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E-Learning Material

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N.P.R. POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE


NATHAM – 624 401.
ISO 9001:2008
Reach the Stars

E – LEARNING MATERIAL

SUB CODE: 15061

PC HARDWARE AND SERVICING

COMPUTER ENGINEEIRNG
(VI - SEMESTER)

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SYLLABUS
PC HARDWARE AND SERVICING
Sub Code: 15061

UNIT TOPIC

I INSIDE THE PC

II MEMORY AND DAUGHTER BOARDS

III DISK DRIVES

IV I/O DEVICES AND POWER SUPPLY

V TROUBLE SHOOTING PC

UNIT - I

Inside the Personnel Computer

1.1 Introduction:
Evolution of Computer – Block diagram of Pentium - Inside the Pentium – Parts -
Mother board, chipset, expansion slots, memory, Power supply, drives and
connectors

1.2 Systems:
Desktop, Lap Top, Specification and features - Comparison table. Server system –
IBM server families, Sun Server, Intel processor etc - Workstation.

1.3 Mother Board:


Evolution – Different forms of mother boards -Riser Architectures. Intel, AMD and
VIA motherboards.

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1.4 Chipsets:
Introduction – 945 chipset.

1.5 Bus Standards:


Introduction – ISA Bus – PCI Bus – PCI Express, USB, High speed Bus, – Pin
details and Architecture.

1.6 Bios-setup:
Standard CMOS setup, Advanced BIOS setup, Power management, advanced
chipset features, PC Bios communication – upgrading BIOS, Flash, BIOS -setup.

1.7 Processors:
Introduction – Pentium IV, Hyper threading, dual core technology, Core2Duo
technology –– AMD Series, Athlon 2000, Xeon processor. Comparison tables.
Pentium Pin details, Itanium Processor - Pentium packaging styles.

UNIT - II

Memory and Daughter Boards

2.1 Memory:
Introduction - Main memory – Evolution - DRAM – EDO RAM - SDRAM – DDR RAM
versions – IT RAM – Direct RDRAM – Memory Chips (SIMM, DIMM, RIMM)-
Extended – Expanded – Cache - Virtual Memory- Causes of false memory errors.

2.2 Graphic Cards:


Introduction - Definition and Layout of Components in Graphics card – Graphics
Processor – Video memory – Memory Chart – RAMDAC – Driver Software – 3D –
Video capture card installation.

2.3 Sound Cards:


Introduction - Definition of Various Components – Connectivity – Standards – A3D
– EAX – MIDI – General MIDI – PCI Audio – USB Sound – MP3 – SDMI.

2.4 Displays:
Introduction – CRT – Anatomy – Resolution – refresh rate – interlacing – Digital
CRT’s – Panel Displays – Introduction – LCD Principles – Plasma Displays – TFT
displays.

2.5 Display adapter:


Introduction - VGA and SVGA cards, flickering, Demagnetizing and precautions

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2.6 Keyboard, and Mouse and barcode scanner:
Introduction – Keyboard , wireless Keyboard – Signals – operation - troubleshooting
- Mouse types, connectors , Serial mouse, PS/2 mouse and Optical mouse
operation – Signals – Installation – barcode scanner - operation

UNIT - III

Disk Drives

3.1 Hard Disk:


Introduction – Construction – Working Principle - Specification of IDE, EIDE, Ultra
ATA, Serial ATA, SCSI, Disk Array controller, solid state drive. HDD Installation –
Partition – Formatting. Troubleshooting hard disk drives; problem diagnosis, typical
problems and troubleshooting; Hard disk drive, components, Head Actuator
mechanism Head positioning of a voice coil base system.

3.2 CD/DVD ROM:


Introduction – Basics, Working principle – various formats (Books) – CD-R, CD-RW,
DVD: Introduction – Formats – Technology – DVD-ROM, DVD Video, DVD Audio –
Recordable formats – DVD-R, DVD-RW, DVD-RAM

3.3 Special type of drives:


Zip drive, Memory stick, USB-flash drive, IPod Dock version and installation.

3.4 I/O Ports:


Serial – Parallel – USB – Game Port – Blue tooth interface, IR connector, Signal
specification problems with interfaces.

UNIT - IV

Input/output Devices and Power Supply

4.1 Printers:
Introduction – Types of printers – Dot Matrix – Inkjet – Laser - Operation –
Construction – Features – Troubleshooting Dot matrix, Inkjet and laser printer
problems.

4.2 Modem and Router:


Modem - Introduction – Operation – Types – Installation – Router - introduction.
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4.3 Scanners:
Introduction – operation – Scan Resolution - Color Scanners – Scan modes – File
formats - Simple problems and troubleshooting.

4.4 Digital Camera:


Introduction – Operation – Features.

4.5 Web Camera, Biometric devices:


Thump scanner, Iris scanner, speech synthesizer - operation and installation -
Trouble shooting.

4.6 SMPS:
Principles of Operation – Block Diagram – AT & ATX Power Supply, connector
specifications and protection.

UNIT - V

Troubleshooting the PC

5.1 Room Preparation and Power supply:


Location – Pollution – Air-conditioning – Power Supply – Voltage Regulators – Servo
Stabilizers – UPS, Surge suppressors and spike isolators.

5.2 Installation practice:


Routine checks - Preventive maintenance - problem causes, peripheral and general
precautions.

5.3 Faults elimination process:


Dead system spurious problem - security failures - heartbeats and multiple faults -
Systematic trouble shooting - Symptoms observation – analysis - Fault diagnosis
and fault rectification.

5.4 POST:
Definition – IPL hardware – POST Test sequence – beep codes and error messages.

5.5 Diagnostic Software and Viruses:


Computer Viruses – Precautions – Anti-virus Software – identify the signature of
viruses – Firewalls and latest diagnostic softwares.

Reference Books:

1. IBM PC and CLONES - B.Govindrajalu Tata McGraw-hill Publishers

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2. Computer Installation and Servicing - D.Balasubramanian Tata McGraw Hill
, 2005
3. Computer Installation and Troubleshooting- M.Radhakrishnan ISTE-
Learning Materials 2001
4. The complete PC upgrade and Maintenance - Mark Minasi BPB Publication
5. Inside the PC - Peter Norton Tech Media
6. Troubleshooting, Maintaining and Repairing PCs Stephen J Bigelow Tata
McGraw -Hill Pub 2001
7. Basic Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning- Ananthanrayanan P.N Tata
McGraw-Hill Publishers

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UNIT – I

INSIDE THE PC

The Evolution of the Computer

• 1642 – Blaise Pascal introduces the digital adding machine.


• 1822 – Charles Babbage introduces the Difference Engine, Later Analytical
Engine.
• 1937 - John V. Atanasoff designed the first digital electronic computer
• 1939 - Atanasoff and Clifford Berry demonstrate in Nov. the ABC prototype

• 1946 – ENIAC is introduced by John Mauchly and Presper Eckert.


• 1953 – IBM Chips its first electronic computer.
• 1955 – Bell Labs announces the first dully transistorized computer.
• 1971 – IBM’s Lab introduces the 8” floppy disk.
• 1972- Intel 8088 microprocessor instruces.
• 1976 – 5 ¼” flexible disk drive introduced.
• 1980 – Segate Introduces the first hard disk
• 1981 – First portable Computer release
• 1981 – Sony introduces 3 ½” FDD
• 1982 – Sony CD player on the market.
• 1984 – Apple computer launches the Macintosh, mouse- driven computer
with

Graphical User Interface.

• 1989 – Intel releases P4 microporcessor.


• 1993 – Intel release the P5 processor.
• 1995 – Intel releases the Pentium Pro Processor.
• 1995 – Microsoft releases Windows 95
• 1998 – Microsoft releases Windows 98
• 1999 – Intel releases the PIII, AMD introduces the Athlon.
• 2000 – Microsoft releases Windows 2000
• 2001 – Microsoft releases Windows XP

ARCHITECTURE OF PENTIUM

The architecture of Pentium Microprocessor:

• The Pentium family of processors, which has its roots in the Intel486(TM)
processor, uses the Intel486 instruction set (with a few additional
instructions).

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• The term ''Pentium processor'' refers to a family of microprocessors that share
a common architecture and instruction set. The first Pentium processors (the
P5 variety) were introduced in 1993.
• This 5.0-V processor was fabricated in 0.8-micron bipolar complementary
metal oxide semiconductor (BiCMOS) technology.The P5 processor runs at a
clock frequency of either 60 or 66 MHz and has 3.1 million transistors.
• The Intel Pentium processor, like its predecessor the Intel486 microprocessor,
is fully software compatible with the installed base of over 100 million
compatible Intel architecture systems.
• In addition, the Intel Pentium processor provides new levels of performance to
new and existing software through a reimplementation of the Intel 32-bit
instruction set architecture using the latest, most advanced, design
techniques.
• Optimized, dual execution units provide one-clock execution for "core"
instructions, while advanced technology, such as superscalar architecture,
branch prediction, and execution pipelining, enables multiple instructions to
execute in parallel with high efficiency.
• The application of this advanced technology in the Intel Pentium processor
brings "state of the art" performance and capability to existing Intel
architecture software as well as new and advanced applications.

The Pentium processor has two primary operating modes and a "system
management mode.
Protected Mode

• This is the native state of the microprocessor. In this mode all instructions and
architectural features are available, providing the highest performance and
capability. This is the recommended mode that all new applications and
operating systems should target. Among the capabilities of protected mode is
the ability to directly execute "real-address mode" 8086 software in a protected,
multi-tasking environment. This feature is known as Virtual-8086 "mode" (or
"V86 mode"). Virtual-8086 "mode" however, is not actually a processor "mode,"
it is in fact an attribute which can be enabled for any task while in protected
mode.

Real-Address Mode (also called "real mode")

• This mode provides the programming environment of the Intel 8086 processor,
with a few extensions (such as the ability to break out of this mode). Reset
initialization places the processor in real mode where, with a single instruction,
it can switch to protected mode.

System Management Mode

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• The Pentium microprocessor also provides support for System Management
Mode (SMM). SMM is a standard architectural feature unique to all new Intel
microprocessors, beginning with the Intel386 SL processor, which provides an
operating-system and application independent and transparent mechanism to
implement system power management and OEM differentiation features. SMM
is entered through activation of an external interrupt pin (SMI#), which
switches the CPU to a separate address space while saving the entire context of
the CPU. SMM-specific code may then be executed transparently. The
operation is reversed upon returning.

• Superscalar Execution: The Intel486 processor can execute only one


instruction at a time. With superscalar execution, the Pentium processor can
sometimes execute two instructions simultaneously.
• Pipeline Architecture: Like the Intel486 processor, the Pentium processor
executes instructions in five stages. This staging, or pipelining, allows the
processor to overlap multiple instructions so that it takes less time to execute
two instructions in a row. Because of its superscalar architecture, the Pentium
processor has two independent processor pipelines.

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• 64-Bit Bus: With its 64-bit-wide external data bus (in contrast to the Intel486
processor's 32-bit- wide external bus) the Pentium processor can handle up to
twice the data load of the Intel486 processor at the same clock frequency.
• Floating-Point Optimization: The Pentium processor executes individual
instructions faster through execution pipelining, which allows multiple
floating-point instructions to be executed at the same time.
• Pentium Extensions: The Pentium processor has fewer instruction set
extensions than the Intel486 processors. The Pentium processor also has a set
of extensions for multiprocessor (MP) operation. This makes a computer with
multiple Pentium processors possible.
• A Pentium system, with its wide, fast buses, advanced write-back
cache/memory subsystem, and powerful processor, will deliver more power for
today's software applications, and also optimize the performance of advanced
32-bit operating systems (such as Windows 95) and 32-bit software
applications.

SYSTEM

A computer system refers to the hardware and software components that run
a computer or computers.

Operating systems:

An operating system (commonly abbreviated OS and O/S) is an interface


between hardware and applications. It is responsible for the management and
coordination of activities and the sharing of the limited resources of the computer.
The operating system acts as a host for applications that are run on the machine.


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Operating systems can be classified as follows:

• multi-user : Allows two or more users to run programs at the same time. Some
operating systems permit hundreds or even thousands of concurrent users.
• multiprocessing : Supports running a program on more than one CPU.
• multitasking : Allows more than one program to run concurrently.
• multithreading : Allows different parts of a single program to run concurrently.
• real time: Responds to input instantly. General-purpose operating systems,
such as DOS and UNIX, are not real-time.

DESKTOP

A computer designed to fit comfortably on top of a desk, typically with the


monitor sitting on top of the computer. Desktop model computers are broad and
low, whereas tower model computers are narrow and tall. Because of their shape,
desktop model computers are generally limited to three internal mass storage
devices. Desktop models designed to be very small are sometimes referred to
as slimline models.

LAP TOP SYSTEMS

• A laptop computer is a personal computer designed for mobile use that is


small enough to sit on one's lap.
• A laptop integrates all of the typical components of a desktop computer,
including a display, a keyboard a pointing device (a touchpad, also known as a
trackpad, or a pointing stick) and a battery into a single portable unit.
• The rechargeable battery is charged from an AC/DC adapter and has enough
capacity to power the laptop for several hours.
• A laptop is usually shaped like a large notebook with thickness of 0.7–1.5
inches (18–38 mm) and dimensions ranging from 10x8 inches (27x22cm, 13"
display) to 15x11 inches (39x28cm, 17" display) and up.
• Modern laptops weigh 3 to 12 pounds (1.4 to 5.4 kg), and some older laptops
were even heavier.
• Most laptops are designed in the flip form factor to protect the screen and the
keyboard when closed.

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COMPONENTS:

Motherboard:

Laptop motherboards are highly make- and model-specific, and do not


conform to a desktop form factor. Unlike a desktop board that usually has several
slots for expansion cards (3 to 7 are common), a board for a small, highly
integrated laptop may have no expansion slots at all, with all the functionality
implemented on the motherboard itself; the only expansion possible in this case is
via an external port such as USB. Other boards may have one or more standard or
proprietary expansion slots. Several other functions (storage controllers,
networking, sound card and external ports) are implemented on the motherboard.

Central processing unit(CPU)

Laptop CPUs have advanced power-saving features and produce less heat
than desktop processors, but are not as powerful.There is a wide range of CPUs
designed for laptopsavailable from Intel (Pentium M, Celeron M, Intel Core and Core
2 Duo), AMD(Athlo, Turion 64, and Sempron,) VIA Technologies, Transmeta and
others. On the non-x86 architectures, Motorola and IBM produced the chips for the
former PowerPCbased Apple laptops (iBook and PowerBook). Some laptops have
removable CPUs, although support by the motherboard may be restricted to the
specific models.In other laptops the CPU is soldered on the motherboard and is
non-replaceable.

Memory (RAM)

SO-DIMM memory modules that are usually found in laptops are about half
the size of desktop DIMMs. They may be accessible from the bottom of the laptop
for ease of upgrading, or placed in locations not intended for user replacement such
as between the keyboard and the motherboard.

Expansion cards

A PC Card (formerly PCMCIA) or ExpressCard bay for expansion cards is


often present on laptops to allow adding and removing functionality, even when the
laptop is powered on. Some subsystems (such as Wi-Fi or a cellular modem) can be
implemented as replaceable internal expansion cards, usually accessible under an
access cover on the bottom of the laptop. Two popular standards for such cards are
MiniPCI and its successor, the PCI Express Mini.

Power supply

laptops are powered by an internal rechargeable battery that is charged


using an external power supply. The power supply can charge the battery and
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power the laptop simultaneously; when the battery is fully charged, the laptop
continues to run on AC power. The charger adds about 400 grams (1 lb) to the
overall "transport weight" of the notebook.

Battery

Current laptops utilize lithium ion batteries, with more recent models using
the new lithium polymer technology. These two technologies have largely replaced
the older nickel metal-hydride batteries. Typical battery life for standard laptops is
two to five hours of light-duty use, but may drop to as little as one hour when doing
power-intensive tasks. Batteries' performance gradually decreases with time,
leading to an eventual replacement in one to three years, depending on the
charging and discharging pattern. This large-capacity main battery should not be
confused with the much smaller battery nearly all computers use to run the real-
time clock and to store the BIOS configuration in the CMOS memory when the
computer is off. Lithium-Ion batteries do not have a memory effect as older
batteries may have. The memory effect happens when one does not use a battery to
its fullest extent, then recharges the battery.

Video display controller

on standard laptops video controller is usually integrated into the chipset.


This tends to limit the use of laptops for gaming and entertainment, two fields
which have constantly escalating hardware demands[32]. Higher-end laptops and
desktop replacements in particular often come with dedicated graphics processors
on the motherboard or as an internal expansion card. These mobile graphics
processors are comparable in performance to mainstream desktop graphic
accelerator boards.

Display

Most modern laptops feature 12 inch (30 cm) or larger color active matrix
displays with resolutions of 1024×768 pixels and above. Many current models use
screens with higher resolution than typical for desktop PCs (for example, the
1440×900 resolution of a 15" Macbook Pro can be found on 19" widescreen desktop
monitors).

Removable media drives


A DVD/CD reader/writer drive is standard. CD drives are becoming rare, while
Blu-Ray is not yet common on notebooks[35]. Many ultraportables and netbooks
either move the removable media drive into the docking station or exclude it
altogether.

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Internal storage – Hard disks are physically smaller—2.5 inch (60 mm) or 1.8 inch
(46 mm) —compared to desktop 3.5 inch (90 mm) drives. Some new laptops
(usually ultraportables) employ more expensive, but faster, lighter and power-
efficient Flash memory-based SSDs instead. Currently, 250 to 320 Gb sizes are
common for laptop hard disks (64 to 128 Gb for SSDs).

Input

A pointing stick, touchpad or both are used to control the position of the
cursor on the screen, and an integrated keyboard is used for typing. External
keyboard and mouse may be connected using USB or PS/2 (if present).

Ports

several USB ports, an external monitor port (VGA or DVI), audio in/out, and
an Ethernet network port are found on most laptops. Less common are legacy ports
such as a PS/2 keyboard/mouse port, serial port or a parallel port. S-video or
composite video ports are more common on consumer-oriented notebooks.

Advantages

Portability is usually the first feature mentioned in any comparison of laptops


versus desktop PCs. Portability means that a laptop can be used in many places—
not only at home and at the office, but also during commuting and flights, in coffee
shops, in lecture halls and libraries, at clients' location or at a meeting room, etc.
The portability feature offers several distinct advantages:

• Getting more done – using a laptop in places where a desktop PC can't be


used, and at times that would otherwise be wasted. For example, an office
worker managing his e-mails during an hour-long commute by train, or a
student doing her homework at the university coffee shop during a break
between lectures.
• Immediacy – Carrying a laptop means having instant access to various
information, personal and work files. Immediacy allows better collaboration
between coworkers or students, as a laptop can be flipped open to present a
problem or a solution anytime, anywhere.
• Up-to-date information – If a person has more than one desktop PC, a
problem of synchronization arises: changes made on one computer are not
automatically propagated to the others. There are ways to resolve this problem,
including physical transfer of updated files (using a USB stick or CDs) or using
synchronization software over the Internet. However, using a single laptop at

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both locations avoids the problem entirely, as the files exist in a single location
and are always up-to-date.
• Connectivity – A proliferation of Wi-Fi wireless networks and cellular
broadband data services (HSDPA, EVDO and others) combined with a near-
ubiquitous support by laptops means that a laptop can have easy Internet and
local network connectivity while remaining mobile. Wi-Fi networks and laptop
programs are especially widespread at university campuses.

Other advantages of laptops include:

• Size – laptops are smaller than standard PCs. This is beneficial when space is
at a premium, for example in small apartments and student dorms. When not
in use, a laptop can be closed and put away.
• Low power consumption – laptops are several times more power-efficient than
desktops. A typical laptop uses 20-90 W, compared to 100-800 W for desktops.
This could be particularly beneficial for businesses (which run hundreds of
personal computers, multiplying the potential savings) and homes where there
is a computer running 24/7 (such as a home media server, print server, etc.)
• Quiet – laptops are often quieter than desktops, due both to better
components (quieter, slower 2.5-inch hard drives) and to less heat production
leading to use of fewer and slower cooling fans.
• Battery – a charged laptop can run several hours in case of a power outage
and is not affected by short power interruptions and brownouts. A desktop PC
needs a UPS to handle short interruptions, brownouts and spikes; achieving
on-battery time of more than 20-30 minutes for a desktop PC requires a large
and expensive UPS.

Disadvantages

Performance

While the performance of mainstream desktops and laptops is comparable,


laptops are significantly more expensive than desktop PCs at the same performance
level.

However, for Internet browsing and typical office applications, where the
computer spends the majority of its time waiting for the next user input, even
notebook-class laptops are generally fast enough.

Standard laptops are sufficiently powerful for high-resolution movie


playback, 3D gaming and video editing and encoding. Number-crunching software
(databases, math, engineering, financial, etc.) is the area where the laptops are at
the biggest disadvantage.

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Upgradeability

Upgradeability of laptops is very limited compared to desktops, which are


thoroughly standardized. In general, hard drives and memory can be upgraded
easily. Optical drives and internal expansion cards may be upgraded if they follow
an industry standard, but all other internal components, including the CPU and
graphics, are not intended to be upgradeable.

Because of their small and flat keyboard and track pad pointing devices,
prolonged use of laptops can cause repetitive strain injury. Usage of separate,
external ergonomic keyboards and pointing devices is recommended to prevent
injury when working for long periods of time; they can be connected to a laptop
easily by USB or via a docking station. Some health standards require ergonomic
keyboards at workplaces.

The integrated screen often causes users to hunch over for a better view,
which can cause neck or spinal injuries. A larger and higher-quality external
screen can be connected to almost any laptop to alleviate that and to provide
additional "screen estate" for more productive work.

Durability

Due to their portability, laptops are subject to more wear and physical
damage than desktops. Components such as screen hinges, latches, power jacks
and power cords deteriorate gradually due to ordinary use. A liquid spill onto the
keyboard, a rather minor mishap with a desktop system, can damage the internals
of a laptop and result in a costly repair.

Security

Being expensive, common and portable, laptops are prized targets for theft.
The cost of the stolen business or personal data and of the resulting problems
(identity theft, credit card fraud, breach of privacy laws) can be many times the
value of the stolen laptop itself. Therefore, both physical protection of laptops and
the safeguarding of data contained on them are of the highest importance.

Most laptops have a Kensington security slot which is used to tether the
computer to a desk or other immovable object with a security cable and lock. In
addition to this, modern operating systems and third-party software offer disk
encryption functionality that renders the data on the laptop's hard drive
unreadable without a key or a passphrase.

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DESKTOP VS LAPTOP

1.) Laptops are portable.

2.) Desktops still do everything a laptop does better except the portability.
Desktops are less for more power.

Server System

A server is a computer provides services to other computer in the network. In a


client/server programming model, a sever is a program that awaits and fulfills
requests from client programs in other computers.

Server:

It is a large computer that manages shared resources and provides a service to the
client.

Client:

It is a single user PC or workstation. It sends request to the server and receives the
response from the server.

MOTHERBOARD

• The motherboard is the large printed circuit board that is mounted to the
bottom of the computer's case.
• Motherboards have standard mounting holes so that the same computer case
can be used with different boards.
• All of the components of a computer system are connected in some way to the
motherboard.
• The most common motherboard design in desktop computers today is the AT,
based on the IBM AT motherboard. A more recent motherboard specification,
ATX improves on the AT design.
• In both the AT and ATX designs, the computer components included in the
motherboard are

1. The microprocessor
2. (Optionally) coprocessors
3. Memory
4. basic input/output system (BIOS)
5. Expansion slot

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6. Interconnecting circuitry

• Additional components can be added to a motherboard through its expansion


slot.
• The electronic interface between the motherboard and the smaller boards or
cards in the expansion slots is called the bus

The image below is a typical motherboard, the Intel D865GBF along with the
documentation showing the positions of the board's components.

View of a Motherboard

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Components of Motherboard

Motherboard Components and Function:

Function: The motherboard is a printed circuit board (PCB) that contains and
controls the components that are responsible for processing data.

Description: The motherboard contains the CPU, memory, and basic controllers
for the system. Motherboards are often sold with a CPU. The motherboard has a
Real-time clock (RTC), ROM BIOS, CMOS RAM, RAM sockets, bus slots for
attaching devices to a bus, CPU socket(s) or slot(s), cache RAM slot or sockets,
jumpers, keyboard controller, interrupts, internal connectors, and external
connectors. The bus architecture and type of components on it determine a
computers performance. The motherboard with its ribbon cables, power supply,
CPU, and RAM is designated as a "bare bones" system.

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Most major components:

The motherboard determines:

• CPU type and speed


• Chipset Type (the specialized chips that control the memory, cache, external
buses, and some peripherals)
• Secondary cache type
• Types of expansion slots: ISA, EISA, MCA, VESA local bus, PCI and AGP slots

Different forms of mother boards

Form Factor:

The form factor of a motherboard determines the specifications for its general
shape and size. It also specifies what type of case and power supply will be
supported, the placement of mounting holes, and the physical layout and
organization of the board. Form factor is especially important if you build your own

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computer systems and need to ensure that you purchase the correct case and
components.

AT & Baby AT

Prior to 1997, IBM computers used large motherboards. After that, however, the
size of the motherboard was reduced and boards using the AT (Advanced
Technology) form factor was released. The AT form factor is found in older
computers (386 class or earlier). Some of the problems with this form factor mainly
arose from the physical size of the board, which is 12" wide, often causing the
board to overlap with space required for the drive bays.

Following the AT form factor, the Baby AT form factor was introduced. With the
Baby AT form factor the width of the motherboard was decreased from 12" to 8.5",
limiting problems associated with overlapping on the drive bays' turf. Baby AT
became popular and was designed for peripheral devices — such as the keyboard,
mouse, and video — to be contained on circuit boards that were connected by way
of expansion slots on the motherboard.

Baby AT was not without problems however. Computer memory itself advanced,
and the Baby AT form factor had memory sockets at the front of the motherboard.
As processors became larger, the Baby AT form factor did not allow for space to use
a combination of processor, heatsink, and fan. The ATX form factor was then
designed to overcome these issues

ATX

With the need for a more integrated form factor which defined standard
locations for the keyboard, mouse, I/O, and video connectors, in the mid 1990's the
ATX form factor was introduced. The ATX form factor brought about many chances
in the computer. Since the expansion slots were put onto separate riser cards that
plugged into the motherboard, the overall size of the computer and its case was
reduced. The ATX form factor specified changes to the motherboard, along with the
case and power supply. Some of the design specification improvements of the ATX
form factor included a single 20-pin connector for the power supply, a power
supply to blow air into the case instead of out for better air flow, less overlap
between the motherboard and drive bays, and integrated I/O Port connectors
soldered directly onto the motherboard. The ATX form factor was an overall better
design for upgrading.

micro-ATX

MicroATX followed the ATX form factor and offered the same benefits but
improved the overall system design costs through a reduction in the physical size of

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the motherboard. This was done by reducing the number of I/O slots supported on
the board. The microATX form factor also provided more I/O space at the rear and
reduced emissions from using integrated I/O connectors.

LPX

White ATX is the most well-known and used form factor, there is also a non-
standard proprietary form factor which falls under the name of LPX, and Mini-LPX.
The LPX form factor is found in low-profile cases (desktop model as opposed to a
tower or mini-tower) with a riser card arrangement for expansion cards where
expansion boards run parallel to the motherboard. While this allows for smaller
cases it also limits the number of expansion slots available. Most LPX
motherboards have sound and video integrated onto the motherboard. While this
can make for a low-cost and space saving product they are generally difficult to
repair due to a lack of space and overall non-standardization. The LPX form factor
is not suited to upgrading and offer poor cooling.

