
- It is where they are furthest apart
 ▪ RAYLEIGH WAVES
- Rayleigh wave, named for John
William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh, who
mathematically predicted the existence
of this kind of wave in 1885. A
Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground
just like a wave rolls across a lake or
an ocean. Because it rolls, it moves the
ground up and down, and side-to- side
SEISMIC WAVES fall into two general in the same direction that the wave is
categories: moving. Most of the shaking felt from
> The P and S waves are sometimes collectively an earthquake is due to the Rayleigh
referred as body waves. wave, which can be much larger than
the other waves.
➢ RELATION/IMPORTANCE OF WAVE
➢ L WAVES (LONG WAVES / SURFACE THEORY TO CIVIL ENGINEERING
WAVES)
- Engineering must understand all the
- are those waves which travels through properties of waves and how waves
the surface of the earth. can differ from one another in order to
- It is usually have larger amplitudes and design safe and effective products. To
longer wavelengths than body waves, prevent how tsunamis will travel after
and they travel more slowly than body an ocean earthquake, engineers must
waves do. understand wave properties and how
they travel.
1. IN CHARACTER, THE SURFACE
WAVES ARE OF TWO MAIN TYPES
▪ LOVE WAVES
- Love waves, sometimes called L-
waves, are named after Augustus Love,
an English mathematician and
physicist who first modeled them
mathematically. Love waves involve
the surface shearing sideways and then
returning to its original form as each
wave passes. Love waves have a
transversal (perpendicular) movement
and are the most destructive outside the
immediate area of the epicenter. Love
waves can be devastating.
 ➢ Frequency
- the measure of the number of wave
cycle completed passing through a
point in a unit time.
FORMULA:
➢ WAVE VELOCITY:
- Frequency = velocity / wavelength
- the velocity with which the waves
➢ Medium
travels in a medium .
- Any substance or region through which
- also called phase velocity.
a wave is transmitted. It’s either
- refers to speed and direction. through solids, liquids or in air.

- propagates through the medium. - Wave can travel faster through solids
and liquids because the more densely
➢ FORMULA FOR CALCULATING the particle arranged, the faster the
THE WAVE VELOCITY: sound travels.
➢ Temperature
- a condition that affects the speed of
sound.
- Molecules at higher temperatures have
more energy, thus they can vibrate
faster, sound waves travel more
quickly.

➢ 4 FACTORS: - The speed of waves increase as

temperature increases. This due to the
➢ Wavelength increased kinetic energy of the air
- the measure the length of successive molecules and decrease in density .
crest and trough. ➢ RELEVANCE OF WAVE VELOCITY
- can be measured as the distance from IN CIVIL ENGINEERING:
crest to crest or trough to trough. - For see the potential consequences of
- inversely proportional to frequency. strong waves on a particular area.
This means the longer the wavelength, - Recognizing what happens between
the lower the frequency. structures and the ground.
FORMULA: - Help prevent complications before they
- Wavelength = velocity / frequency happen,
 ➢ DYNAMICS MODULI OF ELASTICITY
- The dynamic moduli of rock are those
calculated from the elastic wave
velocity and density.
➢ Static MODULI OF ELASTICITY
- It is determined by either pulse
- The static moduli are those directly technique or forced resonant frequency
measured in a deformational technique. It is generally 20, 30, and
experiment. 40% higher than the static modulus of
elasticity for high, medium, and low
- Static moduli are often used in strength concrete respectively.
wellbore stability and in-situ stress
applications to evaluate the possibility - ASTM-C215 or resonant frequency - A
of breakouts, elevated pore pressure, standard test method for fundamental
and tectonic stress distribution. transverse, longitudinal, and torsional
resonant frequencies of concrete
➢ Wellbore stability - requires a proper specimens, is a test that allows the
balance between production. It requires a determination of Ed.
proper balance between the uncontrollable
factors of earth stresses, rock strength, and Resonance frequency test allows us
pore pressure. to determine:

➢ In-situ stress - is the natural, local stress Dynamic Elastic Properties:

within a rock mass formation. In-situ stress
▪ Modulus of Elasticity - used to
defines the quantity and direction of
express the deformability of rocks
compression that is being applied to a rock
is very important for the design of
at a specific location.
structures. This is determined
➢ Hooke’s law - a law stating that the either by static and/or dynamic
strain in a solid is proportional to methods.
the applied stress within the elastic
▪ Poisson ratio (μ) - the absolute
limit of that solid.
value of the ratio of transverse
strain to the corresponding axial
strain resulting from uniformly
distributed axial stress below the
proportional limit of the material.
▪ Shear modulus (G) - or modulus
of rigidity is defined as shear stress
over shear strain. The shear
modulus is part of the derivation of
viscosity.
Monitoring damage as a result of
exposure to accelerated weather.
Quality control of manufactured
products.
Resonance Frequency Meter
Features:
• LCD 7" Touch screen integrated monitor
• Integrated PC card
• Software utility for positioning of
measuring and impact points
• Automatic measurement of resonance
frequencies values
➢ Conclusion
• Display of harmonic frequencies
- The static and dynamic moduli of the
• Storage of data on USB memory same rock may significantly differ from
each other. The main reason is likely to
• RES - Lab software included
be the difference in the deformation
(strain) amplitude between the
dynamic and static experiments.
- (A) the static method, which is based
on the measurement of the deformation
induced in a material by the
application of a known force, and (b)
the dynamic method, which implies
measuring the ultrasonic body wave
velocities.