NLX

Boards based on the NLX form factor hit the market in the late 1990's. This
"updated LPX" form factor offered support for larger memory modules, tower cases,
AGP video support and reduced cable length. In addition, motherboards are easier
to remove. The NLX form factor, unlike LPX is an actual standard which means
there is more component options for upgrading and repair.
Many systems that were formerly designed to fit the LPX form factor are moving
over to NLX. The NLX form factor is well-suited to mass-market retail PCs.

BTX

The BTX, or Balanced Technology Extended form factor, unlike its predecessors
is not an evolution of a previous form factor but a total break away from the
popular and dominating ATX form factor. BTX was developed to take advantage of
technologies such as Serial ATA, USB 2.0, and PCI Express. Changes to the layout
with the BTX form factor include better component placement for back panel I/O
controllers and it is smaller than microATX systems. The BTX form factor provides
the industry push to tower size systems with an increased number of system slots.
One of the most talked about features of the BTX form factor is that it uses in-line
airflow. In the BTX form factor the memory slots and expansion slots have switched
places, allowing the main components (processor, chipset, and graphics controller)
to use the same airflow which reduces the number of fans needed in the system;
thereby reducing noise. To assist in noise reduction BTX system level acoustics
have been improved by a reduced air turbulence within the in-line airflow system.

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Initially there will be three motherboards offered in BTX form factor. The first,
picoBTX will offer four mounting holes and one expansion slot, while microBTX will
hold seven mounting holes and four expansion slots, and lastly, regularBTX will
offer 10 mounting holes and seven expansion slots. The new BTX form factor
design is incompatible with ATX, with the exception of being able to use an ATX
power supply with BTX boards.

Today the industry accepts the ATX form factor as the standard, however legacy
AT systems are still widely in use. Since the BTX form factor design is incompatible
with ATX, only time will tell if it will overtake ATX as the industry standard.

ATX form factor

The Intel Advanced/ML motherboard, launched in 1996, was designed to


solve issues of space and airflow that the Pentium II and AGP graphics cards had
caused the preceding LPX form factor. As the first major innovation in form factors
in years, it marked the beginning of a new era in motherboard design. Its size and
layout are completely different to the BAT format, following a new scheme known as
ATX. The dimensions of a standard ATX board are 12in wide by 9.6in long; the mini
ATX variant is typically of the order 11.2in by 8.2in.

The ATX design gets round the space and airflow problems by moving the CPU
socket and the voltage regulator to the right-hand side of the expansion bus. Room
is made for the CPU by making the card slightly wider, and shrinking or integrating
components such as the Flash BIOS, I/O logic and keyboard controller. This means
the board need only be half as deep as a full size Baby AT, and there's no
obstruction whatsoever to the six expansion slots (two ISA, one ISA/PCI, three PCI).

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ATX Form Factor

An important innovation was the new specification of power supply for the ATX
that can be powered on or off by a signal from the motherboard. At a time when
energy conservation was becoming a major issue, this allows notebook-style power
management and software-controlled shutdown and power-up.

A 3.3V output is also provided directly from the power supply. Accessibility of
the processor and memory modules is improved dramatically, and relocation of the
peripheral connectors allows shorter cables to be used. This also helps reduce
electromagnetic interference. The ATX power supply has a side vent that blows air
from the outside directly across the processor and memory modules, allowing
passive heatsinks to be used in most cases, thereby reducing system noise.

Mini-ATX is simply a smaller version of a full-sized ATX board. On both


designs, parallel, serial, PS/2 keyboard and mouse ports are located on a double-
height I/O shield at the rear. Being soldered directly onto the board generally
means no need for cable interconnects to the on-board I/O ports. A consequence of
this, however, is that the ATX needs a newly designed case, with correctly
positioned cut-outs for the ports, and neither ATX no Mini-ATX boards can be used
in AT-style cases.

ATX Motherboard

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Riser Architectures

In the late 1990s, the PC industry developed a need for a riser architecture
that would contribute towards reduced overall system costs and at the same time
increase the flexibility of the system manufacturing process. The Audio/Modem
Riser (AMR) specification, introduced in the summer of 1998, was the beginning of
a new riser architecture approach. AMR had the capability to support both audio
and modem functions. However, it did have some shortcomings, which were
identified after the release of the specification. These shortcomings included the
lack of Plug and Play (PnP) support, as well as the consumption of a PCI connector
location.

Consequently, new riser architecture specifications were defined which combine


more functions onto a single card. These new riser architectures combine audio,
modem, broadband technologies, and LAN interfaces onto a single card. They
continue to give motherboard OEMs the flexibility to create a generic motherboard
for a variety of customers. The riser card allows OEMs and system integrators to
provide a customised solution for each customer's needs. Two of the most recent
riser architecture specifications include CNR and ACR.

CNR - Communications and Networking Riser

Intel's CNR (Communication and Networking Riser) specification defines a


hardware scalable OEM motherboard riser and interface that supports the audio,
modem, and LAN interfaces of core logic chipsets. The main objective of this
specification is to reduce the baseline implementation cost of features that are
widely used in the "Connected PC", while also addressing specific functional
limitations of today's audio, modem, and LAN subsystems.

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PC users' demand for feature-rich PCs, combined with the industry's current
trend towards lower cost, mandates higher levels of integration at all levels of the
PC platform. Motherboard integration of communication technologies has been
problematic to date, for a variety of reasons, including FCC and international
telecom certification processes, motherboard space, and other manufacturer
specific requirements.

Motherboard integration of the audio, modem, and LAN subsystems is also


problematic, due to the potential for increased noise, which in-turn degrades the
performance of each system. The CNR specifically addresses these problems by
physically separating these noise-sensitive systems from the noisy environment of
the motherboard.

With a standard riser solution, as defined in this specification, the system


manufacturer is free to implement the audio, modem, and/or LAN subsystems at a
lower bill of materials (BOM) cost than would be possible by deploying the same
functions in industry-standard expansion slots or in a proprietary method. With
the added flexibility that hardware scalability brings, a system manufacturer has
several motherboard acceleration options available, all stemming from the baseline
CNR interface.

The CNR Specification supports the five interfaces:

• AC97 Interface - Supports audio and modem functions on the CNR card
• LAN Connect Interface (LCI) - Provides 10/100 LAN or Home Phoneline
Networking capabilities for Intel chipset based solutions
• Media Independent Interface (MII) - Provides 10/100 LAN or Home Phoneline
Networking capabilities for CNR platforms using the MII Interface
• Universal Serial Bus (USB) - Supports new or emerging technologies such as
xDSL or wireless
• System Management Bus (SMBus) - Provides Plug and Play (PnP) functionality
on the CNR card.

Each CNR card can utilise a maximum of four interfaces by choosing the specific
LAN interface to support.

ACR - Advanced Communications Riser

The rival ACR (Advanced Communications Riser)specification is supported by an


alliance of leading computing and communication companies, whose founders
include 3COM, AMD, VIA Technologies and Lucent Technologies. Like CNR, it
defines a form factor and interfaces for multiple and varied communications and
audio subsystem designs in desktop OEM personal computers. Building on first
generation PC motherboard riser architecture, ACR expands the riser card

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definition beyond the limitation of audio and modem codecs, while maintaining
backward compatibility with legacy riser designs through an industry standard
connector scheme. The ACR interface combines several existing communications
buses, and introduces new and advanced communications buses answering
industry demand for low-cost, high-performance communications peripherals.

ACR supports modem, audio, LAN, and xDSL. Pins are reserved for future
wireless bus support. Beyond the limitations of first generation riser specifications,
the ACR specification enables riser-based broadband communications, networking
peripheral and audio subsystem designs. ACR accomplishes this in an open-
standards context.

Like the original AMR Specification, the ACR Specification was designed to
occupy or replace an existing PCI connector slot. This effectively reduces the
number of available PCI slots by one, regardless of whether the ACR connector is
used. Though this may be acceptable in a larger form factor motherboard, such as
ATX, the loss of a PCI connector in a microATX or FlexATX motherboard - which
often provide as few as two expansion slots - may well be viewed as an
unacceptable trade-off. The CNR specification overcomes this issue by
implementing a shared slot strategy, much like the shared ISA /PCI slots of the
recent past. In a shared slot strategy, both the CNR and PCI connectors effectively
use the same I/O bracket space. Unlike the ACR architecture, when the system
integrator chooses not to use a CNR card, the shared PCI slot is still available.

Although the two specifications both offer similar functionality, the way in
which they are implemented are quite dissimilar. In addition to the PCI
connector/shared slot issue, the principal differences are as follows:

• ACR is backwards compatible with AMR, CNR isn't


• ACR provides support xDSL technologies via its Integrated Packet Bus (IPB)
technology; CNR provides such support via the well-established USB interface
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• ACR provides for concurrent support for LCI (LAN Connect Interface) and MII
(Media Independent Interface) LAN interfaces; CNR supports either, but not
both at the same time
• The ACR Specification has already reserved pins for a future wireless interface;
the CNR specification has the pins available but will only define them when the
wireless market has become more mature.

Ultimately, motherboard manufacturers are going to have to decide whether the


ACR specification's additional features are worth the extra cost

CHIPSET

• A number of integrated circuits designed to perform one or more related


functions. For example, one chipset may provide the basic functions of a
modem while another provides the CPU functions for a computer.
• Newer chipsets generally include functions provided by two or more older
chipsets. In some cases, older chipsets that required two or more physical
chips can be replaced with a chipset on one chip.
• The term is often used to refer to the core functionality of a motherboard.

Diagram of the motherboard chipset

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NORTHBRIDGE

• The northbridge, also known as a memory controller hub (MCH) or an


integrated memory controller (IMC) in Intel systems (AMD, VIA, SiS and others
usually use 'northbridge'), is one of the two chips in the core logic chipset on a
PC motherboard, the other being the southbridge.
• Separating the chipset into the northbridge and southbridge is common,
although there are rare instances where these two chips have been combined
onto one die when design complexity and fabrication processes permit it.

SOUTHBRIDGE

• The Southbridge, also known as an I/O Controller Hub (ICH) or a Platform


Controller Hub (PCH) in Intel systems (AMD, VIA, SiS and others usually use
'southbridge'), is a chip that implements the "slower" capabilities of the
motherboard in a northbridge/southbridge chipset computer architecture.
• The southbridge can usually be distinguished from the northbridge by not
being directly connected to the CPU. Rather, the northbridge ties the
southbridge to the CPU.

A typical north/southbridge layout

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Chipset Characteristics

The characteristics of a chipset can be broken down into six categories: host,
memory, interfaces, arbitration, south bridge support, and power management.
Each of these categories defines and differentiates one chipset from another. The
characteristics defined in each of these categories are as follows:

• Host This category defines the host processor to which the chipset is matched
along with its bus voltage, usually GTL+ (Gunning Transceiver Logic Plus) or
AGTL+ (Advanced Gunning Transceiver Logic Plus), and the number of
processors the chipset will support.
• Memory This category defines the characteristics of the DRAM support
included in the chipset, including the DRAM refresh technique supported, the
amount of memory support (in megabits usually), the type of memory
supported, and whether memory interleave, ECC (error correcting code), or
parity is supported.
• Interfaces This category defines the type of PCI interface implemented and
whether the chipset is AGP compliant, supports integrated graphics PIPE
(pipelining), or SBA (side band addressing).
• Arbitration This category defines the method used by the chipset to arbitrate
between different bus speeds and interfaces. The two most common arbitration
methods are MTT (multi transaction timer) and DIA (dynamic intelligent
arbiter).
• South bridge support All intel chipsets and most of the chipsets for all other
manufacturers are two processor sets. In these sets the north bridge is the
main chip and handles CPU and memory interfaces among other tasks, while
the south bridge (or the second chip ) handles such things as the USB and IDE
interfaces, the RTC (real time clock),and support for serial and parallel ports.
• Power management All intel chipsets support both the SMM (system
management mode) and ACPI (advanced configuration and power interface
power management standards.

Bios-setup

Introduction to the BIOS:

BIOS stand for Basic Input/Output System and are software that manages
hardware and allows the operating system to talk to the various components. The
BIOS is also responsible for allowing you to control your computer's hardware
settings, for booting up the machine when you turn on the power or hit the reset
button and various other system functions.

The term BIOS is typically used to refer to the system BIOS, however, various
other components such as video adapters and hard drives can have their own

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BIOSes hardwired to them. During the rest of this section, we will be discussing the
system BIOS. The BIOS software lives on a ROM IC on the motherboard known as
a Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor(CMOS). People often incorrectly refer
to the BIOS setup utility as CMOS, however, CMOS is the name of the physical
location that the BIOS settings are stored in.

Basic CMOS Settings:

Printer Parallel Port

• Unidirectional - Single direction communication.


• Bi-directional - Two directional communication. Used by HP printers.
• ECP(Extended Capability Port) - Same as Bi-directional but uses a DMA to
bypass processor and speed up transfer.
• EPP(Enhanced Parallel Port) - Same as bi-directional and offers an extended
control code set.

COM/Serial Port

• Memory Address - Each COM port requires a unique memory address.


• IRQ - Every COM port requires a unique IRQ to talk to the CPU.
• COM1 = IRQ4 and 03F8
• COM2 = IRQ3 and 02F8

Hard Drives

• Size - The Size is automatically detected by the computer.

Primary Master/Secondary Slave

• Each hard drive has a controller built in the drive that controls the drive.
• If two drives were on the same channel the adapter could get confused.
• By setting one as a master it tells it which is in charge.

BIOS services are accessed using software interrupts, which are similar to the
hardware interrupts except that they are generated inside the processor by
programs instead of being generated outside the processor by hardware devices.

BIOS routines begin when the computer is booted and are made up of 3 main
operations. Processor manufacturers program processors to always look in the
same place in the system BIOS ROM for the start of the BIOS boot program. This is
normally located at FFFF0h - right at the end of the system memory.

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First, the Power On Self Tests(POST) are conducted. These tests verify that the
system is operating correctly and will display an error message and/or output a
series of beeps known as beep codes depending on the BIOS manufacturer.

Second, is initialization in which the BIOS looks for the video card. In
particular, it looks for the video card's built in BIOS program and runs it. The BIOS
then looks for other devices' ROMs to see if any of them have BIOSes and they are
executed as well.

Third, is to initiate the boot process. The BIOS looks for boot information that
is contained in file called the master boot record(MBR) at the first sector on the
disk. If it is searching a floppy disk, it looks at the same address on the floppy disk
for a volume boot sector. Once an acceptable boot record is found the operating
system is loaded which takes over control of the computer.

BIOS Services

BIOS:

ROM-BIOS is a set of programs built into the computer that perform the most
basic, low level and intimate control and supervision operations for the computer.
The basic purpose of the ROM-BIOS is to take care of the immediate needs of the
computer’s hardware and to isolate all other programs from the details of how the
hardware works. BIOS is partly software and partly hardware. It is a bridge
between the computers hardware and other software.

BIOS Services
ROM-BIOS is divided into three functional parts:

1.Startup routines 2.Service handling 3.Hardware interrupt handling

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Startup routines:

The start-up-routines get the computer going when power is turned on. The
main parts of start-up-routines are POST and initialization. POST (Power On Self
Test) routines test that the computer is in good working order. The initialization
involves routines like creating the interrupt vectors so that when interrupts occur,
the computer switches to the proper interrupt-handling routine. Many of the parts
of the computer need to have registers set, parameters loaded and other things
done to get them in their ready-to-go condition. All these are handled by the
initialization routine.

The boot-strap process involves the ROM-BIOS attempting to read a boot record
from the beginning of a disk. The BIOS first tries drive A and if that doesn’t succeed
it tries to read a boot record from the hard disk if the computer has a hard disk,
and then hands over the control of the computer to the short program on the boot
record. The boot program begins the process of loading DOS into the computer.

Service handling:

The service handling routines are there to perform work for the programs. The
programs may seek service request to clear the display screen, or to switch the
screen from text mode to graphics mode or to read information from the disk or
write information onto the printer. To carry out the service requests the ROM-BIOS
has to work directly with the computer’s I/O devices.

Hardware interrupt handling:

The hardware interrupt handling part takes care of the independent needs of
the PC hardware. It operates separately, but in co-operation with the service
handling portion. When a key is pressed on the keyboard, the keyboard raises an
interrupt. The hardware interrupt routines service the interrupt and keep ready the
character pressed. When out programs send a request to display the character, the
service routine passes the request to the hardware interrupt handling routine. The
character is then displayed. ROM BIOS services are organized in groups with each
group having its own dedicated interrupt.

BIOS set up Access

How to access your BIOS set up:

Depending on your computer model, the way you will access your BIOS set up
menu will differ. Here is a list of the most common models used and the access key
used for this process.

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ACER

• You can make use of the DEL or F2 keys after switching on your system.
• When using Acer Altos 600 server, the BIOS set up can be accessed by
pressing the CTRL+ALT+ESC keys.

COMPAQ

• Ensure that the cursor in the upper right corner of your screen is blinking
before pressing the F10 key.
• Previous versions of Compaq will make use of the F1, F2, F10 or DEL keys to
grant access to your BIOS set up menu.

DELL

• After switching on your computer, let the DELL logo appear before pressing the
F2 key until Entering Setup is displayed on the screen.
• Previous versions of DELL might require to press CTRL+ALT+ENTER to access
the BIOS set up menu.
• The DELL laptops will use the Fn+ESC or Fn+F1 keys to access the BIOS set
up.

GATEWAY

• When switching on your computer, press the F1 key until the BIOS screen
shows up.
• Previous versions of Gateway will make use of the F2 key to display the BIOS
set up screen.

HEWLETT-PACKARD

• When switching on your computer system, press the F1 key to access the BIOS
set up screen
• For those using an HP Tablet PC, you can press the F10 or F12 keys.
• You can also access the BIOS set up menu by pressing the F2 or ESC keys.

IBM

• When your system restarting, press the F1 key to access the BIOS set up.
• Previous IBM models will require the use of the F2 key to access the BIOS set
up utility.

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NEC

• NEC will only use the F2 key to access the BIOS set up menu

PACKARD BELL

• Packard Bell users, you can access the BIOS set up by pressing the F1, F2 or
DEL keys

SHARP

• For the Sharp model, when your computer is loading, press the F2 key
• For previous Sharp models, you will need to use a Setup Diagnostics Disk.

SONY

• Sony users will have to press the F1, F2 or F3 key after switching on their
computer.

TOSHIBA

• The Toshiba model will require its users to press the F1 or ESC key after
switching on their computer to be able to access BIOS set up menu.

Bios updates and flash bios:

On most older systems, if you wanted to upgrade the BIOS, you had to replace
the ROM BIOS chip this involved physically removing the old BIOS ROM chip and
replacing it with a new ROM, containing the new BIOS version. The potential for
errors and adding new problems into the PC , including ESD (Electrostatic
Discharge), bent pins, damage to the motherboard, and ,more, was very high. The
danger was so great that to avoid the stress and the problems, many people simply
upgrading to a now computer.

The EEPROM (Flash ROM), flash BIOS, and flashing soon replaced the PROM
and EPROM as the primary container for BIOS programs. Some motherboards still
require the physical replacement of the BIOS PROM, but most newer platforms
support flash BIOS and flashing. Flashing is the process used to upgrade your
BIOS under the control of specialized flashing software. Any BIOS provider that
supports a flash BIOS version has flashing software and update files available
either by disk (CD-ROM or diskette) or as a downloadable module from its website.

There are really only four things you need to update your PC’s BIOS by flashing:
a flash BIOS; the right serial number and version information, which is used to find

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the right upgrade files; the flashing software; and the appropriate flash upgrade
files.

Flashing Dangers:

Flashing a BIOS is an excellent way to upgrade your PC to add new features and
correct old problems, provided there are no problems while you are doing it. Once
you begin flashing your BIOS ROM, you must complete the process, without
exception. Otherwise, the result will be a corrupted and unusable BIOS. If for any
reason the flashing process is interrupted, such as somebody trips over the PC’s
power cord or there is a power failure at that exact moment , the probability of a
corrupted BIOS chip is high.

Loading the wrong BIOS version is another way to corrupt your BIOS. Not all
manufacturers include safety features to prevent this from happening in their
flashing software. However, flashing software from the larger BIOS companies, the
ones you are most likely to be using, such as Award and AMI, include features to
double-check the flash file’s version against the motherboard model, processor, and
chipset and warn you of any mismatches.

CMOS

Introduction:

The configuration data for a PC is stored by the BIOS in what is called CMOS
(Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor). COMS is also known as NVRAM.
CMOS is a type of memory that requires very little power to retain any data stored
on it. CMOS can store a PC’S configuration data for many years with power from
low voltage dry cell or lithium batteries. Actually, CMOS is the technology that is
used to manufacture the transistors used in memory and IC chips. However, the
name CMOS, because it was used early on for storing the system configuration, has
become synonymous with the bios configuration data.

The BIOS CMOS memory stores the system configuration, including any
modifications made to the system, its hard drives, peripheral settings, or other
settings. The system and RTC (real time clock) settings are also stored in the
CMOS.

The information on the computer’s hardware is stored in the computer’s CMOS


memory. Originally, CMOS technology was used only for storing the system setup
information. Although most circuits on the computer are now made using this
technology, the name CMOS usually refers to the storage of the computer’s
hardware configuration data.

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When the computer is started up, the CMOS data is read and used as a
checklist to verify that the devices indicated are in fact present and operating. Once
the hardware check is completed,. The BIOS loads the operating system and passes
control of the computer to it. From that point on, the BIOS is available to accept
requests from device drivers and application programs for hardware assistance.

PC BUS

BUS

• A collection of wires through which data is transmitted from one part of


a computer to another.
• When used in reference to personal computers, the term bus usually refers
to internal bus.
• This is a bus that connects all the internal computer components to the CPU
and main memory.
• There's also an expansion bus that enables expansion boards to access the
CPU and memory.
• All buses consist of two parts -- an address bus and a data bus. The data bus
transfers actual data whereas the address bus transfers information about
where the data should go.
• The size of a bus, known as its width, is important because it determines how
much data can be transmitted at one time. For example, a 16-bit bus can
transmit 16 bits of data, whereas a 32-bit bus can transmit 32 bits of data.
• Every bus has a clock speed measured in MHz. A fast bus allows data to be
transferred faster, which makes applications run faster. On PCs, the old ISA
bus is being replaced by faster buses such as PCI.

ISA Bus

When it appeared on the first PC the 8-bit ISA bus ran at a modest 4.77MHz
- the same speed as the processor. It was improved over the years, eventually
becoming the Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) bus in 1982 with the advent of
the IBM PC/AT using the Intel 80286 processor and 16-bit data bus. At this stage
it kept up with the speed of the system bus, first at 6MHz and later at 8MHz. The
ISA bus specifies a 16-bit connection driven by an 8MHz clock, which seems
primitive compared with the speed of today's processors. It has a theoretical data
transfer rate of up to 16 MBps. Functionally, this rate would reduce by a half to 8
MBps since one bus cycle is required for addressing and a further bus cycle for the
16-bits of data. In the real world it is capable of more like 5 MBps - still sufficient
for many peripherals - and the huge number of ISA expansion cards ensured its
continued presence into the late 1990s.

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As processors became faster and gained wider data paths, the basic ISA design
wasn't able to change to keep pace. As recently as the late 1990s most ISA cards
remained as 8-bit technology. The few types with 16-bit data paths - hard disk
controllers, graphics adapters and some network adapters - are constrained by the
low throughput levels of the ISA bus, and these processes can be better handled by
expansion cards in faster bus slots. ISA's death-knell was sounded in the PC99
System Design Guide, co-written by the omnipotent Intel and Microsoft. This
categorically required the removal of ISA slots, making its survival into the next
millennium highly unlikely.

Indeed, there are areas where a higher transfer rate than ISA could support
was essential. High resolution graphic displays need massive amounts of data,
particularly to display animation or full-motion video. Modern hard disks and
network interfaces are certainly capable of higher rates.

PCI bus:

Intel's original work on the PCI standard was published as revision 1.0 and
handed over to a separate organisation, the PCI SIG (Special Interest Group). The
SIG produced the PCI Local Bus Revision 2.0 specification in May 1993: it took in
the engineering requests from members, and gave a complete component and
expansion connector definition, something which could be used to produce
production- ready systems based on 5 volt technology. Beyond the need for
performance, PCI sought to make expansion easier to implement by offering plug
and play (PnP) hardware - a system that enables the PC to adjust automatically to
new cards as they are plugged in, obviating the need to check jumper settings and
interrupt levels. Windows-95, launched in the summer of that year, provided
operating system software support for plug and play and all current motherboards
incorporate BIOSes which are designed to specifically work with the PnP
capabilities it provides. By 1994 PCI was established as the dominant Local Bus
standard.

While the VL-Bus was essentially an extension of the bus, or path, the CPU
uses to access main memory, PCI is a separate bus isolated from the CPU, but
having access to main memory. As such, PCI is more robust and higher
performance than VL-Bus and, unlike the latter which was designed to run at
system bus speeds, the PCI bus links to the system bus through special "bridge"
circuitry and runs at a fixed speed, regardless of the processor clock. PCI is limited
to five connectors, although each can be replaced by two devices built into the
motherboard. It is also possible for a processor to support more than one bridge
chip. It is more tightly specified than VL-Bus and offers a number of additional
features. In particular, it can support cards running from both 5-volt and 3.3-volt
supplies using different "key slots" to prevent the wrong card being put in the
wrong slot.

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In its original implementation PCI ran at 33MHz. This was raised to 66MHz by
the later PCI 2.1 specification, effectively doubling the theoretical throughput to
266 MBps - 33 times faster than the ISA bus. It can be configured both as a 32-bit
and a 64-bit bus, and both 32-bit and 64-bit cards can be used in either. 64-bit
implementations running at 66MHz - still rare by mid-1999 - increase bandwidth
to a theoretical 524 MBps. PCI is also much smarter than its ISA predecessor,
allowing interrupt requests (IRQs) to be shared. This is useful because well-
featured, high-end systems can quickly run out of IRQs. Also, PCI bus mastering
reduces latency and results in improved system speeds.

Dating from mid-1995, the main performance-critical components of the PC


communicated with each other across the PCI bus. Most common amongst these
PCI devices were the disk and graphics controllers, which were either mounted
directly onto the motherboard or on expansion cards in PCI slots.

To PCI's credit it has been used in applications not envisaged by the original
specification writers and variants and extensions of PCI have been implemented in
all of desktop, mobile, server and embedded communications market segments.
However, by the late 1990s new processors and I/O devices were demanding much
higher I/O bandwidth than PCI could deliver. The result was the creation of higher
bandwidth buses, leading to a situation in which the PC platform supported a
variety of application specific buses alongside the PCI I/O expansion bus.

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Streaming data from various video and audio sources was becoming
commonplace and the fact was that there was simply no baseline support for this
time-dependant data within the PCI 2.2 or PCI-X specifications. The consequence
was a concerted effort to agree a third-generation I/O bus to succeed PCI which,
after several twists and turns, eventually culminated in the specification of the PCI
Express architecture.

USB bus

USB:

Developed jointly by Compaq, Digital, IBM, Intel, Microsoft, NEC and Northern
Telecom, the Universal Serial Bus (USB) standard offers a new standardised
connector for attaching all the common I/O devices to a single port, simplifying
today's multiplicity of ports and connectors. Significant impetus behind the USB
standard was created in September of 1995 with the announcement of a broad
industry initiative to create an open host controller interface (HCI) standard for
USB. Backed by 25 companies, the aim of this initiative was to make it easier for
companies - including PC manufacturers, component vendors and peripheral
suppliers - to more quickly develop USB-compliant products. Key to this was the
definition of a non-proprietary host interface - left undefined by the USB
specification itself - which enabled connection to the USB bus. The first USB
specification was published a year later, with version 1.1 being released in the
autumn of 1998.

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Up to 127 devices can be connected, by daisy-chaining or by using a USB hub
which itself has a number of USB sockets and plugs into a PC or other device.
Seven peripherals can be attached to each USB hub device. This can include a
second hub to which up to another seven peripherals can be connected, and so on.
Along with the signal USB carries a 5v power supply so small devices, such as
hand held scanners or speakers, do not have to have their own power cable.

Devices are plugged directly into a four-pin socket on the PC or hub using a
rectangular Type A socket. All cables that are permanently attached to the device
have a Type A plug. Devices that use a separate cable have a square Type B socket,
and the cable that connects them has a Type A and Type B plug.

USB 1.1 overcame the speed limitations of UART-based serial ports, running at
12 Mbit/s - at the time, on a par with networking technologies such as Ethernet
and Token Ring - and provided more than enough bandwidth for the type of
peripheral device is was designed to handle. For example, the bandwidth was
capable of supporting devices such as external CD-ROM drives and tape units as
well as ISDN and PABX interfaces. It was also sufficient to carry digital audio
directly to loudspeakers equipped with digital-to-analogue converters, eliminating
the need for a soundcard. However, USB wasn't intended to replace networks. To
keep costs down its range is limited to 5 metres between devices. A lower
communication rate of 1.5 Mbit/s can be set-up for lower-bit-rate devices like
keyboards and mice, saving space for those things which really need it.

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USB was designed to be user-friendly and is truly plug-and-play. It eliminates


the need to install expansion cards inside the PC and then reconfigure the system.
Instead, the bus allows peripherals to be attached, configured, used, and detached
while the host and other peripherals are in operation. There's no need to install
drivers, figure out which serial or parallel port to choose or worry about IRQ
settings, DMA channels and I/O addresses. USB achieves this by managing
connected peripherals in a host controller mounted on the PC's motherboard or on
a PCI add-in card. The host controller and subsidiary controllers in hubs manage
USB peripherals, helping to reduce the load on the PC's CPU time and improving
overall system performance. In turn, USB system software installed in the
operating system manages the host controller.

Data on the USB flows through a bi-directional pipe regulated by the host
controller and by subsidiary hub controllers. An improved version of bus mastering
allows portions of the total bus bandwidth to be permanently reserved for specific
peripherals, a technique called isochronous data transfer. The USB interface
contains two main modules: the Serial Interface Engine (SIE), responsible for the
bus protocol, and the Root Hub, used to expand the number of USB ports.

The USB bus distributes 0.5 amps (500 milliamps) of power through each port.
Thus, low-power devices that might normally require a separate AC adapter can be
powered through the cable - USB lets the PC automatically sense the power that's
required and deliver it to the device. Hubs may derive all power from the USB bus
(bus powered), or they may be powered from their own AC adapter. Powered hubs
with at least 0.5 amps per port provide the most flexibility for future downstream
devices. Port switching hubs isolate all ports from each other so that one shorted
device will not bring down the others.

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There were a number of reasons for this. Some had complained that the USB
architecture was too complex and that a consequence of having to support so many
different types of peripheral was an unwieldy protocol stack. Others argued that the
hub concept merely shifts expense and complexity from the system unit to the
keyboard or monitor. However, probably the biggest impediment to USB's
acceptance was the IEEE 1394 FireWire standard.

Developed by Apple Computer, Texas Instruments and Sony and backed by


Microsoft and SCSI specialist Adaptec, amongst others, IEEE 1394 was another
high-speed peripheral bus standard. It was supposed to be complementary to USB,
rather than an alternative, since it's possible for the two buses to coexist in a single
system, in a manner similar to today's parallel and serial ports. However, the fact
that digital cameras were far more likely to sport an IEEE 1394 socket than a USB
port gave other peripheral manufacturers pause for thought.

Processor

Define a Processor:

The CPU, or the central processing unit, also known as a processor for short, is
the brain of every computer.The CPU executes any calculation or process made by
the computer.The processor uses bits that have either a value of 0 or 1 for all of its
calculations ("bit" is short for "binary digit"). Computers store, process and retrieve
information by using strings of bits, such as, for example "1011001." All computer
programs like Internet browsers, word processors and image manipulation software
must be processed by CPUs.

Types

There are three types of processors on the market today: 16-bit, 32-bit and 64-
bit. The most common format currently is the 32-bit processor, though the 64-bit
processor is gaining in popularity as it doubles the computing power of a computer,
compared with a 32-bit processor.

Processors can work through an astounding number of calculations almost


instantaneously. A 32-bit processor can represent numbers (only using 0's and 1's)
from 0 to 4,294,967,295, while a 64-bit machine can represent numbers from 0 to
18,446,744,073,709,551,615. These are staggering numbers that are hard for us to
even imagine, but processors can work through so fast due to the speed of
electricity and the fact that processors use semiconductors, which are materials
that offer very little resistance to electrical signals, and therefore these signals are
not slowed down within the processor as it makes these rapid calculations.

Fetch

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The instructions processed by a CPU are strings of numbers that are stored in
the computer's memory. Once a process is initiated, the CPU retrieves the
instructions from the memory, a process called "fetch." This is the first step that
the CPU takes whenever any calculation or task is initiated.

Decode

The analyzing of the instructions after fetching is called "decoding," where the
CPU basically "decides" how to process the instructions that it retrieved from its
memory. As the name of the process implies, a particular group of numbers in the
instruction indicate which operation to perform, and in what sequence, and the
decoding process breaks these instructions down and "decodes" them.

Execute

After decoding the information, the CPU sends different segments of the
instructions to the appropriate sections of the processor, a process called
"execution." In case of additional actions that may be necessary to execute certain
decoded instructions, an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is attached to a group of inputs
and outputs -- the inputs provide the numbers to be processed and the outputs
contain the final sum or response to the request.

Writeback

Finally, after executing the instruction, the processor writes the results back
into memory and proceeds to execute the next instruction, a process called
"writeback." Advanced computer processors can fetch, decode and execute multiple
instructions simultaneously.

AMD

Definition:

AMD is the second largest maker of personal computer microprocessors after


Intel. They also make flash memory, integrated circuits for networking devices, and
programmable logic devices. AMD reports that it has sold over 100 million x86
(Windows-compatible) microprocessors. Its Athlon (formerly called the "K7")
microprocessor, delivered in mid-1999, was the the first to support a 200 MHz bus.
In March, 2000, AMD announced the first 1 gigahertz PC microprocessor in a new
version of the Athlon.

Founded in 1969, AMD along with Cyrix has often offered computer
manufacturers a lower-cost alternative to the microprocessors from Intel. AMD
develops and manufactures its processors and other products in facilities in

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Sunnyvale, California, and Austin,Texas. A new fabrication facility was opened in
Dresden, Germany, in 1999.

The lower cost of AMD's microprocessors was a contributor to lower PC prices in


the 1998-2000 period. Reviewers generally rated the K6 and Athlon equivalent to or
slightly better than comparable Pentium microprocessors from Intel. In addition to
"the first mainstream 200 MHz system bus," Athlon includes a superscalar
pipelining floating point unit, and a programmable L1 and L2. The Athlon uses
AMD's aluminum 0.18 micron technology.

CPU concept

CISC

Pronounced sisk, and stands for Complex Instruction Set Computer. Most PC's
use CPU based on this architecture. For instance Intel and AMD CPU's are based
on CISC architectures. Typically CISC chips have a large amount of different and
complex instructions. The philosophy behind it is that hardware is always faster
than software, therefore one should make a powerful instructionset, which provides
programmers with assembly instructions to do a lot with short programs. In
common CISC chips are relatively slow (compared to RISC chips) per instruction,
but use little (less than RISC) instructions.

RISC
Pronounced risk, and stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computer. RISC
chips evolved around the mid-1980 as a reaction at CISC chips. The philosophy
behind it is that almost no one uses complex assembly language instructions as
used by CISC, and people mostly use compilers which never use complex
instructions. Apple for instance uses RISC chips. Therefore fewer, simpler and
faster instructions would be better, than the large, complex and slower CISC
instructions. However, more instructions are needed to accomplish a task. An other
advantage of RISC is that - in theory - because of the more simple instructions,
RISC chips require fewer transistors, which makes them easier to design and
cheaper to produce. Finally, it's easier to write powerful optimised compilers, since
fewer instructions exist.

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Dual core technology

Definition:

Dual-core refers to a CPU that includes two complete execution cores per
physical processor. It has combined two processors and their caches and cache
controllers onto a single integrated circuit (silicon chip). Dual-core processors are
well-suited for multitasking environments because there are two complete
execution cores instead of one, each with an independent interface to the frontside
bus. Since each core has its own cache, the operating system has sufficient
resources to handle most compute intensive tasks in parallel.Multi-core is similar
to dual-core in that it is an expansion to the dual-core technology which allows for
more than two separate processors.

Dual-Core Processors

Dual-core refers to a CPU that includes two complete execution cores per
physical processor. It combines two processors and their caches and cache
controllers onto a single integrated circuit (silicon chip). It is basically two
processors, in most cases, residing reside side-by-side on the same die.

Dual-processor, Dual-core, and Multi-core: Keeping it straight

Dual-processor (DP) systems are those that contains two separate physical
computer processors in the same chassis. In dual-processor systems, the two
processors can either be located on the same motherboard or on separate boards.
In a dual-core configuration, an integrated circuit (IC) contains two complete
computer processors. Usually, the two identical processors are manufactured so
they reside side-by-side on the same die, each with its own path to the system
front-side bus. Multi-core is somewhat of an expansion to dual-core technology and
allows for more than two separate processors.

Advantage of Dual-core Technology

A dual-core processor has many advantages especially for those looking to boost
their system's multitasking computing power. Dual-core processors provide two
complete execution cores instead of one, each with an independent interface to the
frontside bus. Since each core has its own cache, the operating system has
sufficient resources to handle intensive tasks in parallel, which provides a
noticeable improvement to multitasking.

Complete optimization for the dual-core processor requires both the operating
system and applications running on the computer to support a technology called
thread-level parallelism, or TLP. Thread-level parallelism is the part of the OS or

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application that runs multiple threads simultaneously, where threads refer to the
part of a program that can execute independently of other parts.

Even without a multithread-enabled application, you will still see benefits of


dual-core processors if you are running an OS that supports TLP. For example, if
you have Microsoft Windows XP (which supports multithreading), you could have
your Internet browser open along with a virus scanner running in the background,
while using Windows Media Player to stream your favorite radio station and the
dual-core processor will handle the multiple threads of these programs running
simultaneously with an increase in performance and efficiency.

Today Windows XP and hundreds of applications already support multithread


technology, especially applications that are used for editing and creating music
files, videos and graphics because types of programs need to perform operations in
parallel. As dual-core technology becomes more common in homes and the
workplace, you can expect to see more applications support thread-level
parallelism.

Pentium 4

Definition:

Pentium 4 (P4) is the Intel processor (codenamed Willamette) that was released
in November 2000. The P4 processor has a viable clock speed that now exceeds 2
gigahertz (GHz) - as compared to the 1 GHz of the Pentium 3. P4 had the first
totally new chip architecture since the 1995 Pentium Pro. The major difference
involved structural changes that affected the way processing takes place within the
chip, something Intel calls NetBurst microarchitecture. Aspects of the changes
include: a 20-stage pipeline, which boosts performance by increasing processor
frequency; a rapid-execution engine, which doubles the core frequency and reduces
latency by enabling each instruction to be executed in a half (rather than a whole)
clock cycle; a 400 MHz system bus, which enables transfer rates of 3.2 gigabytes
per second (GBps); an execution trace cache, which optimizes cache memory
efficiency and reduces latency by storing decoded sequences of micro-operations;
and improved floating point and multimedia unit and advanced dynamic execution,
all of which enable faster processing for especially demanding applications, such as
digital video, voice recognition, and online gaming. P4's main competition for
processor market share is the AMD Athlon processor.

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Intel Pentium 4 microprocessor family consists of the following sub-families:


* Xeon and Xeon MP - high performance versions.
* Pentium 4 - desktop CPU.
* Mobile Pentium 4 and Mobile Pentium 4-M - mobile versions of the CPU.
* Celeron - low-cost version.
* Mobile Celeron - mobile version of the low-cost Pentium 4 processor.

All Pentium 4-branded processors have only one CPU core. Dual-core
microprocessors based on NetBurst microarchitecture were branded as Pentium D.

Hyper threading

Definition:

• Hyper-Threading is a technology used by some Intel microprocessor s that


allows a single microprocessor to act like two separate processors to the
operating system and the application program s that use it. It is a feature of
Intel's IA-32 processor architecture.
• With Hyper-Threading, a microprocessor's "core" processor can execute two
(rather than one) concurrent streams (or thread s) of instructions sent by the
operating system. Having two streams of execution units to work on allows
more work to be done by the processor during each clock cycle . To the
operating system, the Hyper-Threading microprocessor appears to be two
separate processors.
• Because most of today's operating systems (such as Windows and Linux) are
capable of dividing their work load among multiple processors (this is called
symmetric multiprocessing or SMP ), the operating system simply acts as
though the Hyper-Threading processor is a pool of two processors.
• Intel notes that existing code will run correctly on a processor with Hyper-
Threading but "some relatively simple code modifications are recommended to
get the optimum benefit."

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Hyper-Threading Technology

Hyper-Threading Technology is a new technology from Intel that enables a


single processor to run two separate threads simultaneously. This bottom line is
30+% increase in performance and in media production, performance and stability
are, well, everything.

Hyper-Threading Technology enables multi-threaded software applications to


execute threads in parallel. This level of threading technology has never been seen
before in a general-purpose microprocessor. Internet, e-Business, and enterprise
software applications continue to put higher demands on processors. To improve
performance in the past, threading was enabled in the software by splitting
instructions into multiple streams so that multiple processors could act upon
them. Today with Hyper-Threading Technology, processor-level threading can be
utilized which offers more efficient use of processor resources for greater
parallelism and improved performance on today's multi-threaded software.

Hyper-Threading Technology provides thread-level-parallelism (TLP) on each


processor resulting in increased utilization of processor execution resources. As a
result, resource utilization yields higher processing throughput. Hyper-Threading
Technology is a form of simultaneous multi-threading technology (SMT) where
multiple threads of software applications can be run simultaneously on one
processor. This is achieved by duplicating the architectural state on each
processor, while sharing one set of processor execution resources. Hyper-Threading
Technology also delivers faster response times for multi-tasking workload
environments. By allowing the processor to use on-die resources that would

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otherwise have been idle, Hyper-Threading Technology provides a performance
boost on multi-threading and multi-tasking operations for the Intel NetBurst®
microarchitecture.

This technology is largely invisible to the platform. In fact, many applications


are already multi-threaded and will automatically benefit from this technology.
However, multi-threaded applications take full advantage of the increased
performance that Hyper-Threading Technology has to offer, allowing users will see
immediate performance gains when multitasking. Today's multi-processing aware
software is also compatible with Hyper-Threading Technology enabled platforms,
but further performance gains can be realized by specifically tuning software for
Hyper-Threading Technology. This technology complements traditional multi-
processing by providing additional headroom for future software optimizations and
business growth.

Some media applications do support Hyper-Threading while others do not. Most


applications that do not support Hyper-Threading will still work with it enabled in
the BIOS, others will not. Please check compatibility with your software supplier.

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UNIT – II
MEMORY & DAUGHTER BOARDS

Introduction:

Sound is a relatively new capability for PCs because no-one really considered
it when the PC was first designed. The original IBM-compatible PC was designed as
a business tool, not as a multimedia machine, so it's hardly surprising that nobody
thought of including a dedicated sound chip in its architecture. Computers, after
all, were seen as calculating machines; the only kind of sound necessary was the
beep that served as a warning signal. For years, the Apple Macintosh had built-in
sound capabilities far beyond the realms of the early PC's beeps and clicks, and
PCs with integrated sound are a recent phenomenon.

By the second half of the 1990s PCs had the processing power and storage
capacity for them to be able to handle demanding multimedia applications. The
sound card too underwent a significant acceleration in development in the late
1990s, fuelled by the introduction of AGP and the establishment of PCI-based
sound cards. Greater competition between sound card manufacturers - together
with the trend towards integrated sound - has led to ever lower prices. However, as
the horizons for what can be done on a PC get higher and higher, there remain
many who require top-quality sound. The result is that today's add-in sound cards
don't only make games and multimedia applications sound great, but with the right
software allow users to compose, edit and mix their own music, learn to play the
instrument of their choice and record, edit and play digital audio from a variety of
sources.

What is a Sound Card?

A computer sound card is an additional card that is often included in the


motherboard. This computer component is not compulsory but it is useful to have
as most programs use a sound card.

A sound card translates signals into sounds that can be played back through
speakers. Many motherboards have a sound card built in making it unnecessary to
have a separate sound card. A pc sound card is placed into the PCI slots of a
motherboard.

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A computer sound card is used by a computer for music, sounds during


applications and entertainment (TV, movies and games). A typical sound card
usually has four ports. The largest port is the Midi/Game port, which is used for
connecting a joystick or gaming controller to. The other three ports look similar and
are generally green, pink and blue.

The pink port is for a microphone which can record sound to the computer.
The green port is line out and this is where the speakers are connected to produce
sound from the computer. The blue port is line in and this is for connecting a CD-
player or cassette tape to the computer.

Remember a sound card by itself is not enough to hear sound. You will still
need to purchase some computer speakers or a headphone set. If you want to make
use of the microphone feature then you will need to buy a computer microphone
and you should then be able to record sound to your computer.

Components of Sound card

Components:

The modern PC sound card contains several hardware systems relating to the
production and capture of audio, the two main audio subsystems being for digital
audio capture and replay and music synthesis along with some glue hardware.

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Historically, the replay and music synthesis subsystem has produced sound waves
in one of two ways:

1. Through an internal FM synthesiser


2. By playing a digitised, or sampled, sound.

The digital audio section of a sound card consists of a matched pair of 16-bit
digital-to-analogue (DAC) and analogue-to-digital (ADC) converters and a
programmable sample rate generator. The computer reads the sample data to or
from the converters. The sample rate generator clocks the converters and is
controlled by the PC. While it can be any frequency above 5kHz, it's usually a
fraction of 44.1kHz.

Most cards use one or more Direct Memory Access (DMA) channels to read and
write the digital audio data to and from the audio hardware. DMA-based cards that
implement simultaneous recording and playback (or full duplex operation) use two
channels, increasing the complexity of installation and the potential for DMA
clashes with other hardware. Some cards also provide a direct digital output using
an optical or coaxial S/PDIF connection.

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A card's sound generator is based on a custom Digital Signal Processor (DSP)
that replays the required musical notes by multiplexing reads from different areas
of the wavetable memory at differing speeds to give the required pitches. The
maximum number of notes available is related to the processing power available in
the DSP and is referred to as the card's "polyphony".

DSPs use complex algorithms to create effects such as reverb, chorus and
delay. Reverb gives the impression that the instruments are being played in large
concert halls. Chorus is used to give the impression that many instruments are
playing at once when in fact there's only one.

Connectivity

Since 1998, when the fashion was established by Creative Technology's


highly successful SoundBlaster Live! card, many soundcards have enhanced
connectivity via use an additional I/O card, which fills a 5.25in drive blanking plate
and is connected to the main card using a short ribbon cable. In its original
incarnation the card used a daughter card in addition to the "breakout" I/O card.
In subsequent versions of the daughter card disappeared and the breakout card
became a fully-fledged 5.25in drive bay device, which Creative referred to as the
Live!Drive.

The Platinum 5.1 version of Creative's card - which first appeared towards the end
of 2000 - sported the following jacks and connectors:

Analogue/Digital Out jack:

6-channel or compressed Dolby AC-3 SPDIF output for connection to external


digital devices or digital speaker systems; also supports center and subwoofer
analogue channels for connection to 5.1 analogue speaker systems

Line In jack:
Connects to an external device such as cassette, DAT or MiniDisc player

Microphone In jack:
Connects to an external microphone for voice input

Line Out jack:


Connects to powered speakers or an external amplifier for audio output; also
supports headphones

Rear Out jack:


Connects to powered speakers or an external amplifier for audio output

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Joystick/MIDI connector:
Connects to a joystick or a MIDI device; can be adapted to connect to both
simultaneously

CD/SPDIF connector:
Connects to the SPDIF (digital audio) output, where available, on a CD-ROM or
DVD-ROM drive

AUX connector:
Connects to internal audio sources such as TV tuner, MPEG or other similar
cards

CD Audio connector:
Connects to the analogue audio output on a CD-ROM or DVD-ROM using a CD
audio cable

Telephone Answering Device connector:


Provide a mono connection from a standard voice modem and transmits
microphone signals to the modem

Audio Extension (Digital I/O) connector:


Connects to the Digital I/O card or Live! Drive

and the front panel of the Live!Drive IR device provided the following connectivity:

RCA SPDIF In/Out jacks: Connects to digital audio devices such as DAT and
MiniDisc recorders

1/4" Headphones jack: Connects to a pair of high-quality headphones; speaker


output is muted
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Headphone volume: Controls the headphones output volume

1/4" Line In 2/Mic In 2 jack: Connects to a high-quality dynamic microphone


or audio device such as an electric guitar, DAT or MiniDisc player

Line In 2/Mic In 2 selector: Control the selection of either Line In2 or Mic In 2
and the microphone gain

MIDI In/Out connectors: Connects to MIDI devices via a Mini DIN-to-Standard


DIN cable

Infrared Receiver: Allows control of the PC via a remote control

RCA Auxiliary In jacks: Connects to consumer electronics equipment such as


VCR, TV and CD player

Optical SPDIF In/Out connectors:

Connects to digital audio devices such as DAT and MiniDisc recorders.

Other sound card manufacturers were quick to adopt the idea of a separate I/O
connector module. There were a number of variations on the theme. Some were
housed in an internal drive bay like the Live!Drive, others were external units, some
of which were designed to act as USB hubs.

3D And EAX

3D Audio:

3D Audio is to give a sound experience that more closely matches what the user
get in the real world. To duplicate the real world sounds the sound card has to
model the 3D sound and present it in such a way that it sounds like the real world
equivalent. In the real world situations there are split second differences between
what ear hears when listening to a sound.

Sound waves usually appear earlier and louder at the ear closest to the sound
source. The sound originating from various locations around a listener will sound
different. These effects are summarized as Head Related Transfer Functions. A3D
and Direct sound 3-D sound cards use HRTF algorithms to give the user an audio
experience of three dimensional sound digitally reproduced from a pair of
speakers.

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EAX:

One another standard used in sound cards is the music console with Accoustic
Enhancement which provides high level studio quality audio. It s features are bass,
boost, audio clean up, karaoke and multi-band graphic equalizer on all channels.
Ultimate realistic sound effects are achieved in EAX standard which is the state of
the art technology in video games.

MIDI And General MIDI

MIDI: The Musical Instrument Digital Interface, or MIDI, has been around since
the early 1980s. It was developed to provide a standard way of interfacing music
controllers such as keyboards to sound generators like synthesisers and drum
machines. As such, it was originally designed to work via a serial connection and
can be viewed in the same light as an ASCII RS-232 link - namely as a combination
of an information transfer standard and an electrical signal protocol.

On the electrical side, MIDI is a half duplex 5MA current loop, which carries
an 8-bit serial data stream at a bit rate of 31.25 kilobaud. The use of a current loop
means that two devices "talking" via MIDI can be electrically isolated using opto-
isolators, which is an important factor in ensuring the safe and noise-free operation
of a system encompassing both audio and computer-based hardware. This is why a
special cable is required to connect a sound card to an external sound generator or
MIDI controller, as the opto-isolators and current buffers aren't included on most
sound cards.

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On the information side, MIDI is a language for describing musically important
real-time events. It communicates over 16 channels (in much the same way that it's
possible to have seven SCSI devices in a chain), allowing up to 16 MIDI
instruments to be played from just one interface. Since the majority of sound cards
are multi-timbral, 16 instruments can be played simultaneously from just one
device. Adding a second MIDI interface opens up another 16 MIDI channels. Some
MIDI interfaces offer as many as 16 outputs, making it possible to access 256 at
the same time.

MIDI doesn't actually transmit sound, just very simple messages which the
receiving device responds to. Instruments are connected via standard 5-DIN plugs.
When a key is pressed on, for example, a keyboard, it sends a Note On message
down the MIDI cable instructing the receiving device to play a note. The message
consists of three elements:

• A Status Byte
• A Note Number
• A Velocity Value.
The Status Byte contains information about the event type (in this case a
Note On) and which channel it is to be sent on (1-16). The Note Number describes
the key that was pressed, say middle C, and the Velocity Value indicates the force
at which the key was struck. The receiving device will play this note until a Note Off
message is received containing the same data. Depending on what sound is being
played, synthesisers will respond differently to velocity.

Continuous Controllers (CCs) are used to control settings such as volume,


effects levels and pan (the positioning of sound across a stereo field). Many MIDI
devices make it possible to assign internal parameters to a CC: there are 128 to
choose from. From those, the MMA (MIDI Manufacturers Association) developed a
specification for synthesisers known as General MIDI.

The first MIDI application was to allow keyboard players to "layer" the sounds
produced by several synthesisers. Today, though, it is used mainly for sequencing.
- although it has also been adopted by theatrical lighting companies as a
convenient way of controlling light shows and projection systems.

Essentially, a sequencer is a digital tape recorder which records and plays


MIDI messages rather than audio signals. The first sequencers had very little
memory, which limited the amount of information they could store: most were only
capable of holding one or two thousand events. As sequencers became more

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advanced, so did MIDI implementations. Not content with just playing notes over
MIDI, manufacturers developed ways to control individual sound parameters and
onboard digital effects using Continuous Controllers.

The majority of sequencers today are PC-based applications and have the
facility to adjust these parameters using graphical sliders. Most have an extensive
array of features for editing and fine-tuning performances, so its not necessary to
be an expert keyboard player to produce good music.

MIDI hasn't just affected the way musicians and programmers work; it has
also changed the way lighting and sound engineers work. Because almost any
electronic device can be made to respond to MIDI in some way or other, the
automation of mixing desks and lighting equipment has evolved and MIDI has been
widely adopted by theatrical lighting companies as a convenient way of controlling
light shows and projection systems. When used with a sequencer, every action from
a recording desk can be recorded, edited, and synchronised to music or film.

General MIDI:

In September of 1991 the MIDI Manufacturers Association (MMA) and the


Japan MIDI Standards Committee (JMSC) created the beginning of a new era in
MIDI technology, by adopting the "General MIDI System Level 1", referred to as GM
or GM1. The specification is designed to provide a minimum level of performance
compatibility among MIDI instruments, and has helped pave the way for MIDI in
the growing consumer and multimedia markets.The specification imposes a
number of requirements on compliant sound generating devices (keyboard, sound
module, sound card, IC, software program or other product), including that:

• A minimum of either 24 fully dynamically allocated voices are available


simultaneously for both melodic and percussive sounds, or 16 dynamically
allocated voices are available for melody plus 8 for percussion
• All 16 MIDI Channels are supported, each capable of playing a variable
number of voices (polyphony) or a different instrument (sound/patch/timbre)
• A minimum of 16 simultaneous and different timbres playing various
instruments are supported as well as a minimum of 128 preset instruments
(MIDI program numbers) conforming to the GM1 Instrument Patch Map and 47
percussion sounds which conform to the GM1 Percussion Key Map.

When MIDI first evolved it allowed musicians to piece together musical


arrangements using whatever MIDI instruments they had. But when it came to
playing the files on other synthesisers, there was no guarantee that it would sound

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the same, because different instrument manufacturers may have assigned
instruments to different program numbers: what might have been a piano on the
original synthesiser may play back as a trumpet on another. General MIDI
compliant modules now allow music to be produced and played back regardless of
manufacturer or product.

PCI audio

PCI audio chips started to emerge during 1996 and are either integrated on
the motherboard or on a card in a PCI expansion slot. By mid-1998 a trend towards
PCI cards providing enhanced features for both gaming and music applications had
become firmly established. As greater demands are made on audio processing,
traditional cards fall short due to the physical constraints of the ISA bus.

The problem is bandwidth. In quantitative terms, while ISA's theoretical


maximum is a mere 8 MBps, the PCI bus can theoretically support data transfers
as fast as 132 MBps. This limits audio to just 16 channels. Whilst this is enough
for most games, for professional audio applications 32, or better still 64, channels
are preferred. Some ISA cards implement proprietary technology to increase
throughput, but it is in everyone's best interests that the industry move towards a
standard.

PCI-based cards deliver greater performance, offering the performance


required by advanced features like mixing multiple audio streams and processing
3D positional streams. Due to high overheads inherent with ISA technology, it is
estimated that up to 20% of a CPU's capacity can be blocked when playing a 16-bit
stereo sample at 44.1kHz. PCI significantly reduces the performance bottleneck,
freeing up the CPU to focus on other tasks like 3D graphics, game logic, and game
physics. Overall, PCI may be as much as 10 to 20 times as efficient as ISA for
processing audio streams.

PCI support has been around since 1993, yet, despite the benefits it offers, it
took a further 5 years for PCI audio to emerge in a serious way. There are a number
of reasons for this:

• A dearth of applications that demand high-performance audio


• The technical difficulty of designing products that provide true Sound Blaster
compatibility on the PCI bus and, until relatively recently
• The high cost of early PCI audio chips.
• Now, however, PCI sound cards are often less expensive than their ISA
counterparts.
• This results partly from the speed and elegance of the PCI bus. An ISA sound
card that includes wavetable synthesis typically includes 1MB to 4MB of

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expensive ROM to hold its wavetable synthesiser's set of sample instrument
sounds (often called a patch set or wave set).
• In contrast, many PCI cards eschew the ROM approach in favour of loading
their patch sets into system RAM. The speed of the PCI bus enables this
approach because it gives sound cards the ability to access the samples in
system memory quickly.
• An interesting feature of the new crop of PCI audio cards was their ability to
provide real-mode DOS Sound Blaster compatibility for the huge number of
DOS games still in existence. It's significantly more complicated to provide this
compatibility with a PCI bus-based audio card than with a PCI audio chip
integrated on the motherboard.
• They also allow multiple speaker connection; soon it'll be possible to add as
many as eight speakers to a PC in a so-called 7.1 format (seven separate
positional audio channels plus one subwoofer) - a capability provided by the
"Environmental Audio" of the Sound Blaster Live! board which came to market
in the summer of 1998.
• While PCI audio was a huge advance, initially there was one serious problem
that had be resolved to ensure that users didn't encounter unpleasant
experiences with their PCI audio subsystems.
• The problem was actually caused by certain graphics subsystems, yet it could
affect the playback quality of the PCI audio subsystem. Some graphics drivers
continually performed retries of data transfers to the graphics chip - where the
data is transferred through, and buffered by, the system's PCI chipset - during
periods when the graphics chip was unable to accept data.
• Apparently, this behaviour enhanced graphics benchmark scores slightly, but
it could also prevent other PCI bus devices from receiving their data through
the chipset output buffers for a fairly lengthy period - long enough to cause an
audible interruption of an audio stream.
USB sound

Swiss semiconductor company Micronas has developed a technology which


could render the sound card obsolete on future multimedia PC systems. Its USB
audio controller integrates a DSP, DAC, operation amplifier, and a USB controller
into an external unit which contains everything required to balance a loudspeaker
enclosure and connect speakers directly to a personal computer without the use of
a sound card. In addition to cost reduction, the technology offers a number of end
user benefits, such as the ability to alter speaker volume and balance on the unit
itself and the ability for audio professionals to programme the unit via an Excel
spreadsheet interface.

In early 2002 Creative Labs released another USB-based product, and one that
continued the theme of maximising connectivity which had proved so popular with
their Live!Drive concept. In essence an external version of the company's successful

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Audigy sound card, the Extigy's big advantage over a conventional PCI card was its
versatility, both in terms of connectivity and its ability to be used with any type of
PC - desktop, notebook or laptop.

The Extigy boasts an array of input and output jacks that will allow connection
to just about any audio device imaginable. Across the front panel there are three
inputs:

• A digital optical
• An 1/8in line in
• A microphone in with hardware-level control.

And two outputs:

• A digital optical out


• A line/headphones out with hardware-volume control.
The back panel houses three inputs:

• A USB jack
• A a MIDI in
• An S/PDIF in.

And five outputs:

• A MIDI out
• An S/PDIF out
• Three jacks for outputting Dolby Digital 5.1 surround sound (front, rear, and
centre/subwoofer).
There was some disappointment that Creative chose to support the somewhat
aging USB 1.1 interface in favour of a higher bandwidth alternative such as
FireWire or USB 2.0. A consequence of that is that while it is ideal for recording
from external sources and highly versatile in terms of the types of PC it can be used
with, it's questionable whether it up to the job for amateur musicians wanting to
use it to record multiple tracks of audio.

Display adapter

Definition:

A video adapter (alternate terms include graphics card, display adapter, video
card, video board and almost any combination of the words in these terms) is an
integrated circuit card in a computer or, in some cases, a monitor that provides
digital-to-analog conversion, video RAM, and a video controller so that data can be
sent to a computer's display. Today, almost all displays and video adapters adhere
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to a common denominator de facto standard, Video Graphics Array (VGA). VGA
describes how data - essentially red, green, blue data streams - is passed between
the computer and the display. It also describes the frame refresh rates in hertz. It
also specifies the number and width of horizontal lines, which essentially amounts
to specifying the resolution of the pixels that are created. VGA supports four
different resolution settings and two related image refresh rates.

In addition to VGA, most displays today adhere to one or more standards set by
the Video Electronics Standards Association (VESA). VESA defines how software
can determine what capabilities a display has. It also identifies resolutions setting
beyond those of VGA. These resolutions include 800 by 600, 1024 by 768, 1280 by
1024, and 1600 by 1200 pixels.

VGA and SVGA

VGA:

Video Graphics Array (VGA) refers to computer display hardware. It is also used
to reference a resolution of 640x480 and a 15-pin VGA connector. It was
introduced in 1987. The label of "Array" instead of "Adapter" references the reality
that VGA was a single chip design, whereas it's predecessors used multiple chips
on a full length ISA board, such as Monochrome Display Adapter (MDA) , Color
Graphics Adapter (CDA) and Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA).

VGA was introduced by IBM, and is the last IBM standard that the majority of
PC manufacturers conformed to. When operating systems such as Windows boot
today, they are in VGA mode before the graphics card/hardware drivers kick in,
which is why there is a noticeable difference in display without the drivers. VGA
was superceded by IBM's XGA and the multiple SVGA extensions made by other
manufacturers.

VGA's color system is backwards compatible with CGA and EGA. While CGA
could display up to 16 colors, and EGA improved upon that by making the 16
colors selectable from a palette of 64 colors, VGA expands EGA's 64 colours to 256
colors. The 640x480 resolution brought to personal computing by VGA has been
replaced by higher resolution hardware for quite a while now, but in the mobile
device market, the 640x480 resolution has come to life again in mobile phones,
MP3 hardware, PVPs and more.

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SVGA:

Any VGA board that offers display models beyond the standard VGA is referred
as Super VGA. To standardise the VGA cards available in the market video
electronics standards association introduced an industry standard called VESA-
SVGA in 1989.When using SVGA as a direct comparison to other display standards
such as XGA (Extended Graphics Array) or VGA (Video Graphics Array) the
standard resolution referred to as SVGA is 800*600 pixels.Although the number of
colours was defined in the original specification, this soon became irrelevant as (in
contrast to the old CGA and EGA standards) the interface between the video card
and the VGA or Super VGA monitor uses simple analog voltages to indicate the
desired colour depth.So although SVGA is a widely used term, it has no specific
definition in terms of resolution or bit depth. In general use, SVGA is used to
describe a display capability generally somewhere between 800x600 pixels and
1024x768 pixels at color depths ranging from 8 bits (256 colors) to 16 bits (65,536
colors).

Display:
A display is a computer output surface and projecting mechanism that shows
text and often graphic images to the computer user, using a cathode ray tube ( CRT
), liquid crystal display ( LCD ), light-emitting diode, gas plasma, or other image
projection technology. The display is usually considered to include the screen or
projection surface and the device that produces the information on the screen. In
some computers, the display is packaged in a separate unit called a monitor . In
other computers, the display is integrated into a unit with the processor and other
parts of the computer. (Some sources make the distinction that the monitor
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includes other signal-handling devices that feed and control the display or
projection device. However, this distinction disappears when all these parts become
integrated into a total unit, as in the case of notebook computers.) Displays (and
monitors) are also sometimes called video display terminals (VDTs) . The terms
display and monitor are often used interchangably.
Most computer displays use analog signals as input to the display image
creation mechanism. This requirement and the need to continually refresh the
display image mean that the computer also needs a display or video adapter . The
video adapter takes the digital data sent by application programs, stores it in video
random access memory ( video RAM ), and converts it to analog data for the display
scanning mechanism using an digital-to-analog converter ( DAC ).

Displays can be characterized according to:

• Color capability
• Sharpness and viewability
• The size of the screen
• The projection technology

What is CRT?

Stands for "Cathode Ray Tube." CRT is the technology used in traditional
computer monitors and televisions. The image on a CRT display is created by firing
electrons from the back of the tube to phosphors located towards the front of the
display. Once the electrons hit the phosphors, they light up and are projected on
the screen. The color you see on the screen is produced by a blend of red, blue, and
green light, often referred to as RGB.

The stream of electrons is guiding by magnetic charges, which is why you may
get interference with unshielded speakers or other magnetic devices that are placed
close to a CRT monitor. Flat screen or LCD displays don't have this problem, since
they don't require a magnetic charge. LCD monitors also don't use a tube, which is
what enables them to be much thinner than CRT monitors. While CRT displays are
still used by graphics professionals because of their vibrant and accurate color,
LCD displays now nearly match the quality of CRT monitors. Therefore, flat screen
displays are well on their way to replacing CRT monitors in both the consumer and
professional markets.

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CRT – Anatomy

Anatomy:

A CRT is essentially an oddly-shaped, sealed glass bottle with no air inside. It


begins with a slim neck and tapers outward until it forms a large base. The base is
the monitor's "screen" and is coated on the inside with a matrix of thousands of
tiny phosphor dots. Phosphors are chemicals which emit light when excited by a
stream of electrons: different phosphors emit different coloured light. Each dot
consists of three blobs of colored phosphor: one red, one green, one blue. These
groups of three phosphors make up what is known as a single pixel.

• In the "bottle neck" of the CRT is the electron gun, which is composed of a
cathode, heat source and focusing elements. Color monitors have three
separate electron guns, one for each phosphor colour. Images are created when
electrons, fired from the electron guns, converge to strike their respective
phosphor blobs.

• Convergence is the ability of the three electron beams to come together at a


single spot on the surface of the CRT. Precise convergence is necessary as CRT
displays work on the principal of additive coloration, whereby combinations of
different intensities of red green and blue phosphors create the illusion of
millions of colours.

• When each of the primary colors are added in equal amounts they will form a
white spot, while the absence of any colour creates a black spot.
Misconvergence shows up as shadows which appear around text and graphic
images.

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• The electron gun radiates electrons when the heater is hot enough to liberate
electrons (negatively charged) from the cathode. In order for the electrons to
reach the phosphor, they have first to pass through the monitor's focusing
elements.

• While the radiated electron beam will be circular in the middle of the screen, it
has a tendency to become elliptical as it spreads its outer areas, creating a
distorted image in a process referred to as astigmatism. The focusing elements
are set up in such a way as to initially focus the electron flow into a very thin
beam and then - having corrected for astigmatism - in a specific direction.

• This is how the electron beam lights up a specific phosphor dot, the electrons
being drawn toward the phosphor dots by a powerful, positively charged anode,
located near the screen.

• The deflection yoke around the neck of the CRT creates a magnetic field which
controls the direction of the electron beams, guiding them to strike the proper
position on the screen.
• This starts in the top left corner (as viewed from the front) and flashes on and
off as it moves across the row, or "raster", from left to right.
• When it reaches the edge of the screen, it stops and moves down to the next
line. Its motion from right to left is called horizontal retrace and is timed to
coincide with the horizontal blanking interval so that the retrace lines will be
invisible.
• The beam repeats this process until all lines on the screen are traced, at which
point it moves from the bottom to the top of the screen - during the vertical
retrace interval - ready to display the next screen image.
• Since the surface of a CRT is not truly spherical, the beams which have to
travel to the centre of the display are foreshortened, while those that travel to
the corners of the display are comparatively longer. This means that the period
of time beams are subjected to magnetic deflection varies, according to their
direction.
• To compensate, CRT's have a deflection circuit which dynamically varies the
deflection current depending on the position that the electron beam should
strike the CRT surface.
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• Before the electron beam strikes the phosphor dots, it travels thorough a
perforated sheet located directly in front of the phosphor.
• Originally known as a "shadow mask", these sheets are now available in a
number of forms, designed to suit the various CRT tube technologies that have
emerged over the years.

Number of important functions:

• They "mask" the electron beam, forming a smaller, more rounded point that
can strike individual phosphor dots cleanly
• They filter out stray electrons, thereby minimizing "overspill" and ensuring that
only the intended phosphors are hit
• By guiding the electrons to the correct phosphor colors, they permit
independent control of brightness of the monitor's three primary colours.

When the beam impinges on the front of the screen, the energetic electrons
collide with the phosphors that correlate to the pixels of the image that's to be
created on the screen. When this happens each is illuminated, to a greater or lesser
extent, and light is emitted in the color of the individual phosphor blobs. Their
proximity causes the human eye to perceive the combination as a single colored
pixel.

Resolution And Refresh rate

Resolution :

Refers to the sharpness and clarity of an image. The term is most often used
to describe monitors, printers, and bit-mapped graphic images. In the case of dot-
matrix and laser printers, the resolution indicates the number of dots per inch.

• For example, a 300-dpi (dots per inch) printer is one that is capable of printing
300 distinct dots in a line 1 inch long. This means it can print 90,000 dots per
square inch.For graphics monitors, the screen resolution signifies the number
of dots (pixels) on the entire screen.

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• For example, a 640-by-480 pixel screen is capable of displaying 640 distinct
dots on each of 480 lines, or about 300,000 pixels. This translates into
different dpi measurements depending on the size of the screen.

• For example, a 15-inch VGA monitor (640x480) displays about 50 dots per
inch.Printers, monitors, scanners, and other I/O devices are often classified as
high resolution, medium resolution, or low resolution. The actual resolution
ranges for each of these grades is constantly shifting as the technology
improves.

Resolution of digital images:


The resolution of digital images can be described in many different ways.

Pixel resolution:

The term resolution is often used as a pixel count in digital imaging, even
though American, Japanese, and international standards specify that it should not
be so used, at least in the digital camera field. An image of N pixels high by M
pixels wide can have any resolution less than N lines per picture height, or N TV
lines. But when the pixel counts are referred to as resolution, the convention is to
describe the pixel resolution with the set of two positive integer numbers, where the
first number is the number of pixel columns (width) and the second is the number
of pixel rows (height), for example as 640 by 480.

Another popular convention is to cite resolution as the total number of pixels in


the image, typically given as number of megapixels, which can be calculated by
multiplying pixel columns by pixel rows and dividing by one million. Other
conventions include describing pixels per length unit or pixels per area unit, such
as pixels per inch or per square inch. None of these pixel resolutions are true
resolutions, but they are widely referred to as such; they serve as upper bounds on
image resolution.

Below is an illustration of how the same image might appear at different pixel
resolutions, if the pixels were poorly rendered as sharp squares (normally, a
smooth image reconstruction from pixels would be preferred, but for illustration of
pixels, the sharp squares make the point better).

Refresh rate:

The Refresh rate is the number of times a display's image is repainted or


refreshed per second. As it denotes a frequency of a process, the refresh rate is
expressed in hertz. That is, a refresh rate of 75 Hz means the image is refreshed 75
times in one second. For academic interest, it should be kept in mind that refresh
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rate is different from frame rate in that refresh rate means the repeated
illumination of identical frames, while frame rate measures how often a display
image can change into another.The refresh rate is also referred to as the scan rate,
vertical scan rate or the vertical refresh rate.

Calculating Maximum Refresh Rate:


Where VSF = vertical scanning frequency (refresh rate) and HSF = horizontal
scanning frequency the formula for calculating a CRT monitor's maximum refresh
rate is:
VSF = HSF / number of horizontal lines x 0.95
So, a monitor with a horizontal scanning frequency of 96kHz at a resolution of
1280x1024 would have a maximum refresh rate of:
VSF = 96,000 / 1024 x 0.95 = 89Hz.
If the same monitor were set to a resolution of 1600x1200, its maximum refresh
rate would be:
VSF = 96,000 / 1200 x 0.95 = 76Hz.

LCD
LCDs - Liquid Crystal Displays:

• A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat panel used for electronically
displaying information such as text, images, and moving pictures.

• Its uses include monitors for computers, televisions, instrument panels, and
other devices ranging from aircraft cockpit displays, to every-day consumer
devices such as video players, gaming devices, clocks, watches, calculators,
and telephones.

• Among its major features are its lightweight construction, its portability, and
its ability to be produced in much larger screen sizes than are practical for the
construction of cathode ray tube (CRT) display technology.

• Its low electrical power consumption enables it to be used in battery-powered


electronic equipment. It is an electronically-modulated optical device made up
of any number of pixels filled with liquid crystals and arrayed in front of a light
source (backlight) or reflector to produce images in color or monochrome.

• The earliest discovery leading to the development of LCD technology, the


discovery of liquid crystals, dates from 1888. By 2008, worldwide sales of
televisions with LCD screens had surpassed the sale of CRT units.

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Creating an LCD

There's more to building an LCD than simply creating a sheet of liquid crystals. The
combination of four facts makes LCDs possible:

• Light can be polarized.


• Liquid crystals can transmit and change polarized light.
• The structure of liquid crystals can be changed by electric current.
• There are transparent substances that can conduct electricity.

An LCD is a device that uses these four facts in a surprising way.

• To create an LCD, you take two pieces of polarized glass. A special polymer
that creates microscopic grooves in the surface is rubbed on the side of the
glass that does not have the polarizing film on it. The grooves must be in the
same direction as the polarizing film. You then add a coating of nematic
liquid crystals to one of the filters.
• The grooves will cause the first layer of molecules to align with the filter's
orientation. Then add the second piece of glass with the polarizing film at a
right angle to the first piece. Each successive layer of TN molecules will
gradually twist until the uppermost layer is at a 90-degree angle to the bottom,
matching the polarized glass filters.
• As light strikes the first filter, it is polarized. The molecules in each layer then
guide the light they receive to the next layer. As the light passes through the
liquid crystal layers, the molecules also change the light's plane of vibration to
match their own angle.
• When the light reaches the far side of the liquid crystal substance, it vibrates
at the same angle as the final layer of molecules. If the final layer is matched
up with the second polarized glass filter, then the light will pass through.
• If we apply an electric charge to liquid crystal molecules, they untwist. When
they straighten out, they change the angle of the light passing through them so
that it no longer matches the angle of the top polarizing filter. Consequently,
no light can pass through that area of the LCD, which makes that area darker
than the surrounding areas.
• Building a simple LCD is easier than you think. Your start with the sandwich
of glass and liquid crystals described above and add two transparent electrodes
to it. For example, imagine that you want to create the simplest possible LCD
with just a single rectangular electrode on it.

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The layers would look like this:

• The LCD needed to do this job is very basic. It has a mirror (A) in back, which
makes it reflective. Then, we add a piece of glass (B) with a polarizing film on
the bottom side, and a common electrode plane (C) made of indium-tin oxide
on top.
• A common electrode plane covers the entire area of the LCD. Above that is the
layer of liquid crystal substance (D).
• Next comes another piece of glass (E) with an electrode in the shape of the
rectangle on the bottom and, on top, another polarizing film (F), at a right
angle to the first one.
• The electrode is hooked up to a power source like a battery.
• When there is no current, light entering through the front of the LCD will
simply hit the mirror and bounce right back out. But when the battery
supplies current to the electrodes, the liquid crystals between the common-
plane electrode and the electrode shaped like a rectangle untwist and block the
light in that region from passing through. That makes the LCD show the
rectangle as a black area.
How LCD Works
Basic Working Principle of LCD Panel

• A LCD display consists of many pixels, this is what the resolution stands for,
the number of pixels.

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• Each of these pixels is an LCD panel, and it is seen as a multi-layer
sandwich supported by a fluorescent backlight.

• At the 2 far ends of the LCD panel are non-alkaline, transparent glass
substrates with smooth surface and free of surface scratches.

• The glass substrates are attached to polarizer film that transmits or absorbs
a specific component of polarized light.

• In between the 2 glass substrates is layer of the nematic phase liquid


crystals. There is also a colour filter containing the 3 primary colours (red,
green and blue).

• Each of the polarized glass is arranged at right angles to each other, so when
electric current was passed through the LCD panel, the liquid crystals are
aligned with the first polarized glass encountered and will make a 90o twist
when approaching the other polarized glass at the end.

• When this happens, the light from the fluorescent backlight is able to pass
through and thus giving us a lighted pixel on the monitor.

• When there is no electric current, the liquid crystals will not twist and thus
the light will not pass through and a black pixel will be shown. The reason
we see the colored images are due to the colour filter, light passes through
the filtered cells creates the colors.

Plasma Displays:
Also called "gas discharge display," a flat-screen technology that uses tiny
cells lined with phosphor that are full of inert ionized gas (typically a mix of xenon
and neon). Three cells make up one pixel (one cell has red phosphor, one green,
one blue). The cells are sandwiched between x- and y-axis panels, and a cell is
selected by charging the appropriate x and y electrodes. The charge causes the gas
in the cell to emit ultraviolet light, which causes the phosphor to emit color. The
amount of charge determines the intensity, and the combination of the different
intensities of red, green and blue produce all the colors required.

Plasma displays were initially monochrome, typically orange, but color


displays have become very popular and are used for home theater and computer
monitors as well as digital signs. The plasma technology is similar to the way neon
signs work combined with the red, green and blue phosphor technology of a CRT.
Plasma monitors consume significantly more current than LCD based monitors.

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Plasma Pixels
Each pixel is made up of three cells full of ionized gas that are lined with red,
green and blue phosphors. When charged, the gas emits ultraviolet light that
causes the phosphors to emit their colors.

How does plasma display work?

• Inside a Plasma unit sit hundreds and thousands of tiny pixels which are cells
filled with a mixture of neon and xenon gasses.
• These cells are sandwiched between two glass panels running parallel to each
other.
• A single pixel is made up of three colored sub-pixels, one sub pixel has a red
light phosphor, one has a green light phosphor and the third has a blue light
phosphor.
• A plasma screen works by controlling each individual phosphor.
• Each phosphor is driven by its own electrode, which activates tiny pockets of
gas between the front sheet of glass and the phosphor-coated rear panel which
stimulates the gas to release ultraviolet light photons, which are invisible to
the human eye.
• The released ultraviolet photons interact with phosphor material coated on the
inside wall of the cell.
• Phosphors are substances that give off light when they are exposed to other
light eg. Ultraviolet light.
• The phosphors in a pixel give off colored light when they are charged.
• The cells are situated in a grid like structure, the plasma display's computer
charges the electrodes that intersect at that cell.
• It does this thousands of times a second, charging each cell, which effectively
turns the pixel on and off to allow the creation of movement and colour change
on the screen.
• The varying intensity of the current can create millions of different
combination's of red, green and blue across the entire spectrum of color.

TFT-LCD

TFT-LCD (Thin Film Transistor-Liquid Crystal Display) is a variant of Liquid


Crystal Display (LCD) which uses Thin-Film Transistor (TFT) technology to improve
image quality. TFT LCD is one type of active matrix LCD, though it is usually
synonymous with LCD. It is used in both flat panel displays and projectors. In
computing, TFT monitors are rapidly displacing competing CRT technology, and are
commonly available in sizes from 12 to 30 inches. As of 2006, they have also made
inroads on the television market.

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Construction:

• Normal Liquid Crystal Displays like those found in calculators have direct
driven image elements - a voltage can be applied across one segment without
interfering with other segments of the display.
• This is impractical for a large display with a large number of picture elements
(pixels), since it would require millions of connections - top and bottom
connections for each one of the three colors (red, green and blue) of every pixel.
• To avoid this issue, the pixels are addressed in rows and columns which
reduce the connection count from millions to thousands. If all the pixels in one
row are driven with a positive voltage and all the pixels in one column are
driven with a negative voltage, then the pixel at the intersection has the largest
applied voltage and is switched.
• The problem with this solution is that all the pixels in the same column see a
fraction of the applied voltage as do all the pixels in the same row, so although
they are not switched completely, they do tend to darken.
• The solution to the problem is to supply each pixel with its own transistor
switch which allows each pixel to be individually controlled. The low leakage
current of the transistor also means that the voltage applied to the pixel does
not leak away between refreshes to the display image.
• Each pixel is a small capacitor with a transparent ITO layer at the front, a
transparent layer at the back, and a layer of insulating liquid crystal between.
• The circuit layout of a TFT-LCD is very similar to the one used in a DRAM
memory. However, rather than building the transistors out of silicon which has
been formed into a crystalline wafer, they are fabricated from a thin film of
silicon deposited on a glass panel.
• Transistors take up only a small fraction of the area of each pixel, and the
silicon film is etched away in the remaining areas, allowing light to pass
through.
• The silicon layer for TFT-LCDs is typically deposited using the PECVD process
from a silane gas precursor to produce an amorphous silicon film.
• Polycrystalline silicon is also used in some displays where higher performance
is needed from the TFTs, typically in very high resolution displays or ones
where performing some data processing on the display itself is desirable.
• Both amorphous and polycrystalline silicon TFTs have very poor performance
compared with transistors fabricated from single-crystal silicon.
Types

Twisted nematic (TN):

• The inexpensive twisted nematic display is the most common consumer display
type. The pixel response time on modern TN panels is sufficiently fast to avoid
the shadow-trail and ghosting artifacts of earlier production.

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• The fast response time has been emphasized in advertising TN displays,
although in most cases this number does not reflect performance across the
entire range of possible color transitions.More recent use of RTC (Response
Time Compensation—Overdrive) technologies has allowed manufacturers to
significantly reduce grey-to-grey (G2G) transitions, without significantly
improving the ISO response time.
• Response times are now quoted in G2G figures, with 4ms and 2ms now being
commonplace for TN-based models. The good response time and low cost has
led to the dominance of TN in the consumer market.
• TN displays suffer from limited viewing angles, especially in the vertical
direction. Colors will shift when viewed off-perpendicular. In the vertical
direction, colors will shift so much that they will invert past a certain angle.
• Also, TN panels represent colors using only 6 bits per color, instead of 8, and
thus are not able to display the 16.7 million color shades (24-bit truecolor) that
are available from graphics cards. Instead, these panels display interpolated
24-bit color using a dithering method that combines adjacent pixels to
simulate the desired shade. They can also use Frame Rate Control (FRC),
which cycles pixels on and off to simulate a given shade.
• These color simulation methods are noticeable to many people and bothersome
to some. FRC tends to be most noticeable in darker tones, while dithering
appears to make the individual pixels of the LCD visible. Overall, color
reproduction and linearity on TN panels is poor.
• Shortcomings in display color gamut (often referred to as a percentage of the
NTSC 1953 color gamut) are also due to backlighting technology.
• It is not uncommon for displays with CCFL (Cold Cathode Fluorescent Lamps)-
based lighting to range from 10% to 26% of the NTSC color gamut, whereas
other kind of displays, utilizing RGB LED backlights, may extend past 100% of
the NTSC color gamut—a difference quite perceivable by the human eye.
• The transmittance of a pixel of an LCD panel typically does not change linearly
with the applied voltage, and the sRGB standard for computer monitors
requires a specific nonlinear dependence of the amount of emitted light as a
function of the RGB value.

IPS:

• IPS (In-Plane Switching) was developed by Hitachi in 1996 to improve on the


poor viewing angles and color reproduction of TN panels. Most also support
true 8-bit color. These improvements came at a loss of response time, which
was initially on the order of 50ms. IPS panels were also extremely expensive.
• IPS has since been superseded by S-IPS (Super-IPS, Hitachi in 1998), which
has all the benefits of IPS technology with the addition of improved pixel
refresh timing. Though color reproduction approaches that of CRTs, the
contrast ratio remains relatively weak. S-IPS technology is widely used in panel

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sizes of 20" and above. LG and Philips remain one of the main manufacturers
of S-IPS based panels.
• AS-IPS - Advanced Super IPS, also developed by Hitachi in 2002, improves
substantially on the contrast ratio of traditional S-IPS panels to the point
where they are second only to some S-PVAs. AS-IPS is also a term used for
NEC displays (e.g. NEC LCD20WGX2) based on S-IPS technology, in this case,
developed by LG.Philips.
• A-TW-IPS - Advanced True White IPS, developed by LG.Philips LCD for NEC, is
a custom S-IPS panel with a TW (True White) color filter to make white look
more natural and to increase color gamut. This is used in
professional/photography LCDs.

MVA:

• MVA (Multi-domain Vertical Alignment) was originally developed in 1998 by


Fujitsu as a compromise between TN and IPS. It achieved fast pixel response
(at the time), wide viewing angles, and high contrast at the cost of brightness
and color reproduction.
• Modern MVA panels can offer wide viewing angles (second only to S-IPS
technology), good black depth, good color reproduction and depth, and fast
response times thanks to the use of RTC technologies.
• There are several "next generation" technologies based on MVA, including AU
Optronics' P-MVA and A-MVA, as well as Chi Mei Optoelectronics' S-MVA.
• Analysts predicted that MVA would corner the mainstream market, but
instead, TN has risen to dominance.
• A contributing factor was the higher cost of MVA, along with its slower pixel
response (which rises dramatically with small changes in brightness). Cheaper
MVA panels can also use dithering/FRC.

PVA:

• PVA (Patterned Vertical Alignment) and S-PVA (Super Patterned Vertical


Alignment) are alternative versions of MVA technology offered by Samsung.
• Developed independently, it suffers from the same problems as MVA, but
boasts very high contrast ratios such as 3000:1. Value-oriented PVA panels
also use dithering/FRC. S-PVA panels all use true 8-bit color electronics and
do not use any color simulation methods. PVA and S-PVA can offer good black
depth, wide viewing angles and fast response times thanks to modern RTC
technologies.

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Graphic Cards

Introduction:
Graphics cards, also known as video cards, graphics accelerators or display
cards are computer hardware that takes binary data--that is, data compressed into
a system of just two digits, 1s and 0s--and converts this data into images that are
displayed on the computer's monitor. Graphics cards are external devices that can
be bought and attached to the motherboard through an appropriate slot. Some
motherboards have an integrated graphics card, meaning the graphics card has
been built in.

Like a motherboard, a graphics card is a printed circuit board that houses a


processor and RAM. It also has an input/output system (BIOS) chip, which stores
the card's settings and performs diagnostics on the memory, input and output at
startup. A graphics card's processor, called a graphics processing unit (GPU), is
similar to a computer's CPU. A GPU, however, is designed specifically for
performing the complex mathematical and geometric calculations that are
necessary for graphics rendering. Some of the fastest GPUs have more transistors
than the average CPU. A GPU produces a lot of heat, so it is usually located under
a heat sink or a fan.

Driver software & RAMDAC

Driver software:

A modern graphics card's driver software is vitally important when it comes to


performance and features. For most applications, the drivers translate what the
application wants to display on the screen into instructions that the graphics
processor can use. The way the drivers translate these instructions is of paramount

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importance. Modern graphics processors do more than change single pixels at a
time; they have sophisticated line and shape drawing capabilities, they can move
large blocks of information around and a lot more besides. It is the driver's job to
decide on the most efficient way to use these graphics processor features,
depending on what the application requires to be displayed.

In most cases, a separate driver is used for each resolution or color depth. This
means that, even taking into account the different overheads associated with
different resolutions and colors, a graphics card can have markedly different
performance at different resolutions, depending on how well a particular driver has
been written and optimized.

The RAMDAC:

The screen image information stored in the video memory (RAM) is


digital,because computers operate on digital numbers. Every value is stored as sets
of ones and zeros; in the case of video data, the patterns of ones and zeros control
the color and intensity of every pixel on the screen.The monitor is analog. In order
to display the image on the screen, the information in video memory must be
converted to analog signals and sent to the monitor.The device that does this is
called the RAMDAC, which stands for Random Access Memory Digital Analog
Converter.

Many times per second, the RAMDAC reads the contents of video memory,
converts the information and sends it over the video cable to the monitor. The type
and speed of the RAMDAC has a direct impact on the quality of the screen image,
how often the screen can be refreshed per secons, and the maximum resolution
and number of colors that we can display.

The A/D (analog to digital, the RAMDAC of the video card) and D/A (digital to
analog) conversions only reduce image quality on a flat panal monitor - nothing
else! Hence, the digital interface by-pass the RAMDAC of the graphics controller:

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Layout of Components in Graphics card

Components:

The modern PC graphics card consists of four main components:

1. The graphics processor


2. The video memory
3. The random access memory digital-to-analogue converter (RAMDAC)
4. The driver software

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The early VGA systems were slow. The CPU had a heavy workload processing
the graphics data, and the quantity of data transferred across the bus to the
graphics card placed excessive burdens on the system. The problems were
exacerbated by the fact that ordinary DRAM graphics memory couldn't be written
to and read from simultaneously, meaning that the RAMDAC would have to wait to
read the data while the CPU wrote, and vice versa.

Many times per second, the RAMDAC reads the contents of the video memory,
converts it into an analogue RGB signal and sends it over the video cable to the
monitor. It does this by using a look-up table to convert the digital signal to a
voltage level for each colour. There is one Digital-to-Analogue Converter (DAC) for
each of the three primary colours the CRT uses to create a complete spectrum of
colours. The intended result is the right mix needed to create the colour of a single
pixel. The rate at which the RAMDAC can convert the information, and the design
of the graphics processor itself, dictates the range of refresh rates that the graphics
card can support. The RAMDAC also dictates the number of colours available in a
given resolution, depending on its internal architecture.

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The problem was solved by the introduction of dedicated graphics processing
chips on modern graphics cards. Instead of sending a raw screen image across to
the frame buffer, the CPU sends a smaller set of drawing instructions, which are
interpreted by the graphics card's proprietary driver and executed by the card's on-
board processor.

Operations including bitmap transfers and painting, window resizing and


repositioning, line drawing, font scaling and polygon drawing can be handled by the
card's graphics processor, which is designed to handle these tasks in hardware at
far greater speeds than the software running on the system's CPU. The graphics
processor then writes the frame data to the frame buffer. As there's less data to
transfer, there's less congestion on the system bus, and the PC's CPU workload is
greatly reduced.

Video Memory
Video memory:

The memory that holds the video image is also referred to as the frame buffer
and is usually implemented on the graphics card itself. Early systems implemented
video memory in standard DRAM. However, this requires continual refreshing of
the data to prevent it from being lost and cannot be modified during this refresh
process. The consequence, particularly at the very fast clock speeds demanded by
modern graphics cards, is that performance is badly degraded.

An advantage of implementing video memory on the graphics board itself is


that it can be customized for its specific task and, indeed, this has resulted in a
proliferation of new memory technologies:

Video RAM (VRAM):

A special type of dual-ported DRAM, which can be written to and read from at
the same time. It also requires far less frequent refreshing than ordinary DRAM and
consequently performs much better

Windows RAM (WRAM):

As used by the hugely successful Matrox Millennium card, is also dual-ported


and can run slightly faster than conventional VRAM

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EDO DRAM:

Which provides a higher bandwidth than DRAM, can be clocked higher than
normal DRAM and manages the read/write cycles more efficiently

SDRAM:
Similar to EDO RAM except the memory and graphics chips run on a common
clock used to latch data, allowing SDRAM to run faster than regular EDO RAM

SGRAM:
Same as SDRAM but also supports block writes and write-per-bit, which yield
better performance on graphics chips that support these enhanced features

DRDRAM:
Direct RDRAM is a totally new, general-purpose memory architecture which
promises a 20-fold performance improvement over conventional DRAM.

Some designs integrate the graphics circuitry into the motherboard itself and
use a portion of the system's RAM for the frame buffer. This is called unified
memory architecture and is used for reasons of cost reduction only. Since such
implementations cannot take advantage of specialised video memory technologies
they will always result in inferior graphics performance.

The information in the video memory frame buffer is an image of what appears
on the screen, stored as a digital bitmap. But while the video memory contains
digital information its output medium, the monitor, uses analogue signals. The
analogue signal requires more than just an on or off signal, as it's used to
determine where, when and with what intensity the electron guns should be fired
as they scan across and down the front of the monitor. This is where the RAMDAC
comes in.

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The table below summarizes the characteristics of six popular types of

Memory used in graphics subsystems:

EDO VRAM WRAM SDRAM SGRAM RDRAM

Max.throughput(MBps) 400 400 960 800 800 600

Dual- or single-ported single dual dual single single single

Typical Data Width 64 64 64 64 64 8

330MHz
Speed (typical) 50-60ns 50-60ns 50-60ns 10-15ns 8-10ns
clock speed

1998 saw dramatic changes in the graphics memory market and a pronounced
market shift toward SDRAMs caused by the price collapse of SDRAMs and resulting
price gap with SGRAMs. However, delays in the introduction of RDRAM, coupled
with its significant cost premium, saw SGRAM - and in particular DDR SGRAM,
which performs I/O transactions on both rising and falling edges of the clock cycle
- recover its position of graphics memory of choice during the following year.
The greater number of colours, or the higher the resolution or, the more video
memory will be required. However, since it is a shared resource reducing one will
allow an increase in the other.

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The table below shows the possible combinations for typical amounts of video
memory:

Video memory Resolution Colour depth No. colours

1024x768 8-bit 256


1Mb
800x600 16-bit 65,536

1024x768 8-bit
256
2Mb 1280x1024 16-bit
65,53616.7
million
800x600 24-bit

1024x768
4Mb 24-bit 16.7 million

6Mb 1280x1024 24-bit 16.7 million

8Mb 1600x1200 32-bit 16.7 million

Even though the total amount of video memory installed may not be needed for
a particular resolution, the extra memory is often used for caching information for
the graphics processor. For example, the caching of commonly used graphical
items - such as text fonts and icons - avoids the need for the graphics subsystem to
load these each time a new letter is written or an icon is moved and thereby
improves performance.

Video capture card installation

How to Install a Graphics Card:

A graphics card is an integrated circuit card that enables a computer to display


pictures on its monitor. Most graphics cards follow the VGA standard and support
multiple resolution settings.

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Step1: Choose a graphics card that is compatible with your computer system.

Step2: Uninstall the existing graphics card drivers. To do that, right-click on "My
Computer," select "Properties," click on "Hardware" and click on "Device Manager."
In that section, you will find a head called "Display Adapter," under which you will
find the listing for your existing graphics card. Double-click on that to find the
"Properties" menu. Click on the "Driver" tab to find the "Uninstall" button.

Step 3:Remove your existing graphics card. To do that, turn off your PC and
disconnect all power supply. Open the CPU case and locate the AGP slot of your
motherboard. This is found above the PCI slots. To prevent shock, secure yourself
with antistatic wrist strap. Unscrew the graphics card from the back plate and
remove it.

Step 4: Load the new card. Insert it firmly and completely. Screw it to the back
plate.

Step 5: Install new drivers. If you use Windows XP, it will guide you through the
installation process on its own; once the graphics card is installed and the
computer turned on, the system will automatically detect the new device and
prompt you to proceed with the installation.

Step 6: Alternatively, open "Control Panel" and click on the "Add/Remove


Hardware" option. The system will start looking for the new hardware (in this case,
the new graphics card). If it does not detect a new graphics card, the system will
prompt you to select from a list of existing cards or add a new device. Locate and
select the correct graphics card from the list to begin installation. If you cannot find
the graphics card, it is improperly connected or faulty. Check the physical
installation and then with your graphics card vendor.

Input Device
Definition:

• An input device is any device that provides input to a computer. There are
dozens of possible input devices, but the two most common ones are a
keyboard and mouse.

• Every key you press on the keyboard and every movement or click you make
with the mouse sends a specific input signal to the computer.

• These commands allow you to open programs, type messages, drag objects,
and perform many other functions on your computer.

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• Since the job of a computer is primarily to process input, computers are pretty
useless without input devices. Just imagine how much fun you would have
using your computer without a keyboard or mouse. Not very much. Therefore,
input devices are a vital part of every computer system.

• While most computers come with a keyboard and mouse, other input devices
may also be used to send information to the computer.

• Some examples include joysticks, MIDI keyboards, microphones, scanners,


digital cameras, webcams, card readers, UPC scanners, and scientific
measuring equipment. All these devices send information to the computer and
therefore are categorized as input devices.

Barcode scanner
Definition:

A bar code (often seen as a single word, barcode) is the small image of lines
(bars) and spaces that is affixed to retail store items, identification cards, and
postal mail to identify a particular product number, person, or location. The code
uses a sequence of vertical bars and spaces to represent numbers and other
symbols. A bar code symbol typically consists of five parts: a quiet zone, a start
character, data characters (including an optional check character), a stop
character, and another quiet zone.

A barcode reader is used to read the code. The reader uses a laser beam that is
sensitive to the reflections from the line and space thickness and variation. The
reader translates the reflected light into digital data that is transferred to a
computer for immediate action or storage. Bar codes and readers are most often

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seen in supermarkets and retail stores, but a large number of different uses have
been found for them. They are also used to take inventory in retail stores; to check
out books from a library; to track manufacturing and shipping movement; to sign
in on a job; to identify hospital patients; and to tabulate the results of direct mail
marketing returns. Very small bar codes have been used to tag honey bees used in
research. Readers may be attached to a computer (as they often are in retail store
settings) or separate and portable, in which case they store the data they read until
it can be fed into a computer.

There is no one standard bar code; instead, there are several different bar code
standards called symbologies that serve different uses, industries, or geographic
needs. Since 1973, the Uniform Product Code (UPC), regulated by the Uniform
Code Council, an industry organization, has provided a standard bar code used by
most retail stores. The European Article Numbering system (EAN), developed by Joe
Woodland, the inventor of the first bar code system, allows for an extra pair of
digits and is becoming widely used. POSTNET is the standard bar code used in the
United States for ZIP codes in bulk mailing.

Bar Code Structure


A standard 1D bar code is a series of varying width vertical lines (called bars) and
spaces. Bars and spaces together are named "elements". There are different
combinations of the bars and spaces which represent different characters.

When a bar code scanner is passed over the bar code, the light source from the
scanner is absorbed by the dark bars and not reflected, but it is reflected by the
light spaces. A photocell detector in the scanner receives the reflected light and
converts the light into an electrical signal.

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As the wand is passed over the bar code , the scanner creates a low electrical
signal for the spaces (reflected light) and a high electrical signal for the bars
(nothing is reflected); the duration of the electrical signal determines wide vs.
narrow elements. This signal can be "decoded" by the bar code reader's decoder
into the characters that the bar code represents. The decoded data is then passed
to the computer in a traditional data format.

Types
Hand Held :

These light weight barcode scanners are operated manually by firing a


connected with computer generally trigger. It can be used in any area, where
required scanning distance retail, libraries, service sector, courier industry,
hospitals. These are most economical scanning option. This category of scanners
are backed by CCD / Laser / Imaging technology.

Table Top :

This category of scanners are little bigger & heavy, compared to hand held ones
connected with computers. These are also known as stationary scanner as they are
once fixed at a specific location. The items to be scanned has to be brought here to
table top scanner, unlike hand held Barcode-Scanner-Horizonscanner where
scanner can reach the product ( within specified location). These can be fixed
vertically or horizontally and mostly throws multiple light beams on target ensuring

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100% scanning. Irrespective of barcode label’s orientation. These are expensive
than hand held scanners. Mostly these are led in last moving retail/ industrial
environment.

Wireless :

This category of scanners are mostly hand held type & are operated manually by
fising a trigger, but used at a distant place from computer. Primarily it was
designed to scan the object, which can’t be brought near computer, because of its
shape, weight or any other logistic constraint. It scans such distant objects &
transmit the data to remote computer. These are also expensive ones because of
their complexed electronics. Generally these scanners are used in retail / industrial
environment, where working area is large.

Memory Scanners :

This category of scanners are very light weight & hand held. These are used at a
distant location, where you can’t carry, computer and compare to wireless scanner,
very very economical. It can be used in any environment ( retail / export / library /
hospital / courier / service/ industry ) , where little amount of data needs to be
scanned at a remote location, stored & later transferred to computer for further
processing.

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Keyboard

Definition:

• In computing, a keyboard is an input device, partially modeled after the


typewriter keyboard, which uses an arrangement of buttons or keys, to act as
mechanical levers or electronic switches.

• A keyboard typically has characters engraved or printed on the keys and each
press of a key typically corresponds to a single written symbol. However, to
produce some symbols requires pressing and holding several keys
simultaneously or in sequence.

• While most keyboard keys produce letters, numbers or signs (characters),


other keys or simultaneous key presses can produce actions or computer
commands.

• In normal usage, the keyboard is used to type text and numbers into a word
processor, text editor or other program. In a modern computer, the
interpretation of keypresses is generally left to the software.

• A computer keyboard distinguishes each physical key from every other and
reports all keypresses to the controlling software.

• Keyboards are also used for computer gaming, either with regular keyboards or
by using keyboards with special gaming features, which can expedite
frequently used keystroke combinations.

• A keyboard is also used to give commands to the operating system of a


computer, such as Windows' Control-Alt-Delete combination, which brings up
a task window or shuts down the machine.

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Keyboard Operation

The main component of any keyboard is the key switch. These switches generate
typical codes of signal when they are depressed and it is used for interfacing with
computer system.Mechanical switches and membrane type switches are commonly
used in keyboards. When a key is depressed or released it makes or brakes an
electrical contact.During which the output signal bounces for a millisecond before
settling down to a proper signal.

Keyboard Electronics:

• The keyboard electronics includes de-bouncing techniques to eliminate


bouncing problems.
• When a key is depressed it generates a scan code and when it is released it
generates another scan code.
• The two code technique helps to identify a key when it gets struck.
• The process of finding out which key is being pressed by reading the scan
code is called keyboard scanning.
• The keyboard electronics includes a micro controller 8048 chip to perform all
its functions.
• Each key generates a unique scan code.
• The key codes are converted into ASCII format only by the software within
the system.
• This way of typematic coding of keys helps the keyboard to bte used for
different countries or different languages.
• Only the legend on the keytops is to be converted and the appropriate
software required to decode the scan code.

Keyboard Signals

The keyboard is connected to the system board through a flexible standard


connectors.

• PC XT/AT keyboard connector (5 pin DIN)


• PS/2 keyboard connector (6 pin PS/2 DIN)
• SDL connector (Advanced keyboard connector)

PC XT/AT keyboard connector (5 pin DIN):

The signals on the connector are


Pin 1: - KB Clock-Provides clock pulse to the keyboard from the system
Pin 2: - KB data-Sends the scan codes from keyboard to system serially
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Pin 3: - Not Used
Pin 4: - GND -Ground connection for keyboard circuit
Pin 5: - +5V -Provides +5V supply for the keyboard operation

PS/2 keyboard connector (6 pin PS/2 DIN):

Pin 1: - KB data-Sends the scan codes from keyboard to system serially


Pin 2: - Not Used
Pin 3: - GND -Ground connection for keyboard circuit
Pin 4: - +5V -Provides +5V supply for the keyboard operation
Pin 5: - KB Clock-Provides clock pulse to the keyboard from the system

SDL connector (Advanced keyboard connector):

Pin 1: - Not Used


Pin 2: - KB data-Sends the scan codes from keyboard to system serially
Pin 3: - GND -Ground connection for keyboard circuit
Pin 4: - KB Clock-Provides clock pulse to the keyboard from the system
Pin 5: - +5V -Provides +5V supply for the keyboard operation
Pin 6: - Not Used

Diagram:

Keyboard Troubleshooting
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Keyboard Is Dirty:

Keyboards should be cleaned with "spray-n-wipe" cleaner and a cloth or tissue


on a monthly basis. Ensure that computer is not powered up while cleaning the
keyboard. Compressed air can also be used to clean between the keyboard keys.
Another tip: clean the keys with a cotton swab dipped in alcohol.

"Keyboard Not Found" Message:


Your keyboard is not plugged into the computer securely. Unplug it and plug it
back in and the problem should go away. If this doesn't work, follow procedure:
“Computer isn't taking inputs from keyboard” (below).

Key Is Stuck:

1. If a key does not work or is stuck in the down position, you may try to
remove it with a CPU "chip puller" tool. These simple "L" shaped tools are great
at pulling out keys.
2. Once you've pulled out the stuck key, you can try to stretch the spring to
"reanimate" its action.
Computer Isn't Taking Inputs From Keyboard:

1. Is keyboard connected to computer? Ensure that the keyboard is plugged


into the keyboard jack and not into the mouse jack. If the keyboard was
unplugged, plug it back in and reboot the computer.
2. If the keyboard still doesn't work on boot-up, power down the computer and
try to borrow a friend’s known-good keyboard for troubleshooting. Plug the new
keyboard up and boot up the computer. If the new keyboard works, the old
keyboard is bad and needs to be replaced.
3. If the known-good keyboard doesn't work, check your BIOS to make sure it
sees the keyboard. It should say, "installed." If the BIOS recognizes the
keyboard, then you probably have a bad keyboard port.
I Plugged Keyboard Into Mouse Port:

1. Many mice and keyboards today use a PS/2 connector. If you plugged your
keyboard into the mouse port (or vice versa), follow steps 2 and 3.
2. Shut down the computer and plug the keyboard into the keyboard port. The
keyboard port is usually marked with a "keyboard" symbol. Plug the mouse
into the mouse port (usually marked with a mouse symbol).
3. Reboot the computer; the keyboard should work now. If keyboard doesn't
work, check your BIOS to make sure the BIOS recognizes the keyboard. You
should see the words, "installed" or "enabled" under the keyboard.

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4. If the BIOS recognizes the keyboard but it still doesn't work, you may have a
bad keyboard port.

I Spilled a drink on my keyboard!:

1. If you spill any liquid in the keyboard, turn it upside down ASAP. Drain all
the water out of the keyboard, shaking it if necessary. If you've spilled water
into the keyboard, just let it dry. You may use a hair dryer to dry out area
under the keys (remember, too much heat and you could damage the electrical
components).
2. If you've spilled a soda into the keyboard, completely rinse it in warm water.
No soap please! You may use a hair dryer at this point or just let it dry for 2
days. Ensure the keyboard is perfectly DRY before you attempt to use it again.
Don't plug a wet keyboard into electrical equipment. Think safety.
3. If the keyboard still doesn't work, replace the keyboard.
Only Types Capitals:
USUALLY THIS IS CAUSED BY THE "CAPS LOCK" KEY BEING LEFT ON.
PRESS "CAPS LOCK" KEY ONCE to fix this problem.

Page Up/Page Down Keys Are Locked:


Your "Scroll Lock" function may be engaged. Press the Scroll Lock Key
once.

Letters on Keyboard Don't Work:


Check to see if there are any obstructions to the keys. If other keys work,
then your keyboard is going bad and needs to be replaced.

Mouse
Definition:
A pointing device that is pushed around a desk area with the palm of your
hand. Traditionally mice have used roller balls to detect motion, but newer models
feature no moving parts and use integrated circuits that detect movement over the
desktop and translate that into motion.

• The most commonly used computer {pointing device}, first introduced by


{Douglas Engelbart} in 1968.
• The mouse is a device used to manipulate an on-screen pointer that's
normally shaped like an arrow. With the mouse in hand, the computer user can
select, move, and change items on the screen.
• A conventional roller-ball mouse is slid across the surface of the desk, often
on a mouse mat.
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• As the mouse moves, a ball set in a depression on the underside of the
mouse rolls accordingly. The ball is also in contact with two small shafts set at
right angles to each other inside the mouse.
• The rotating ball turns the shafts, and sensors inside the mouse measure
the shafts' rotation.
• The distance and direction information from the sensors is then transmitted
to the computer, usually through a connecting wire - the mouse's "tail".
• The computer then moves the mouse pointer on the screen to follow the
movements of the mouse.
Mouse Interface Types

The connector used to attach your mouse to the system depends on the type of
interface you are using three main interfaces are used for mouse connections, with
a fourth option you also occasionally might encounter. Mice are most commonly
connected to your computer through the following three interfaces

• Serial interface
• Dedicated motherboard (PS/2) mouse port
• USB port
Serial interface:

A popular method of connecting a mouse to older pcs is through the standard


serial interface. As with other serial devices, the connector on the end of the mouse
cable is typically a 9-pin female connector; some very old mice used a 25 pin
female connector. Only a couple of pins in the DB-9 or DB-25 connector are used
for communications between the mouse and the device driver, but the mouse
connector typically has all 9 or 25 pins present.

Because most older pcs come with two serial ports a serial mouse can be
plugged into either COM1 or COM2. The device driver, when initializing, searches
the ports to determine to which one the mouse is connected. Some mouse drivers
cant function if the serial port is set to COM3 or COM4 but most newer drivers can
work with any COM port 1-4.

Because serial mouse does not connect to the system directly it does not use
system resources by itself. Instead, the resources are those used by the serial port
to which it is connected. For example, if you have mouse connected to COM1 and if
COM2 is using the default IRQ and I/O port address range, both the serial port and
the mouse connected to it use IRQ3 and I/O port address2F8h-2FFh.

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PS/2 mouse port:

PS/2 keyboard/mouse interface PS/2 was a type of personal computer (now


obsolete) produced by IBM in the 1980s. The interface, a mini DIN connector,
survives as the commonest connector for keyboards and mice. The pin connections
are identical for both devices and frequently the interface may be used for either
device. This feature is commonly found in laptop computers where a full-sized
keyboard or mouse may be used in place of the native one.

USB:
The extremely flexible USB port become the most popular port to use for mice
as well as keyboards an other I/O devices. (Universal Serial Bus) A widely used
hardware interface for attaching a maximum of 127 peripheral devices to a
computer. There are usually at least two USB ports on laptops and four USB ports
on desktop computers. After appearing on PCs in 1997, USB quickly became
popular for connecting keyboards, mice, printers and external drives and
eventually replaced the PC's serial and parallel ports.
USB devices are "hot swappable;" they can be plugged in and unplugged while
the computer is on. This feature, combined with easy-to-reach ports on the front of
the computer case, gave rise to the ubiquitous USB drive for backup and data

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transport.

Mouse types

Different type of computer mouse.

Different type of computer mouse has been invented to put an end to the
complicated commands in the old version of operating system.Since its arrival the
mouse has reduced the frequent use of the computer keyboard but especially has
simplified the user to access to various functions.With this device you can track,
drag, select, move files, icons and folders…, draws pictures… navigate all over the
applications of your computer.

Based on Working

To facilitate your multiple tasks you can use one of the different types of mice.

• The mechanical mouse requires a ball to move the cursor on the screen. To
get more efficacies with this type of mice, a flat surface named mouse pads is
necessary.
• The optomechanical or optical-mechanical mouse is a combination of the
optical and the mechanical technologies. It uses a ball but detects the mouse
movement optically. It is now the most commonly used with PC.
• The optical mouse uses a laser; precisely an optical sensor to help detecting
the mouse’s moving. More expensive than the two other types, the optical mouses
offer more precision and speed and even can be used on any surface.

Based on Interface

• The RS-232C serial port connects the mouse to the computer through a
thin electrical cord using a 9 pin connector.
• The PS/2 port do the same as the first interface mentioned but using a 6
pin connector.
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• The USB interface receives various types of mice through a USB connector.
One of these advantages to use the USB mouse is the possibility to plug-and-play
(it) in front or in the back of your computer case, when it contains these kinds of
port.
• One of the most interesting mouse technologies invented is the wireless
mouse which relies infrared, radio signals or Bluetooth to communicate with the
computer. Using no cord, the wireless mouse contains a transmitter to send
information to a receiver itself connected to the computer. The wireless mouse is
usable from 2m to 10m of the computer.
• The cordless mouse uses the wireless communication technology (via
infrared, radio or Bluetooth) to transmit data to the computer. And like the
wireless, it doesn’t use any cord.
• Other specification to consider about different type of mice is the function of
the buttons. Depending on the manufacturer a computer mouse can have 1 to 4
buttons. However the most commonly used is the two mouse buttons of which the
primary button is located to the left side of the mouse.
• Especially for computer games players, some mice have been built with five
or more extensive arrays of buttons which give easily access to various functions.
• Finally each of the different type of computer mouses seems more usable
with the scroll wheel, very effective with long document pages. As a matter of fact
the scroll wheel can be rotated up and down to navigate within a page as the
arrows “up and down” buttons on the keyboard.
• Sometimes instead of the scroll wheel, a center button or a “rocker” button is
designed to the same effects. But they have to be pressed at the top or bottom to
achieve the same tasks.
• Even though you are using Laptop computer it’s actually easier to navigate
with one these different types of computer mouse.

Optical Mouse

An optical mouse is an advanced computer pointing device that uses a light-


emitting diode ( LED ), an optical sensor, and digital signal processing ( DSP ) in
place of the traditional mouse ball and electromechanical transducer. Movement is
detected by sensing changes in reflected light, rather than by interpreting the
motion of a rolling sphere.
The optical mouse takes microscopic snapshots of the working surface at a
rate of more than 1,000 images per second. If the mouse is moved, the image
changes. The tiniest irregularities in the surface can produce images good enough
for the sensor and DSP to generate usable movement data. The best surfaces reflect
but scatter light; an example is a blank sheet of white drawing paper. Some
surfaces do not allow the sensor and DSP to function properly because the
irregularities are too small to be detected. An example of a poor optical-mousing
surface is unfrosted glass.

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In practice, an optical mouse does not need cleaning, because it has no
moving parts. This all-electronic feature also eliminates mechanical fatigue and
failure. If the device is used with the proper surface, sensing is more precise than is
possible with any pointing device using the old electromechanical design. This is an
asset in graphics applications, and it makes computer operation easier in general.

Features:

1.Optical Technology:
Navigate with better speed, accuracy and reliability—the optical sensor tracks
movement on nearly any surface without the hassle of clogged mouse parts.
2.Scroll Even Faster:
Move through your documents quickly without having to click on the scroll
bar.
3.Comfortable in Either Hand:
Use your mouse with your left or right hand—ambidextrous design makes it
comfortable either way.
4.Customizable Buttons:
Get quick access to the media, programs, and files you use most often with
customizable buttons.

Optical Mouse Operation

Now, almost everyone tries to switch from ball/roller mouse to Optical mouse.
As the cost of the mouse is also being decreasing, the replacement is quiet
quicker.To connect this optical mouse, the necessity is PS/2 or USB plug, and
windows, macintosh or LINUX operating system installed in the computer.
The main components of the optical mouse are:

• Inbuilt optical sensor


• High speed camera which can take 1000 pictures at a time
• LED

These optical mouses do have an inbulit optical sensor. The optical sensor
reads the movements of the optical mouse (moved by the user) with the help of the
light rays which comes out from the bottom. ( The area in which a light glows).
When the user moves the optical mouse, the LED (Light Emitting Diode) present
inside the mouse emits the light according the minute movements. These
movements are send to the camera as light rays. The camera captures the
difference in light rays as images. When the camera captures the images, each and
every pictures and compared to one another with the digital technology. With the
comparison, the speed of the mouse and the direction of the movement of the
mouse are rapidly calculated. According to the calculation, the pointer moves on
the screen.

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Comparison between a roller/ball mouse and optical mouse:

• The optical mouse does not have any movable parts as of the ball mouse. So,
the life of the optical mouse is long compared to the ordinary mouse.
• Since the mouse works with the sensor recognition, the movements are
clearly captured and so the moves give out a same function in all moves.
• Since the ball is absent in the optical mouse, the weight of the optical mouse
is less than that of the ball mouse.
• The dust clustering problem is abolished in the optical mouse as its parts
are all static.
• The optical mouse can also function good without a mouse pad, which is
impossible with ordinary mouses.Any way, optical mouses cannot be used above
reflecting glasses or any glass materials.

Installing a Mouse

How to Install a Mouse After Rebooting a PC:

A mouse is something that is very useful when using a PC. Installing one is
an easy process, even for those that don’t know much about computers.
Fortunately, most operating systems will now come with mouse software built
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into them, which makes installation a snap. If you have just rebooted your
computer and you need to install a mouse for it.

Step1:
Determine what kind of mouse you have. There are two common types of
mice in use today, these are USB and PS/2. Inspect the plug on the end of the
cord on the mouse. If your plug is a metal rectangle, this is a USB mouse. If it
is a circle with some pins in the middle, this is a PS/2 mouse.
mouse.

Step2:
Locate the correct place to plug in your mouse on your computer. The hole
that you need to plug the mouse into will match the plug at the end of the
mouse. If your mouse is a USB mouse, it will go into a rectangular hole that is
usually located in the back panel of the tower, or sometimes on the front of the
case

Step3:
Plug your mouse into the appropriate port. Your mouse will be keyed so
that it can only plug in one way, so there is no need to worry about plugging it
in incorrectly. After you plug it in, you may hear your PC speakers make a
noise and see something pop up on the lower right side of the screen. This
means that your OS will have installed all of the needed software for your
mouse. Most operating systems built in the past ten years or so come with
built in mouse support. Unless you have a specialty mouse for gaming or
otherwise, your operating system will automatically install the required
software for it.

Step4:
Move the mouse to make sure that your pointer moves on screen. When
this happens, you have successfully installed your mouse.

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Memory

Memory is the electronic holding place for instructions and data that your
computer's microprocessor can reach quickly. When your computer is in normal
operation, its memory usually contains the main parts of the operating system and
some or all of the application programs and related data that are being used.
Memory is often used as a shorter synonym for random access memory (RAM). This
kind of memory is located on one or more microchips that are physically close to
the microprocessor in your computer. The more RAM you have, the less frequently
the computer has to access instructions and data from the more slowly accessed
hard disk form of storage.

Memory is sometimes distinguished from storage, or the physical medium that


holds the much larger amounts of data that won't fit into RAM and may not be
immediately needed there. Storage devices include hard disks, floppy disks, CD-
ROM, and tape backup systems. The terms auxiliary storage, auxiliary memory,
and secondary memory have also been used for this kind of data repository.

Memory Chips
SIMM:

A SIMM (single in-line memory module) is a module containing one or several


random access memory (RAM) chips on a small circuit board with PINs that
connect to the computer motherboard. Since the more RAM your computer has, the
less frequently it will need to access your secondary storage (for example, hard disk
or CD-ROM), PC owners sometimes expand RAM by installing additional SIMMs.
SIMMs typically come with a 32 data bit (36 bits counting parity bits) path to the
computer that requires a 72-pin connector. SIMMs usually come in memory chip
multiples of four megabytes.

The memory chips on a SIMM are typically dynamic RAM (DRAM) chips. An
improved form of RAM called Synchronous DRAM (SDRAM) can also be used. Since
SDRAM provides a 64 data bit path, it requires at least two SIMMs or a dual in-line
memory module (DIMM).

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DIMM:

A DIMM (dual in-line memory module) is a double SIMM (single in-line memory
module). Like a SIMM, it's a module containing one or several random access
memory ( RAM ) chips on a small circuit board with pins that connect it to the
computer motherboard . A SIMM typically has a 32 data bit (36 bits counting parity
bits) path to the computer that requires a 72-pin connector. For synchronous
dynamic RAM ( SDRAM ) chips, which have a 64 data bit connection to the
computer, SIMMs must be installed in in-line pairs (since each supports a 32 bit
path). A single DIMM can be used instead. A DIMM has a 168-pin connector and
supports 64-bit data transfer. It is considered likely that future computers will
standardize on the DIMM.

RIMM:

RIMM (Rambus Inline Memory Module), The memory module used with
RDRAM chips. It is similar to a DIMM package but uses different pin settings.
Rambus trademarked the term RIMM as an entire word. It is the term used for a
module using Rambus technology. It is sometimes incorrectly used as an acronym
for Rambus Inline Memory Module. A RIMM contains 184 or 232pins. Note must
use all sockets in RIMM installation or use C_RIMM to terminate banks

Cache Memory

Cache on the pc:

Cache memory is very fast computer memory that is used to hold frequently
requested data and instructions. It is a little more complicated than that, but cache
exists to hold at the ready data and instructions from a slower device (or a process
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that requires more time) for a faster device. On today’s PCs, you will commonly
find cache between RAM and the CPU and perhaps between the hard disk and
RAM. A cache is any buffer storage used to improve computer performance by
reducing its access times. A cache holds instructions and data likely to be
requested by the CPU for its next operation.
Caching is used in two ways on the PC:

Cache memory
A small and very fast memory storage located between the PC’s primary memory
(RAM) and its processor. Cache memory holds copies of instructions and data that it
gets from RAM to provide high speed access by the processor.
Disk cache
To speed up the transfer of data and programs from the hard disk drive to RAM, a
section of primary memory or some additional memory placed on the disk controller
card is used to hold large blocks of frequently accessed data.

SRAM and cache memory

Cache memory is usually a small amount of static random access memory or


SRAM. SRAM is made up of transistors that don’t need to be frequently refreshed
(unlike DRAM, which is made up of capacitors and must be constantly refreshed).

SRAM has access speeds of 2ns (nanoseconds) or faster; this is much faster
than DRAM, which has access speeds of around 50ns. Data and instructions
stored in SRAM-based cache memory are transferred to the CPU many times faster
than if the data were transferred from the PC’s main memory. In case you’re
wondering why SRAM isn’t also used for primary memory, which could eliminate
the need for cache memory all together, there are some very good practical and
economic reasons SRAM costs as much as six times more than DRAM and to store
the same amount of data as DRAM would require a lot more space on the
motherboard.

There are two types of cache memory:

• Internal cache Also called primary cache; placed inside the CPU chip
• External cache Also called secondary cache; located on the motherboard
Cache is also designated by its level, which is an indication of how close to the
CPU it is. Cache is designated into two levels, with the highest level of cache being
the closest to the CPU (it is usually a part of the CPU, in fact):

Level 1 cache : Level 1cache is often referred to interchangeably with internal


cache, and rightly so. L1cache is placed internally on the processor chip and is, of
course, the cache memory closest to the CPU.
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Level 2 cache: Level 2 cache is normally placed on the motherboard very near the
CPU, but because it is further way then L1 cache, it is designated as the second
level of cache. Commonly, L2 cache is considered the same as external cache, but
L2 cache can also be included on the CPU chip. If there is a level 3 to cache, it is
RAM.

Extended and Expanded Memory

Extended memory and the high memory area

All of a PC’s memory beyond the first 1MB of RAM is called extended memory.
Every PC has limit of how much total memory it can support. The limit is induced
by the combination of the processor, motherboard, and operating system. The
width of the data and address bus is usually the basis of the limit of how much
memory the PC can address. The memory maximum usually ranges from 16MB to
4GB, with some newer PCs now able to accept and process even more RAM.
Regardless of the amount of RAM a PC can support, anything above 1MB is
extended memory.

Extended memory is often confused with expanded memory. Expanded memory


(the upper memory area) expands conventional memory to fill up the first 1MB of
RAM. Extended memory extends RAM all the way to its limit.

The first 64KB of extended memory is reserved for use during the startup
processes of the PC. This area is called the high memory area.

The Upper Memory Area

The upper memory area was originally designated by IBM for use by the system
BIOS and video RAM, the 384 KB that remains in the first 1MB of RAM after
conventional memory. As the need for more than the 640 KB available grew, this
area was designated as expanded memory and special device drivers were
developed, such as EMM386. EXE, to facilitate its general use. The use of this area
frees up space in conventional memory by relocating device drivers and TSR
programs into unused space in the upper memory area.

Main Memory:

The main memory in a computer is called Random Access Memory. It is also


known as RAM. This is the part of the computer that stores operating system
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software, software applications and other information for the central processing
unit (CPU) to have fast and direct access when needed to perform tasks. It is called
"random access" because the CPU can go directly to any section of main memory,
and does not have go about the process in a sequential order.

RAM is one of the faster types of memory, and has the capacity to allow data to
be read and written. When the computer is shut down, all of the content held in
RAM is purged. Main memory is available in two types: Dynamic Random Access
Memory (DRAM) and Static Random Access Memory (SRAM).

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There are several different types of memory:

DRAM
Dynamic random access memory (DRAM) is the most common kind of main
memory in a computer. It is a prevalent memory source in PCs, as well as
workstations. Dynamic random access memory is constantly restoring whatever
information is being held in memory. It refreshes the data by sending millions of
pulses per second to the memory storage cell.

SRAM
Static Random Access Memory (SRAM) is the second type of main memory in a
computer. It is commonly used as a source of memory in embedded devices. Data
held in SRAM does not have to be continually refreshed; information in this main
memory remains as a "static image" until it is overwritten or is deleted when the
power is switched off. Since SRAM is less dense and more power-efficient when it is
not in use; therefore, it is a better choice than DRAM for certain uses like memory
caches located in CPUs. Conversely, DRAM's density makes it a better choice for
main memory.

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EDO DRAM :

Short for Extended Data Out Dynamic Random Access Memory, a type of
DRAM that is faster than conventional DRAM. Unlike conventional DRAM which
can only access one block of data at a time, EDO RAM can start fetching the next
block of memory at the same time that it sends the previous block to the CPU.

SDRAM:

SDRAM (synchronous DRAM) is a generic name for various kinds of dynamic


random access memory (DRAM) that are synchronized with the clock speed that
the microprocessor is optimized for. This tends to increase the number of
instructions that the processor can perform in a given time. The speed of SDRAM is
rated in MHz rather than in nanoseconds (ns). This makes it easier to compare the
bus speed and the RAM chip speed. You can convert the RAM clock speed to
nanoseconds by dividing the chip speed into 1 billion ns (which is one second). For
example, an 83 MHz RAM would be equivalent to 12 ns.

DDR RAM:

DDR memory, or Double Data Rate memory, is a new high performance type of
memory that runs at twice the speed of normal SDRAM. This DDR SDRAM is
ideally suited to the latest high performance processors to increase overall system
speed.

Virtual Memory

Definition:

Virtual Memory is a feature of an operating system that enables a process to


use a memory (RAM) address space that is independent of other processes running
in the same system, and use a space that is larger than the actual amount of RAM
present, temporarily relegating some contents from RAM to a disk, with little or no
overhead.

In a system using virtual memory, the physical memory is divided into equally-
sized pages. The memory addressed by a process is also divided into logical pages
of the same size. When a process references a memory address, the memory
manager fetches from disk the page that includes the referenced address, and
places it in a vacant physical page in the RAM. Subsequent references within that
logical page are routed to the physical page. When the process references an
address from another logical page, it too is fetched into a vacant physical page and
becomes the target of subsequent similar references.

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If the system does not have a free physical page, the memory manager swaps
out a logical page into the swap area - usually a paging file on disk (in Windows XP:
pagefile.sys), and copies (swaps in) the requested logical page into the now-vacant
physical page. The page swapped out may belong to a different process. There are
many strategies for choosing which page is to be swapped out. (One is LRU: the
Least Recently Used page is swapped out.) If a page is swapped out and then is
referenced, it is swapped back in, from the swap area, at the expense of another
page.

Virtual memory enables each process to act as if it has the whole memory space
to itself, since the addresses that it uses to reference memory are translated by the
virtual memory mechanism into different addresses in physical memory. This
allows different processes to use the same memory addresses - the memory
manager will translate references to the same memory address by two different
processes into different physical addresses. One process generally has no way of
accessing the memory of another process. A process may use an address space
larger than the available physical memory, and each reference to an address will be
translated into an existing physical address. The bound on the amount of memory
that a process may actually address is the size of the swap area, which may be
smaller than the addressable space. (A process can have an address space of 4GB
yet actually use only 2GB, and this can run on a machine with a pagefile of 2GB.)

The size of the virtual memory on a system is smaller than the sum of the
physical RAM and the swap area, since pages that are swapped in are not erased
from the swap area, and so take up two pages of the sum of sizes. Usually under
Windows, the size of the swap area is 1.5 times the size of the RAM.

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UNIT – III
DISK DRIVES

Introduction

CD:

• Stands for "Compact Disc." CDs are circular discs that are 4.75 in (12 cm) in
diameter. The CD standard was proposed by Sony and Philips in 1980 and the
technology was introduced to the U.S. market in 1983. CDs can hold up to 700
MB of data or 80 minutes of audio. The data on a CD is stored as small notches
on the disc and is read by a laser from an optical drive.

• A compact disc is a small, portable, round medium made of molded polymer


(close in size to the floppy disk) for electronically recording, storing, and playing
back audio, video, text, and other information in digital form. Tape cartridges and
CDs generally replaced the phonograph record for playing back music.

• Initially, CDs were read-only, but newer technology allows users to record as
well. CDs will probably continue to be popular for music recording and playback.
A newer technology, the digital versatile disc (DVD), stores much more in the same
space and is used for playing back movies.

Some variations of the CD include:


* CD-ROM
* CD-RW
* CD-W
* Photo CD
* Video CD

CD-ROM

Definition:

• A CDROM (compact disk read-only memory), also written as CD-ROM, is a


type of optical storage media that allows data to be written to it only once.

• This contrasts with memory, whose contents can be accessed (i.e., read and
written to) at extremely high speeds but which are retained only temporarily (i.e.,
while in use or only as long as the power supply remains on). Most storage devices
and media are rewritable, including hard disk drives (HDDs), floppy disks, USB
(universal serial bus) key drives, magnetic tape and some types of optical disks.

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• A CDROM consists of a thin, high-strength plastic disk which has a special
coating on one surface. This surface contains an extremely thin spiral track that
runs from near its center to close to the outer edge. Digital data is recorded in this
track in the form of a succession of microscopic pits.

• This recording is done at the factory using a stamping process in the case of
prerecorded CDROMs. It can also be done on blank disks by individuals by
burning the pits with a high precision semiconductor laser beam on a CDROM
recorder.

• The standard CDROM holds 650 or 700 megabytes (MB) of data, which,
when compressed, is comparable to the data than can be accommodated in
printed books occupying several hundred feet of shelf space.

• DVDs (digital video disks or digital versatile disks) typically have a capacity
at least 4.4 GB of data, roughly seven times the amount of CDROMs. DVD
technology is similar to CD technology except that a higher precision laser is used,
which makes possible a higher recording density. As is the case with CDs, there
are rewritable DVDs and DVDs that can be written to only once (i.e., DVDROMs).

CD-ROM Data Storage

• Although the disc media and the drives of the CD and CD-ROM are, in
principle, the same, there is a difference in the way data storage is organized.

• Two new sectors were defined, Mode 1 for storing computer data and Mode 2
for compressed audio or video/graphic data.

CD-ROM Mode 1

• CD-ROM Mode 1 is the mode used for CD-ROMs that carry data and
applications only. In order to access the thousands of data files that may be
present on this type of CD, precise addressing is necessary.

• Data is laid out in nearly the same way as it is on audio disks: data is stored
in sectors (the smallest separately addressable block of information), which each
hold 2,352 bytes of data, with an additional number of bytes used for error
detection and correction, as well as control structures.

• For mode 1 CD-ROM data storage, the sectors are further broken down, and
2,048 used for the expected data, while the other 304 bytes are devoted to extra
error detection and correction code, because CD-ROMs are not as fault tolerant as
audio CDs.

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• There are 75 sectors per second on the disk, which yields a disc capacity of
681,984,000 bytes (650MB) and a single speed transfer rate of 150 KBps, with
higher rates for faster CD-ROM drives.

• Drive speed is expressed as multiples of the single speed transfer rate, as


2X, 4X, 6X, and so on. Most drives support CD-ROM XA (Extended Architecture)
and Photo-CD (including multiple session discs).

CD-ROM Mode 2

• CD-ROM Mode 2 is used for compressed audio/video information and uses


only two layers of error detection and correction, the same as the CD-DA.
Therefore, all 2,336 bytes of data behind the sync and header bytes are for user
data.

• Although the sectors of CD-DA, CD-ROM Mode 1 and Mode 2 are the same
size, the amount of data that can be stored varies considerably because of the use
of sync and header bytes, error correction and detection. The Mode 2 format offers
a flexible method for storing graphics and video.

• It allows different kinds of data to be mixed together, and became the basis
for CD-ROM XA. Mode 2 can be read by normal CD-ROM drives, in conjunction
with the appropriate drivers.
CD-R And CD-RW
CD-R

• DEFINITION - CD-R (for compact disc, recordable) is a type of write once,


read many (worm) compact disc (CD) format that allows one-time recording on a
disc. The CD-R (as well as the CD-RW) format was introduced by Philips and Sony
in their 1988 specification document, the Orange Book. Prior to the release of the
Orange Book, CDs had been read-only audio (CD-Digital Audio, described in the
Red Book), to be played in CD players, and multimedia (CD-ROM), to be played in
computers' CD-ROM drives. After the Orange Book, any user with a CD recorder
drive could create their own CDs from their desktop computers.

• Like regular CDs (all the various formats are based on the original Red Book
CD-DA), CD-Rs are composed of a polycarbonate plastic substrate, a thin
reflective metal coating, and a protective outer coating. However, in a CD-R, a
layer of organic polymer dye between the polycarbonate and metal layers serves as
the recording medium. The composition of the dye is permanently transformed by
exposure to a specific frequency of light.

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• Some CD-Rs have an additional protective layer to make them less
vulnerable to damage from scratches, since the data - unlike that on a regular CD
- is closer to the label side of the disc. A pregrooved spiral track helps to guide the
laser for recording data, which is encoded from the inside to the outside of the
disk in a single continuous spiral.

• The laser creates marks in the dye layer that mimic the reflective properties
of the pits and lands (lower and higher areas) of the traditional CD. The distinct
differences in the way the areas reflect light register as digital data that is then
unencoded for playback.

• CD-R discs usually hold 74 minutes (650 MB) of data, although some can
hold up to 80 minutes (700 MB). With packet writing software and a compatible
CD-R or CD-RW drive, it is possible to save data to a CD-R in the same way that
one can save it to a floppy disk, although - since each part of the disc can only be
written once - it is not possible to delete files and then reuse the space. The
rewriteable CDs, CD-RWs, use an alloy layer (instead of the dye layer) which can
be transformed to and from a crystalline state repeatedly.

• CD recorders (usually referred to as CD burners), were once much too


expensive for the home user, but now are similar in price to CD-ROM drives. CD-
Rs can be created in any CD-R or CD-RW drive.

CD-RW

• DEFINITION - CD-RW (for compact disc, rewriteable) is a compact disc (CD)


format that allows repeated recording on a disc. The CD-RW format was
introduced by Hewlett-Packard, Mitsubishi, Philips, Ricoh, and Sony, in a 1997
supplement to Philips and Sony's Orange Book. CD-RW is Orange Book III (CD-
MO was I, while CD-R was II). Prior to the release of the Orange Book, CDs had
been read-only audio (CD-Digital Audio, described fully in the Red Book), to be
played in CD players, and multimedia (CD-ROM), to be played in computers' CD-
ROM drives.

• After the Orange Book, any user with a CD Recorder drive could create their
own CDs from their desktop computers. CD-RW drives can write both CD-R and
CD-RW discs and can read any type of CD.

• Like regular CDs (all the various formats are based on the original Red Book
CD-DA), CD-Rs and CD-RWs are composed of a polycarbonate plastic substrate, a
thin reflective metal coating, and a protective outer coating. CD-R is a write once,
read many (worm) format, in which a layer of organic polymer dye between the

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polycarbonate and metal layers serves as the recording medium. The composition
of the dye is permanently transformed by exposure to a specific frequency of light.

• In a CD-RW, the dye is replaced with an alloy that can change back and
forth from a crystalline form when exposed to a particular light, through a
technology called optical phase change. The patterns created are less distinct than
those of other CD formats, requiring a more sensitive device for playback. Only
drives designated as "MultiRead" are able to read CD-RW reliably.

• Similar to CD-R, the CD-RW's polycarbonate substrate is preformed with a


spiral groove to guide the laser. The alloy phase-change recording layer, which is
commonly a mix of silver, indium, antimony, and tellurium, is sandwiched
between two layers of dielectric material that draw excess heat from the recording
layer. After heating to one particular temperature, the alloy will become crystalline
when it is cooled; after heating to a higher temperature it will become amorphous
(won't hold its shape) when it is cooled.

• By controlling the temperature of the laser, crystalline areas and non-


crystalline areas are formed. The crystalline areas will reflect the laser, while the
other areas will absorb it. The differences will register as digital data that can be
unencoded for playback. To erase or write over recorded data, the higher
temperature laser is used, which results in the non-crystalline form, which can
then be reformed by the lower temperature laser.

• CD-RW discs usually hold 74 minutes (650 MB) of data, although some can
hold up to 80 minutes (700 MB) and, according to some reports, can be rewritten
as many as 1000 times. With packet writing software and a compatible CD-RW
drive, it is possible to save data to a CD-RW in the same way as one can save it to
a floppy disk. CD recorders (usually referred to as CD burners), were once much
too expensive for the home user, but now are similar in price to CD-ROM drives.

Compact Disc Formats

Since the late 1970s, several Compact Disc formats were developed to serve
different purposes and uses. Starting with the CD-DA format in 1980, as a way to
distribute high quality music in a compact and convenient format, the first
compact disc standard was formulated. The idea of storing computer data on the
same media, in 1983, lead to a new format: CD-ROM. Since then, the desire to
store a new generation of multimedia content (audio, video, games, pictures, etc.)
led to new formats: CD-I, CD-XA, Photo CD, Video CD, CD+, and others.

Compact Disc formats.

• CD-DA (Red Book):

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In 1979, Philips and Sony defined an architecture that became known as the
Compact Disc Digital Audio or Audio CD format. It is the original and oldest
Compact Disc standard and the foundation for all other standards. CD-DA is an
audio-only format used on every Audio CD. The audio on these discs is usually
referred to as Red Book audio or CD-quality audio. The specifications were
published in a book with a red cover, starting the tradition of naming compact
disc specifications by color. Index points and variable gaps between tracks are
implemented via P-Q sub-codes.

• CD+G :

This is an audio format augmented by graphics contained in the R-W sub-codes.


The R-W sub-codes encoding specifications are part of the Red Book standard.

• CD-ROM (Yellow Book):

In 1980, Philips and Sony defined the architecture that became known as
Compact Disc-Read-Only Memory. The introduction of this architecture allowed
Compact Discs to be used as an archival medium for computer data. The Yellow
Book defines more error correction than defined by the Red Book as a small error
while playing back audio is significantly less damaging than an error in retrieving
data files.

• CD-I (Green Book):


Released in 1986 to extend the definition of the Yellow Book. The architecture
defined in the Green Book helped to improve the synchronization of data retrieval
and audio information and established the Compact Disc Interactive format. With
the introduction of CD-I, sounds could be better synchronized with graphics than
in the standards provided in Mode 2 Yellow Book.

• CD-XA & CD-I Bridge (Extended Architecture):

Developed in 1991 by Microsoft, Philips, and Sony as a hybrid of the Yellow Book
and the Green Book, the CD-ROM XA standards provide synchronized data and
audio, as well as a method for the compression of audio information. These added
features improved the usefulness of discs for multimedia purposes. Playback of
these discs required drives that could un-compress the audio. These CD-ROM
drives are designated as "XA-compatible".

• CD-R/RW (Orange Book):

Defined in 1990, the major contribution of the Orange book to CD-ROM is its
foundation for CD-R technology. In addition, this architecture allows multiple
sessions to be recorded on a single disc. Prior to the release of these standards,
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only one session could be created on each disc. The unused disc space could
never be recovered.

• Photo CD:

Released in 1990 by Eastman Kodak to provide a standard for storing high-quality


images. This proprietary standard is based on CD-ROM XA. It includes multi-
session capabilities. Kodak Photo CD discs can be read only by drives that
support the CD-ROM XA architecture.

• Video CD (White Book):

Released in 1994 by JVC, Matsushita, Philips, and Sony as a means to store


movies and high-quality video presentations. This standard is based on CD-ROM
XA. It uses MPEG-1 to compress audio and video.

• Super Video CD:


Released in 1999 by Philips as an evolution of the Video CD, using high-quality
Variable Bit-Rate (VBR) MPEG-2 compression instead of MPEG-1 featured in
Video CD.

• Enhanced CD/CD+ (Blue Book):


A multi-session format composed by a first session in CD-DA format and a second
session in CD-XA format. The first session contains a regular selection of audio
tracks, while the second session contains computer data and/or video clips. Discs
using this standard can be played in a normal CD player as standard audio discs
and in a computer CD-ROM player as multimedia discs.

DVD
DVD Introduction:

• DVD, also known as Digital Versatile Disc or Digital Video Disc, is an optical
disc storage media format, and was developed and invented by Sony, and Philips
in 1995. Its main uses are video and data storage. DVDs are of the same
dimensions as compact discs (CDs), but store more than six times as much data.

• Variations of the term DVD often indicate the way data is stored on the
discs: DVD-ROM (read only memory) has data that can only be read and not
written; DVD-R and DVD+R (recordable) can record data only once, and then
function as a DVD-ROM; DVD-RW (re-writable), DVD+RW, and DVD-RAM
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(random access memory) can all record and erase data multiple times. The
wavelength used by standard DVD lasers is 650 nm; thus, the light has a red
color.

• DVD-Video and DVD-Audio discs refer to properly formatted and structured


video and audio content, respectively. Other types of DVDs, including those with
video content, may be referred to as DVD Data discs.

DVD Layers

• DVDs are of the same diameter and thickness as CDs, and they are made
using some of the same materials and manufacturing methods. Like a CD, the
data on a DVD is encoded in the form of small pits and bumps in the track of the
disc.

• A DVD is composed of several layers of plastic, totaling about 1.2 millimeters


thick. Each layer is created by injection molding polycarbonate plastic. This
process forms a disc that has microscopic bumps arranged as a single,
continuous and extremely long spiral track of data. More on the bumps later.

• Once the clear pieces of polycarbonate are formed, a thin reflective layer is
sputtered onto the disc, covering the bumps. Aluminum is used behind the inner
layers, but a semi-reflective gold layer is used for the outer layers, allowing the
laser to focus through the outer and onto the inner layers. After all of the layers
are made, each one is coated with lacquer, squeezed together and cured under
infrared light. For single-sided discs, the label is silk-screened onto the
nonreadable side. Double-sided discs are printed only on the nonreadable area
near the hole in the middle. Cross sections of the various types of completed DVDs
(not to scale) look like this:

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DVD-Audio

• DVD-Audio (DVD-A) is a DVD format developed by Panasonic that is


specifically designed to hold audio data, and particularly, high-quality music. The
DVD Forum released the final DVD-A specification in March of 1999. The new
DVD format is said to provide at least twice the sound quality of audio CD on
disks that can contain up to seven times as much information. Various types of
DVD-A-compatible DVD players are being manufactured, in addition to the DVD-A
players specifically developed for the format.

• Almost all of the space on a DVD video disc is devoted to containing video
data. As a consequence, the space allotted to audio data, such as a Dolby Digital
5.1 soundtrack, is severely limited. A lossy compression technique - so-called
because some of the data is lost - is used to enable audio information to be stored
in the available space, both on standard CDs and DVD-Video disks.

• In addition to using lossless compression methods, DVD-A also provides


more complexity of sound by increasing the sampling rate and the frequency
range beyond what is possible for the space limitations of CDs and DVD-Video.
DVD-Audio is 24-bit, with a sampling rate of 96kHz; in comparison, DVD-Video
soundtrack is 16-bit, with a sampling rate of 48kHz, and standard audio CD is
16-bit, with a sampling rate of 44.1kHz.

• Although DVD-A is designed for music, it can also contain other data, so
that - similarly to Enhanced CD - it can provide the listener with extra
information, such as liner notes, and images. A variation on the format, DVD-
AudioV, is designed to hold a limited amount of conventional DVD video data in
addition to DVD-Audio. DVD-A is backed by most of the industry as the
technology that will replace the standard audio CD.

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• The major exceptions are Philips and Sony, whose Super Audio provides
similar audio quality. Like DVD-A, SACD offers 5.1 channel surround sound in
addition to 2-channel stereo. Both formats improve the complexity of sound by
increasing bit rates and sampling frequencies (among other techniques), and can
be played on existing CD players, although only at quality levels similar to those of
traditional CDs.

DVD-Video

DVD-video which was launched in 1997, in USA has become the most successful
of all the DVD formats. It has proved to be an ideal media to distribute video
content. It can store a full length movie (113 minutes) in high quality video with
surround sound audio on a disc, the same size as CD. In order to fit studio quality
films onto DVD discs some form of compression must be used. Direct transfer of
movie to DVD needs data transfer rate of 200 Mb whereas maximum data rate for
DVD is 9.8 Mb per second. MPEG-1 compression can be used but MPEG-2 gives
higher quality and has become the standard compression for DVD-video. A decoder
is needed to decode the MPEG-2 compression and playback the encoded video
system.

DVD-video authoring software bring together images, video and sound to


playback on a DVD-video player. Sonic 'DVD creator', Apple DVD-studio pro' are
few authoring softwares. To view a DVD-video, the user needs a DVD-video, a DVD
video player or a DVD-ROM drive equipped with an MPEG2 decoder.

Making CD
• The making of a CD includes 2 main steps: Pre-mastering and Mastering.

• Pre-mastering involves data preparation for recording. The data is indexed,


organized, re-formatted (possibly with some ECC), and transferred to magnetic
tape. Now, the data is ready to be imprinted onto the CD. Mastering involves
physical transfer of the data into the pits and lands.

• First, a layer of light-sensitive photoresist is spin-coated onto the clean glass


master-disk from a solvent solution.

• Then, the photoresist is exposed to a modulated beam of a short-wavelength


light, which carries the encoded data. Next, the master is developed in a wet
process by exposing it to the developer, which etches away exposed areas thus
leaving the same pattern we will find later on the CD. Next, the master is coated
(using electroplating technique) with a thick (about 300 um) metal layer to form a
stamper - a negative replica of the disk. The photoresist layer is destroyed during
this process, but the much more durable stamper is formed and can be used for

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CD replication. Usually, a stamper can be used to produce a few tens of
thousands CDs before it wears out.

• Finally, the process of injection molding is used to produce a surface of the


compact disk. Hot plastic (PC) is injected into a mold, and then is pressed against
the stamper and cooled, resulting in the CD. Other processes than injection
molding could be used, but they all involve pressing the hot plastic against the
stamper.

• At the very end, the pits and lands on the surface of a CD are coated with a
thin reflective metal layer (aluminum), then coated with lacquer and supplied with
the label. Packaging usually finishes the process of making a CD.

Hard disk drive:

A hard disk drive (often shortened as "hard disk" or "hard drive"), is a non-
volatile storage device which stores digitally encoded data on rapidly rotating
platters with magnetic surfaces. Strictly speaking, "drive" efers to a device distinct
from its medium, such as a tape drive and its tape, or a floppy disk drive and its
floppy disk. Early HDDs had removable media; however, an HDD today is typically
a sealed unit (except for a filtered vent hole to equalize air
pressure) with fixed media.

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Formatting
Disk formatting is the initial part of the process for preparing a hard disk or other
storage medium for its first use. The disk formatting includes setting up an empty
file system. A disk formatting may set up multiple file systems by formatting
partitions for each file system. Disk formatting is also part of a process involving
rebuilding an entire disk from scratch. The formatting's are two types

1. Low level formatting


2. High level formatting
Low level formatting:

To find out if a drive is low level formatted or not the DOS FDISK program is
used. If the FDISK program recognizes the hard disk drive, then the drive has been
already low level formatted.

To level format a drive the easiest method is to call the BIOS interrupt INT
13h, function 05h. The BIOS will convert this function call into proper
CCB(Command Control Block), i.e.set of commands for the drive controller, and
send these command code bytes to the proper I/O port connected to the disk
controller.

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High-level formatting:

After the low level formatting and partitioning, the final step for preparing the
hard disk drive for use is to high level format the drive. The drive is already divided
into tracks and sectors by the low level formatting procedure, so the high level
format program need to only create File Allocation Table(FAT), directory system, etc.
so that the DOS can use the hard disk drive to store and read files. During the high
level format the format program verifies all the tracks and sectors in that particular
DOS partition.The following DOS command is used for formatting the hard disk:
A:\> FORMAT C:/S

The /S switch transfers the system files to the hard disk drive, primarily the
two hidden DOS files (I/O.SYS,MSDOS.SYS) and the file COMMAND.COM.

Components of HDD

Many types of hard disks are on the market, but nearly all drives share the same
basic physical components. Some differences may exist in the implementation of
these components (and in the quality of materials used to make them), but the
operational characteristics of most drives are similar.

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Hard Disk Platters (Disks):

A typical hard disk has one or more platters, or disks. Hard disks for PC
systems have been available in a number of form factors over the years. Normally,
the physical size of a drive is expressed as the size of the platters. Following are the
most common platter sizes used in PC hard disks today:
• 5 1/4 inch (actually 130mm or 5.12 inches)
• 3 1/2 inch (actually 95mm or 3.74 inches)
• 2 1/2 inch
• 1.8 inch

Larger hard drives that have 8-inch, 14-inch, or even larger platters are
available, but these drives typically have not been associated with PC systems.
Currently, the 3 1/2-inch drives are the most popular for desktop and some
portable systems, whereas the 2 1/2-inch and smaller drives are very popular in
portable or notebook systems. These little drives are fairly amazing, with current
capacities of up to 1GB or more, and capacities of 20GB are expected by the year
2000. Imagine carrying a notebook computer around with a built-in 20GB drive. It
will happen sooner than you think! Due to their small size, these drives are
extremely rugged; they can withstand rough treatment that would have destroyed
most desktop drives a few years ago.

Most hard drives have two or more platters, although some of the smaller
drives have only one. The number of platters that a drive can have is limited by the
drive’s physical size vertically. So far, the maximum number of platters that I have
seen in any 3 1/2-inch drive is 11.
Platters traditionally have been made from an aluminum alloy for strength and
light weight. With manufacturers’ desire for higher and higher densities and
smaller drives, many drives now use platters made of glass (or, more technically, a
glass-ceramic composite). One such material is called MemCor, which is produced
by the Dow Corning Corporation. MemCor is composed of glass with ceramic
implants, which resists cracking better than pure glass.

Glass platters offer greater rigidity and, therefore, can be machined to one-half
the thickness of conventional aluminum disks, or less. Glass platters also are
much more thermally stable than aluminum platters, which means that they do
not change dimensions (expand or contract) very much with any changes in
temperature. Several hard disks made by companies such as Seagate, Toshiba,
Areal Technology, Maxtor, and Hewlett-Packard currently use glass or glass-
ceramic platters.

Read Write Head:

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The RW head is the key component that performs the reading and writing
functions. It is placed on a slider which is in term connected to an actuator arm
which allow the RW head to access various parts of the platter during data IO
functions by sliding across the spinning platter. The sliding motion is derived by
passing a current through the coil which is part of the actuator-assembly. As the
coil is placed between two magnets, the forward or backward sliding motion is
hence derived by simple current reversal. This location of the platter (just like the
landmark along the road) is identified and made possible by the embedded servo
code written on the platter.

Recording Media:

No matter what substrate is used, the platters are covered with a thin layer of a
magnetically retentive substance called media in which magnetic information is
stored. Two popular types of media are used on hard disk platters:
• Oxide media
• Thin-film media

Oxide media is made of various compounds, containing iron oxide as the active
ingredient. A magnetic layer is created by coating the aluminum platter with a
syrup containing iron-oxide particles. This media is spread across the disk by
spinning the platters at high speed. Centrifugal force causes the material to flow
from the center of the platter to the outside, creating an even coating of media
material on the platter. The surface then is cured and polished. Finally, a layer of
material that protects and lubricates the surface is added and burnished smooth.
The oxide media coating normally is about 30 millionths of an inch thick.

As drive density increases, the media needs to be thinner and more perfectly
formed. The capabilities of oxide coatings have been exceeded by most higher-
capacity drives. Because oxide media is very soft, disks that use this type of media
are subject to head-crash damage if the drive is jolted during operation. Most older
drives, especially those sold as low-end models, have oxide media on the drive
platters. Oxide media, which has been used since 1955, remained popular because
of its relatively low cost and ease of application. Today, however, very few drives use
oxide media.

Thin-film media is thinner, harder, and more perfectly formed than oxide
media. Thin film was developed as a high-performance media that enabled a new
generation of drives to have lower head floating heights, which in turn made
possible increases in drive density. Originally, thin-film media was used only in
higher-capacity or higher-quality drive systems, but today, virtually all drives have
thin-film media.

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Head Actuator Mechanisms:

Possibly more important than the heads themselves is the mechanical system
that moves them: the head actuator. This mechanism moves the heads across the
disk and positions them accurately above the desired cylinder. Many variations on
head actuator mechanisms are in use, but all of them can be categorized as being
one of two basic types:
• Stepper motor actuators
• Voice-coil actuators

The use of one or the other type of positioner has profound effects on a drive's
performance and reliability. The effect is not limited to speed; it also includes
accuracy, sensitivity to temperature, position, vibration, and overall reliability. To
put it bluntly, a drive equipped with a stepper motor actuator is much less reliable
(by a large factor) than a drive equipped with a voice-coil actuator.
The head actuator is the single most important specification in the drive. The
type of head actuator mechanism in a drive tells you a great deal about the drive's
performance and reliability characteristics.

Voice coil actuator:

A voice-coil actuator with servo control is not affected by temperature changes,


as a stepper motor is. When the temperature is cold and the platters have shrunk
(or when the temperature is hot and the platters have expanded), the voice-coil
system compensates because it never positions the heads in predetermined track
positions. Rather, the voice-coil system searches for the specific track, guided by
the prewritten servo information and can position the head rack precisely above the
desired track at that track's current position, regardless of the temperature.
Because of the continuous feedback of servo information, the heads adjust to the
current position of the track at all times.
Two main types of voice-coil positioner mechanisms are available:
• Linear voice-coil actuators
• Rotary voice-coil actuators
The types differ only in the physical arrangement of the magnets and coils.

HDD Installation

There are only three basic steps to installing these computer drives:
1. Set the jumper pins on the hard drive.
2. Plug and screw the drive in; and
3. Boot the computer up and make sure the drive is detected.

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Step 1: Setting the drive up

The pictures here are for a hard disk drive but the same jumper settings and
IDE cables are used for installing a CD ROM.Lets take a look at the back of a hard
disk drive to see the jumpers and IDE cable connectors.

• A = This is the IDE cable plug. Attach one end of the cable here and the
other goes into the motherboard. Remember that the end plug of the cable is the
master and the middle plug is the slave. There is a notch that prevents incorrect
insertion.
• B = These are the jumper pins. Set your drive up as the master. The diagram
for this jumper configuration should be on a sticker on the hard drive
• C = This is the power plug. Plug in the power cable from your power supply
here.
Here is a picture of an IDE cable:

• The master plug is marked with a red arrow. The other end of the cable
plugs into the motherboard while the middle plug is for drives in the "slave"
configuration.

• You can have a "master" and a "slave" on the same cable. That is the whole
point of the system!

• You set up your drive as "master". The jumper setting for this should be on a
sticker. Simply put the jumper over the two pins indicated for the master setting.
Now you must plug the drive into the end plug on the IDE cable. This is the
"master" plug.

• Another option is to set the drive to "cable select" where it will adjust itself to
whatever plug you attach it to. Not all drives support this however.

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Step 2: Installing the drive into the case

• Here is a picture of a couple of hard drives installed in a case. The power


and IDE cables have been attached.Simply screw in the drive to secure it in the
case. One you have the power plug in, it is time to make sure your system accepts
your new drive.

Step 3: Setting up your system

• Now you must enter the system BIOS and make sure the appropriate IDE
channel is set to AUTO, in order to autodetect the drives. Most motherboards ship
with IDE channels set to AUTO by default.
• To enter the system BIOS press delete shortly after powering the system on.

Simply search around until you reach the IDE menu. Remember to save when you
exit the BIOS.Now when the computer powers up the drive should be detected with
it's size given.You are now ready to install Windows onto your new computer with
the large hard disk drive.

Interface

IDE:

• IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics), also known as ATA, is used with IBM
compatible hard drives. IDE and its successor, Enhanced IDE (EIDE), are the
commonly used with most Pentium computers.

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• Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) is really a misnomer in the way we use it
today. IDE really refers to any drive with the controller built-in. The interface most
of us use, that we call IDE, is actually called ATA, or AT Attachment.

• Most drives today are IDE. These drives have the controller built on. They
plug into a bus connector on the motherboard or an adapter card. Such drives are
easy to install and require a minimum number of cables. This is due to the fact
that the controller is on the drive itself. Less parts are needed and the signal
pathways can be much shorter.

• These short signal pathways improve reliability of the drive. Before, data
could lose its integrity while traveling over cheap ribbon cables. Lastly, integrating
the controller is easier on the manufacturer because they do not have to worry
about complying with another manufacturer’s controller. Each drive is an
independent entity.

• The IDE specification has evolved quite a bit since it was first released in the
1980’s. It is short for Integrated Drive Electronics. ATA, or AT Attachment, also
goes hand-in-hand with IDE, since they are basically the same concept. The basic
concept is that the drive’s controller is integrated onto the device itself rather than
having a separate controller.

• This reduces cost and also makes firmware updates easier since there is no
cross-manufacturer complexity. While ATA refers to the drive itself and how it
operates, IDE refers to the type of interface connector (40 pin in this case) as well
as the type of controller.

• ATAPI, or ATA Packet Interface, is an extention of IDE which allows devices


such as CD-ROMs to operate using the IDE standard. It allows such devices to
connect directly to an IDE port, although a device driver is needed to make it
work, whereas a hard drive is natievely supported by IDE without drivers.

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Figure: A 40-pin IDE cable connector

EIDE :

• Short for Enhanced IDE, a newer version of the IDE mass storage device
interface standard developed by Western Digital Corporation. It supports data
rates of between 4 and 16.6 MBps, about three to four times faster than the old
IDE standard. In addition, it can support mass storage devices of up to 8.4
gigabytes, whereas the old standard was limited to 528 MB. Because of its lower
cost, enhanced EIDE has replaced SCSI in many areas.

• EIDE is sometimes referred to as Fast ATA or Fast IDE, which is essentially


the same standard, developed and promoted by Seagate Technologies. It is also
sometimes called ATA-2.

• There are four EIDE modes defined. The most common is Mode 4, which
supports transfer rates of 16.6 MBps. There is also a new mode, called ATA-3 or
Ultra ATA, that supports transfer rates of 33 MBps.

Advantages of RAID
There are three primary reasons that RAID was implemented:
* Redundancy
* Increased Performance
* Lower Costs

• Redundancy is the most important factor in the development of RAID for


server environments. This allowed for a form of backup of the data in the storage
array in the event of a failure. If one of the drives in the array failed, it could either
be swapped out for a new drive without turning the systems off (referred to as hot

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swappable) or the redundant drive could be used. The method of redundancy
depends on which version of RAID is used.

• The increased performance is only found when specific versions of the RAID
are used. Performance will also be dependent upon the number of drives used in
the array and the controller.

• All managers of IT departments like low costs. When the RAID standards
were being developed, cost was also a key issue. The point of a RAID array is to
provide the same or greater storage capacity for a system compared to using
individual high capacity hard drives. A good example of this can be seen in the
price differences between the highest capacity hard drives and lower capacity
drives. Three drives of a smaller size could cost less than an individual high-
capacity drive but provide more capacity.

Conclusions

Overall RAID provides systems with a variety of benefits depending upon the
version implemented. Most consumer users will likely opt to use the RAID 0 for
increased performance without the loss of storage space. This is primarily because
redundancy is not an issue for the average user. In fact, most computer systems
will only offer either RAID 0 or 1. The costs of implementing a RAID 0+1 or RAID 5
system generally are too expensive for the average consumer and are only found in
high-end workstation or server level systems.

RAID:

RAID (redundant array of independent disks; originally redundant array of


inexpensive disks) is a way of storing the same data in different places (thus,
redundantly) on multiple hard disks. By placing data on multiple disks, I/O
(input/output) operations can overlap in a balanced way, improving performance.
Since multiple disks increases the mean time between failures (MTBF), storing data
redundantly also increases fault tolerance.

A RAID appears to the operating system to be a single logical hard disk. RAID
employs the technique of disk striping, which involves partitioning each drive's
storage space into units ranging from a sector (512 bytes) up to several megabytes.
The stripes of all the disks are interleaved and addressed in order.

RAID Configuration Levels

The industry currently has agreed upon six RAID configuration levels and
designated them as RAID 0 through RAID 5. Each RAID level is designed for speed,
data protection, or a combination of both. The RAID levels are:

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• RAID - 0 Data striping Array
• RAID - 1 Mirrored Disk Array
• RAID - 2 Parallel Array, Hamming Code
• RAID - 3 Parallel Array with Parity
• RAID - 4 Independent Actuators with a dedicated Parity Drive
• RAID - 5 Independent Actuators with parity spread across all drives

The most popular RAID levels are RAID-0, RAID-1, and RAID-5.

SCSI

• SCSI (pronounced scuzzy), the Small Computer System Interface, is a set of


ANSI standard electronic interfaces that allow personal computers to
communicate with peripheral hardware such as disk drives, tape drives, CD-ROM
drives, printers, and scanners faster and more flexibly than previous interfaces.
Developed at Apple Computer and still used in the Macintosh, the present set of
SCSIs are parallel interfaces. SCSI ports continue to be built into many personal
computers today and are supported by all major operating systems.

• In addition to faster data rates, SCSI is more flexible than earlier parallel
data transfer interfaces. The latest SCSI standard, Ultra-2 SCSI for a 16-bit bus
can transfer data at up to 80 megabytes per second (MBps).SCSI allows up to 7 or
15 devices (depending on the bus width) to be connected to a single SCSI port in
daisy-chain fashion. This allows one circuit board orcard to accommodate all the
peripherals, rather than having a separate card for each device, making it an ideal
interface for use with portable and notebook computers. A single host adapter, in
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the form of a PC Card, can serve as a SCSI interface for a laptop, freeing up the
parallel and serial ports for use with an external modem and printer while
allowing other devices to be used in addition.

• Although not all devices support all levels of SCSI, the evolving SCSI
standards are generally backwards-compatible. That is, if you attach an older
device to a newer computer with support for a later standard, the older device will
work at the older and slower data rate.

• The original SCSI, now known as SCSI-1, evolved into SCSI-2, known as
"plain SCSI." as it became widely supported. SCSI-3 consists of a set of primary
commands and additional specialized command sets to meet the needs of specific
device types. The collection of SCSI-3 command sets is used not only for the SCSI-
3 parallel interface but for additional parallel and serial protocols, including Fibre
Channel, Serial Bus Protocol (used with the IEEE 1394 FireWire physical
protocol), and the Serial Storage Protocol (SSP).

• A widely implemented SCSI standard is Ultra-2 (sometimes spelled "Ultra2")


which uses a 40 MHz clock rate to get maximum data transfer rates up to 80
MBps. It provides a longer possible cabling distance (up to 12 meters) by using
low voltage differential (LVD) signaling. Earlier forms of SCSIs use a single wire
that ends in a terminator with a ground. Ultra-2 SCSI sends the signal over two
wires with the data represented as the difference in voltage between the two wires.
This allows support for longer cables. A low voltage differential reduces power
requirements and manufacturing costs.

• The latest SCSI standard is Ultra-3 (sometimes spelled "Ultra3")which


increases the maximum burst rate from 80 Mbps to 160 Mbps by being able to
operate at the full clock rate rather than the half-clock rate of Ultra-2. The
standard is also sometimes referred to as Ultra160/m. New disk drives supporting
Ultra160/m will offer much faster data transfer rates. Ultra160/m also includes
cyclical redundancy checking (CRC) for ensuring the integrity of transferred data
and domain validation for testing the SCSI network.

The following varieties of SCSI are currently implemented:

• SCSI-1: Uses an 8-bit bus, and supports data rates of 4 MBps


• SCSI-2: Same as SCSI-1, but uses a 50-pin connector instead of a 25-pin
connector, and supports multiple devices. This is what most people mean when
they refer to plain SCSI.
• Wide SCSI: Uses a wider cable (168 cable lines to 68 pins) to support 16-bit
transfers.

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• Fast SCSI: Uses an 8-bit bus, but doubles the clock rate to support data
rates of 10 MBps.
• Fast Wide SCSI: Uses a 16-bit bus and supports data rates of 20 MBps.
• Ultra SCSI: Uses an 8-bit bus, and supports data rates of 20 MBps.
• SCSI-3: Uses a 16-bit bus and supports data rates of 40 MBps. Also called
Ultra Wide SCSI.
• Ultra2 SCSI: Uses an 8-bit bus and supports data rates of 40 MBps.
• Wide Ultra2 SCSI: Uses a 16-bit bus and supports data rates of 80 MBps
Ultra ATA and Serial ATA

Serial ATA :

• Serial ATA (SATA) is an IDE standard for connecting devices like optical
drives and hard drives to the motherboard. The term SATA generally refers to the
types of cables and connections that follow this standard.

• SATA cables are long, thin, 7-pin cables. One end plugs into a port on the
motherboard, usually labeled SATA, and the other into the back of a storage
device like a hard drive.

• Serial ATA replaces Parallel ATA as the IDE standard of choice for
connecting storage devices inside of a computer. SATA storage devices can
transmit data to and from the rest of the computer over twice as fast as an
otherwise similar PATA device.

• A serial ATA provides a high-speed connection and uses point-to-point


technology to ensure efficient communication between two devices.

• The serial ATA was designed to replace the parallel ATA interface. The Serial
ATA International Organization is responsible for the development and
maintenance of the serial ATA.

Ultra ATA:

• In the second half of 1997 EIDE's 16.6 MBps limit was doubled to 33 MBps
by the new Ultra ATA (also referred to as ATA-33 or Ultra DMA mode 2 protocol).
As well as increasing the data transfer rate, Ultra ATA also improved data integrity
by using a data transfer error detection code called Cyclical Redundancy Check
(CRC).

• The original ATA interface is based on transistor-transistor logic (TTL) bus


interface technology, which is in turn based on the old industry standard
architecture (ISA) bus protocol. This protocol uses an asynchronous data transfer

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method. Both data and command signals are sent along a signal pulse called a
strobe, but the data and command signals are not interconnected.

• Only one type of signal (data or command) can be sent at a time, meaning a
data request must be completed before a command or other type of signal can be
sent along the same strobe.

ATA-4 includes Ultra ATA which, in an effort to avoid EMI, makes the most of
existing strobe rates by using both the rising and falling edges of the strobe as
signal separators. Thus twice as much data is transferred at the same strobe rate
in the same time period. While ATA-2 and ATA-3 transfer data at burst rates up to
16.6 Mbytes per second, Ultra ATA provides burst transfer rates up to 33.3 MBps.
The ATA-4 specification adds Ultra DMA mode 2 (33.3 MBps) to the previous PIO
modes 0-4 and traditional DMA modes 0-2. The Cyclical Redundancy Check (CRC)
implemented by Ultra DMA was new to ATA.

HDD:

• A hard disk is part of a unit, often called a “disk drive,” “hard drive,” or “hard
disk drive,” that stores and provides relatively quick access to large amounts of
data on an electromagnetically charged surface or set of surfaces. Today’s

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computers typically come with a hard disk that contains several billion bytes
(gigabytes) of storage.

• A hard disk drive (HDD, also commonly shortened to hard drive and formerly
known as a fixed disk) is a digitally encoded non-volatile storage device which
stores data on rapidly rotating platters with magnetic surfaces. Strictly speaking,
“drive” refers to an entire unit containing multiple platters, a read/write head
assembly, driver electronics, and motor while “hard disk” (sometimes “platter”)
refers to the storage medium itself.

• Hard disks were originally developed for use with computers. In the 21st
century, applications for hard disks have expanded beyond computers to include
video recorders, audio players, digital organizers, and digital cameras. In 2005 the
first cellular telephones to include hard disks were introduced by Samsung and
Nokia.

• A hard disk is really a set of stacked “disks,” each of which, like phonograph
records, has data recorded electromagnetically in concentric circles or “tracks” on
the disk. A “head” (something like a phonograph arm but in a relatively fixed
position) records (writes) or reads the information on the tracks. Two heads, one
on each side of a disk, read or write the data as the disk spins. Each read or write
operation requires that data be located, which is an operation called a “seek.”
(Data already in a disk cache, however, will be located more quickly.)

• A hard disk/drive unit comes with a set rotation speed varying from 4500 to
7200 rpm. Disk access time is measured in milliseconds. Although the physical
location can be identified with cylinder, track, and sector locations, these are
actually mapped to a logical block address (LBA) that works with the larger
address range on today’s hard disks.

Partition
Definition:

• In personal computers, a partition is a logical division of a hard disk created


so that you can have different operating systems on the same hard disk or to
create the appearance of having separate hard drives for file management,
multiple users, or other purposes. A partition is created when you format the hard
disk. Typically, a one-partition hard disk is labelled the "C:" drive ("A:" and "B:" are
typically reserved for diskette drives). A two-partition hard drive would typically
contain "C:" and "D:" drives. (CD-ROM drives typically are assigned the last letter
in whatever sequence of letters have been used as a result of hard disk formatting,
or typically with a two-partition, the "E:" drive.)

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• When you boot an operating system into your computer, a critical part of the
process is to give control to the first sector on your hard disk. It includes a
partition table that defines how many partitions the hard disk is formatted into,
the size of each, and the address where each partition begins. This sector also
contains a program that reads in the boot sector for the operating system and
gives it control so that the rest of the operating system can be loaded into random
access memory.

• Boot viruses can put the wrong information in the partition sector so that
your operating system can't be located. For this reason, you should have a back-
up version of your partition sector on a diskette known as a bootable floppy.

Troubleshoot Hard Disk Drive Problems

General Information:

If your computer is operating but has a problem such as "cannot read sectors"
or in general shows a "retry , abort ,ignore" error while reading the drive, it is an
indication that there are some bad spots on the drive. These bad spots normally are
fixed by reformatting the hard drive. This is a big hassle since all the programs will
have to be reloaded and unless you back up and restore your data, you will loose
ALL the data stored on the hard drive.

Meanwhile, here are some troubleshooting instructions

1. There is some type of electrical connection problem


2. The hard drive controller has failed
3. The hard drive has failed physically
4. The hard drive has failed electronically
5. There is a problem with the recording on the hard drive
6. The CMOS settings are not correctly set
7. There is a conflict with the IRQ settings
8. There is a conflict with the jumper settings
9. The drive is unable to boot.
10. Fdisk reports wrong size when using drives larger then 64GB.

1. There is some type of electrical connection problem

Make sure the cable connections are correct.


Check the 4-wire connector that carries power and make sure it is properly
plugged in. This connector has a taper on one end and cannot be put on
backwards.

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When power is first applied to the computer, the hard drive light will
momentarily come on which is a good indication that the drive is getting power.
Also the vibration of the spinning platter and the slight hum will verify that the
drive is plugged in.

Next check the data ribbon cable. This cable is a flat cable with a one edge
colored red or blue to indicate the location of pin 1. Some of these cables are also
keyed by having a small tab in the center of the connector's edge. On many hard
drives pin 1 is the pin closest to the power supply connection, but not always, so
check the hard drive documentation or look on this site in Hard Drives and locate
your model.

If all the cables are connected properly, and power is applied, you should be able
to hear and feel the drive spinning. If the drive is not spinning, turn off the power
and try using a different power plug (maybe the one that the CD-ROM is
connected). If the drive is not spinning then it is probably bad.

2. The hard drive controller has failed

A controller failure is usually indicated by an error at boot up. There is not much
that can be done except to replace the hard drive. See hard drive error codes

3. The hard drive has failed physically

There can be two indications for this condition.

1) The drive is not spinning. To troubleshoot this condition you need to


physically access the drive while the computer is on. With the cover off, look at the
drive and find the side which has NO components. With your hand touch that side
and try to feel the spinning of the hard drive platter. A typical hard drive has a
small amount of vibration and a slight whine.

2) The hard drive head has crashed onto the platter. This usually causes the
drive to emit unusual sounds sometimes grinding and many times repeating on a
regular basis. A normal hard drive has a smooth whine so its should be easy to
identify the bad drive by just listening.

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4. The hard drive has failed electronically

This will be indicated by an error message during the computer boot cycle. Not
much can be done in this condition other then replace the drive.

5. There is a problem with the recording on the hard drive (read or write)
There are two conditions that can cause this problem.
1) The hard drive is unable to read a sector on the platter.

This problem can be identified by running a program that is capable in


performing a hard drive surface test. In Windows 95 you can use the scandisk
which is found in the Start/Programs/Accessories/System Tools folder. Another
way is to use a utility program like Norton Utilities to perform the surface scan.

This problem can also be seen when you are formatting the hard drive and is
indicated as "bad sectors" during the formatting. These bad sectors are normally
recorded as such by the format program and the computer knows not to use them
but more bad sectors can be created as the hard drive ages.

2) One or more files have been damaged by some process.


These type or problems are caused when the computer is unexpectedly rebooted
after a lock-up or perhaps a power failure. They are easy to troubleshoot and
repair. Simply run the scandisk program which is found in the
Start/Programs/Accessories/System Tools folder and allow the computer to repair
any errors found.

After such a repair it is very possible that one of more files were corrupted and
are now unusable. It is impossible to tell which files will be affected in advance but
if you write down the bad file names shown during the scan disk operation you can
try to find the application which loaded them and re-install that application.

6. The CMOS settings are not correctly set


Check the CMOS settings. These settings must match the required settings of
the manufacturer.

a) older computers

On these computers you have to go into the CMOS/BIOS during boot and
change the setting by selecting a number from 1 to 48, by selecting a TYPE number
of 1 or 2, or by selected the setting "User defined" and manually entering the hard
drive parameters of "head", "cylinders", "spt", "WP", and "LZ". These settings can be

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found on your hard drive users manual, on the manufacturer's web site, or on this
site by looking for the company, then the hard drive's model number.

After entering these parameters you will normally save them before exiting the
BIOS program and then reboot the computer.
b) newer computers

On these computers you can almost always find a selection that allows the
computer to "Automatically" find IDE style hard drives. There are two methods in
use. First you can select "Auto" from the main BIOS screen for the drive C: D: E: or
F:. After rebooting the drive will be automatically detected. Second, some Bios types
have a selection called "Detect hard drive" which allows you to initiate a detection
process which looks for a drive, presents you with the drive found and gives you
the option of accepting or rejecting the detected drive. This process is repeated for
each of the available drive assignments C D E and F.
Again you must save the BIOS changes and reboot the computer.

Very critical also is the LBA setting which can cause the drive to operate but not
be able to see all the data. This comes into play with drives larger than 500
megabytes and is found by entering the computer BIOS at boot up and looking in
the area where the hard drive is configured.

"Wrong LBA setting" Symptoms:

* Computer comes on, but you get many read errors


* Windows comes up sometimes other times it hangs
* you can save short files but larger ones don't seem to save
* Scandisk is not able to fix the problems it finds

Solution:
The LBA setting in the BIOS is not correct. Most likely on drives that are more
than 528MB, the LBA setting is not enabled. Enter the BIOS and enable the LBA.

This can happen very easily when a drive is on a computer and works fine but
then the motherboard is changed. The old BIOS had LBA enabled but the new one
might not. After the drive is installed it seems to work .

7. There is a conflict with the IRQ settings

a) Normally the primary hard drive controller uses Interrupt Request Line (IRQ)
number 14 which allows the hard drive C and D to operate correctly.. The
secondary hard drive controller uses IRQ number 15 which allows the hard drives
E and F to work properly.

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What happens is some times a different device such as a sound card will use the
IRQ 15 by default or because the settings was changed by a user. This causes the
computer to not see the secondary hard drives immediately after the installation of
this device using IRQ 15. The only way to fix this problem is to change this device
so that it uses a different IRQ setting.

b) Another problem can be introduced in Windows 95 by CD-ROM device drivers


which are loaded by the autoexec.bat and config.sys files at boot up. If windows 95
sees a conflict with these drivers it will switch itself into the DOS compatibility
mode. This can be seen by going to Control Panel/System/Performance/File
system.

A normal windows 95 installation uses 32 bit file access. When there is a conflict
you will see that the system is switched to the DOS compatibility mode.
8. There is a conflict with the jumper settings

All IDE hard drives must be properly setup using jumpers found on the hard
drive. The users guide for each drive has instruction for these settings. Each drive
can either be a Master or a Slave. Since there can be as many as two separate
controllers on each computer the each controller can have a Master and a Slave.

A typical computer with 4 IDE hard drives would setup the primary channel as
Drives C (master) and D (slave), and the secondary channel as Drive E (master) and
Drive F (slave).
On 2 drive systems, the first drive should be setup as Master and the second as
Slave and the secondary channel is ignored.

On many motherboards you must go into the BIOS and actually either enable or
disable the secondary drive controller and save the changes. So if your computer
came with 2 drives and you've added two more, before the new drives are detected
you will need to go into the BIOS and enable the secondary IDE controller, save the
changes and reboot.

9. The drive is unable to boot

To troubleshoot this condition boot the computer with a bootable DOS disk.
After the computer has booted with the disk try to access drive C: by issuing the
standard directory command
DIR C: <enter>

If the C: drive is working and you can see the directory listing then you might be
able to make the drive bootable again by issuing the system command which
transfers the system files from the floppy drive to the hard drive as follows:

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sys a: c: <enter>
The sys file has to be on the floppy disk. If it is not then find a disk that has the
file or use another computer to copy the file to the floppy disk. You can also copy
the command.com file from the floppy to the hard drive by typing...

copy a:\command.com c:\command.com <enter>


...the computer will ask you to verify the operation.
Note: A drive must also have the BOOT partition activated before it can boot
properly. This is done using FDISK.exe ( of course you must take precautions doing
this since fdisk can make your drive useless if mis-used).

To troubleshoot problems where the hard drive hangs at boot and the computer
never responds, turn off the computer and disconnect the hard drive from the
ribbon cable that connects it to the motherboard. When you turn the computer
back on, you should at least get an error message about the drive being bad, and
perhaps go into the BIOS. Once in BIOS you can change the hard drive type to
AUTO and after shutting off the computer and reconnecting the hard drive, try
again to see if it now works.

10. Fdisk reports wrong size when using drives larger then 64GB

According to Microsoft KB article Q263044, "When you use Fdisk.exe to partition


a hard disk that is larger than 64 GB (64 gigabytes, or 68,719,476,736 bytes) in
size, Fdisk does not report the correct size of the hard disk.

The size that Fdisk reports is the full size of the hard disk minus 64 GB. For
example, if the physical drive is 70.3 GB (75,484,122,112 bytes) in size, Fdisk
reports the drive as being 6.3 GB (6,764,579,840 bytes) in size."

Hard drive error codes

Typically a hard drive failure will be indicated by an error code while the
computer is booting.

1701 - hard drive failure. ...BIOS Post Codes


This BIOS error code is displayed during the computer boot process when
the hard drive has failed.

Also could be a cable connection problems as described above. IRQ conflicts


and bad jumper settings could cause this problem as well.
One more possibility is that the CMOS battery has died. This can be verified

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by entering the BIOS during boot, then setting the hard drive settings and
rebooting. If the hard drive error goes away then the battery is dead.

I/O Ports

Introduction:

Most of the Input-Output devices like keyboard, mouse, printers, modems and
other devices are connected to the computer system through an interfacing facility
called I/O ports. The data communications between devices and the system are
established through these ports only.The keyboard, mouse and speakers are
connected through special ports. General-purpose I/O ports include serial port,
parallel port and game port. Through these I/O ports an I/O device can be
connected to the system. Below is a picture of the I/O ports on a more recent
computer.

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Parallel Port

This interface is found on the back of older PCs and is used for connecting
external devices such as printers or a scanners. It uses a 25-pin connector (DB-25)
and is rather large compared to most new interfaces. The parallel port is sometimes
called a Centronics interface, since Centronics was the company that designed the
original parallel port standard. It is sometimes also referred to as a printer port
because the printer is the device most commonly attached to the parallel port. The
latest parallel port standard, which supports the same connectors as the
Centronics interface, is called the Enhanced Parallel Port (EPP). This standard
supports bi-directional communication and can transfer data up to ten times faster
than the original Centronics port. However, since the parallel port is a rather dated
technology, don't be surprised to see USB or Firewire interfaces completely replace
parallel ports in the future.

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Figure - Parallel port connector and signals

Game port
This port is used to connect entertainment devices like joystick, etc. to the
system. This is integrated either on the multi-I/O adapter board or on a sound
board. It is connected to the PC adapter throuth a standard 15 pin D type female
connector. One or two game controller’s can be connected to this single port
connector. When two game controllers are used, special cable is uses.

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Serial port
In the serial interface technique, the data is transmitted as 1--bit at a time
through a single wire. The parallel data (byte) from the computer bus is converted
into serial data (bits) and sent through the serial cable. It slows down the data
transfer rate. It enables to communicate data transfer over a distance. RS232 is the
serial communication standard. The system normallly supports two Serial ports
COM 1 and COM 2. A 9-pin DB9 connector used with COM 1 and 25pin DB 25
connector is used with COM 2 for connecting devices. An adapted 9 to 25 pin
connector can be used to connect devices either to COM 1 or COM 2. In modern
PCs the serial port interface electronics is included in the motherboard chipset
itself. Serial ports can be enabled by BIOS set-up. The data transfer rate or the
communication speed has to be sent to match the speed of the devices connected to
the system.

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The system normally supports two serial ports namely COM1 and COM2. A 9
pin D-type connetor used with COM1 and 25 pin D-type connector is used with
COM2. An adopted 9 or 25 pin connector can be used to connect devices either to
COM1 or COM2

.
9 Pin Connector:

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25 Pin Connector:

USB port
Definition: USB stands for Universal Serial Bus, an industry standard for short-
distance digital data communications. It is a standard type of connection for many
different kinds of devices. Generally, it refers to the types of cables, ports and
connectors used to connect these many types of external devices to computers. The
Universal Serial Bus standard is a popular one. USB ports and cables are used to
connect devices such as printers, scanners, flash drives, external hard drives and
more to a computer. In fact, USB has become so popular, it's even used in
nontraditional computer-like devices such as video game consoles, wireless phones
and more. USB allows data to be transferred between devices. USB ports can also
supply electric power across the cable to devices without their own power source.
Both wired and wireless versions of the USB standard exist, although only the
wired version involves USB ports and cables. USB also supports Plug-and-Play
installation and hot plugging.

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USB Pin Connector:

Features of USB:

• The computer acts as a host.


• Upto 127 devices can be connected to the host either directly or by way of
USB hubs.
• USB has a data transfer rate of 480 megabits per second.
• USB devices are hot swappable - The devices can be connected and
disconnected at any time.
Special type of drives

Special type of drives:

• Zip drive

• Memory stick

• USB-flash drive

• IPod Dock version and installation.

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Memory Stick:

Memory Stick is a removable flash memory card format, launched by Sony in


October 1998, and is also used in general to describe the whole family of Memory
Sticks. In addition to the original Memory Stick, this family includes the Memory
Stick PRO, a revision that allows greater maximum storage capacity and faster file
transfer speeds; Memory Stick Duo, a small-form-factor version of the Memory
Stick (including the PRO Duo); and the even smaller Memory Stick Micro (M2). In
December 2006 Sony added the Memory Stick PRO-HG, a high speed variant of the
PRO to be used in high definition still and video cameras.

Advantages:

Very easily allows you to transport documents from one computer to


another.Small, therefore easy to carry around with you.They are very useful when
doing school work or running businesses - any work done at home can be used at
work ,school as well.It holds a lot more data than a floppy disk.It is a USB drive so
it can be used on any computer system.

Disadvantages:

If you want a memory stick that hold a very big amount of data (like if you
are going to use it for a lot of large document) they can be quite expensive to buy.

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USB-flash drive

A USB flash drive consists of a NAND-type flash memory data storage device
integrated with a USB (universal serial bus) interface. USB flash drives are typically
removable and rewritable, much smaller than a floppy disk (1 to 4 inches or 2.5 to
10 cm), and most USB flash drives weigh less than an ounce (28g). Storage
capacities typically range from 64 MB to 128 GB with steady improvements in size
and price per gigabyte. Some allow 1 million writeor erase cycles and have 10-year
data retention, connected by USB 1.1 or USB 2.0.

USB flash drives offer potential advantages over other portable storage
devices, particularly the floppy disk. They have a more compact shape, operate
faster, hold much more data, have a more durable design, and operate morereliably
due to their lack of moving parts. Additionally, it has become increasingly common
for computers to be sold without floppy disk drives. USB ports, on the other hand,
appear on almost every current mainstream PC and laptop. These types of drives
use the USB mass storage standard, supported natively by odern operating
systems such as Windows, Mac OS X, Linux, and other Unix-like systems. USB
drives with USB 2.0 upport can also operate faster than an optical disc drive, while
storing a larger amount of data in a much smallerspace.

Nothing actually moves in a flash drive: the term drive persists because
computers read and write flash-drive data using the same system commands as for
a mechanical disk drive, with the storage appearing to the computer operating
system and user interface as just another drive.

A flash drive consists of a small printed circuit board protected inside a


plastic, metal, or rubberised case,robust enough for carrying with no additional
protection—in a pocket or on a key chain, for example. The USB
connector is protected by a removable cap or by retracting into the body of the
drive, although it is not liable to
be damaged if exposed. Most flash drives use a standard type-A USB connection
allowing plugging into a port on a
personal computer.

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Advantages:

Resistance. USB Flash drives are very resistant to scratches and other
kinds of unintentional mechanical damage.They are also protected against dust
penetration. These strong points give them substantial advantage if compared with
their predecessors, such as compact and floppy disks. This is due to their rigid
plastic or metal case. It makes them ideal for transporting data.

Comfort. It is very convenient to use a USB flash drive on modern PCs


because it fits almost all devices that havea USB port and the necessary device
drivers.

Storage. USB flash drives are extremely compact means of storage. Some
flash drives can store more than a CD (700MB) or even a DVD (4.7 GB).

Limits:

Damage. No matter how resistant USB flash drives are comparing with
mechanical drives, still they can be damaged or corrupted by serious physical
abuse. The circuitry of a flash drive can be harmed by improper wiring of the USB
port.

Size. USBs flash drives are appreciated for compact size, but at the same
time they can be easily left behind, lost.

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Life span. The life span of flash memory devices is measured in number of
write and erase cycles. An average life duration of a flash drive (under normal
conditions) is about several hundred thousand cycles.

As the device ages the speed of writing process gradually slows. This is an
issue of a special matter in some cases (ex: running application software or an
operating system).

Write-protection. Only a few USB flash drives are equipped with a write-
protect mechanism. It usually features a switch on the driver's housing. This
feature makes it possible to use the USB flash driver for repairing virus-
contaminated PCs without infecting the flash device itself.

In spite of the above limits USB flash drives are the best in their field. They
are constantly used by a wide range of users which proves their efficiency. What
really delights is that nothing is static, as USB drive are too. Andthe best flash
technologies are to come.

Zip drive:

The Zip drive is a medium-capacity removable disk storage system, introduced


by Iomega in late 1994. Originally, Zip disks had a capacity of 100 MB, but later
versions increased this to first 250 MB and then 750 MB.
The format became the most popular of the super-floppy type products but
was never popular enough to replace the 3.5-inch floppy disk. Later, rewritable CDs
and rewritable DVDs replaced the Zip drive for mass storage. The Zip brand later
covered internal and external CD writers known as Zip-650 or Zip-CD which had
no relation to the Zip drive.

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Advantages of ZD:

ZD showed up more responsible and faster then FDD. They never were on
the same market penetration as FDD, as only some new computers were sold with
Zip drives.

Disadvantages of ZD:

Despite of their capacity were not so popular in a market because they were
robust and heavy. The mainly
disadvantage is that ZD’s need special mechanism in computer (not the same as in
FDD!).

Types of ZD:

External:
Which are fixed on a face of computer (in the opening mechanism in a front of
PC’s).
Internal:
On the opposite internal ZD has a mechanism inside of a computer. Internal type is
preferable not to transfer with a mechanism. And on the other side transferring
data is faster by internal data bus then by external type.
Summary of ZD:

Available to buy everywhere, but for higher price then FDD. ZD are still used for
transferring capacious data and sometimes for archiving data in some Personal and
Corporate computers.But the decreasing prices of CD-R and CD-RW media reduced
the popularity of the ZD and anymore nobody is using t

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UNIT – IV

I/O DEVICES AND POWER SUPPLY

Biometric devices

Definition:

Biometrics is the science and technology of measuring and analyzing biological


data. In information technology, biometrics refers to technologies that measure and
analyze human body characteristics, such as fingerprints, eye retinas and irises,
voice patterns, facial patterns and hand measurements, for authentication
purposes.

Biometrics devices:

• KEYSTROKE PATTERN DEVICES


• SIGNATURE DEVICES
• VOICE PATTERN DEVICES
• HANDPRINT DEVICES
• FINGERPRINT DEVICES
• RETINA PATTERN DEVICES

Iris scanner

• Iris scanning technology was first thought of in 1936 by ophthalmologist


Frank Burch. He noticed that each person’s iris – the part of the eye that gives
color – is unique. It wasn’t till 1994 when the algorithm for detecting these
differences was patented by John Daugman of Iridian Technologies.

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• Iris scans analyze the features in the colored tissue surrounding the pupil.
There are many unique points for comparison including rings, furrows and
filaments. The scans use a regular video camera to capture the iris pattern.

• The user looks into the device so that he can see the reflection of his own
eye. The device captures the iris pattern and compares it to one in a database.
Distance varies, but some models can make positive identification at up to 2 feet.
Verification times vary - generally less than 5 seconds - but only require a quick
glance to activate the identification process.

• To prevent a fake eye from being used to fool the system, some models vary
the light levels shone into the eye and watch for pupil dilation – a fixed pupil
means a fake eye.

• Iris scanners are now in use in various military and criminal justice facilities
but have never gained the wide favor that fingerprint scanners now enjoy
even though the technology is considered more secure. Devices tend to be
bulky in comparison to fingerprint scanners.

• Retinal scanners are similar in operation but require the user to be very
close to a special camera. This camera takes an image of the patterns
created by tiny blood vessels illuminated by a low intensity laser in the back
of the eye – the retina.

• Retinal scans are considered impossible to fake and these scanners can be
found in areas needing very high security. High cost and the need to actually
put your eye very close to the camera prevent them from being used more
widely.

How Fingerprint Scanners Work


• Biometrics consists of automated methods of recognizing a person based on
unique physical characteristic. Each type of biometric system, while different in
application, contains at least one similarity: the biometric must be based upon a
distinguishable human attribute such as a person's fingerprint, iris, voice pattern
or even facial pattern.

• Today fingerprint devices are by far the most popular form of biometric
security used, with a variety of systems on the market intended for general and
mass market usage. Long gone are the huge bulky fingerprint scanners; now a

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fingerprint scanning device can be small enough to be incorporated into a laptop
for security.

• A fingerprint is made up of a pattern of ridges and furrows as well as


characteristics that occur at Minutiae points (ridge bifurcation or a ridge ending).

• Fingerprint scanning essentially provides an identification of a person based


on the acquisition and recognition of those unique patterns and ridges in a
fingerprint.

• The actual fingerprint identification process will change slightly between


products and systems. The basis of identification, however, is nearly the same.
Standard systems are comprised of a sensor for scanning a fingerprint and a
processor which stores the fingerprint database and software which compares and
matches the fingerprint to the predefined database. Within the database, a
fingerprint is usually matched to a reference number, or PIN number which is
then matched to a person's name or account. In instances of security the match is
generally used to allow or disallow access, but today this can also be used for
something as simple as a time clock or payroll access.

• In large government organizations and corporations, biometrics plays a huge


role in employee identification and security. Additionally some data centers have
jumped on the bandwagon and have implemented biometric scanners to enhances
remote access and management by adding another layer of network security for
system administrators. Unfortunately the cost of implementing fingerprint and
other biometric security scanning in data centers is still quite expensive, and
many centers still rely on ID badges while waiting until biometric technology
becomes a little more pocket-book friendly.

• Today companies have realized that fingerprint scanning is an effective


means of security. While the cost of implementing biometric scanners in larger
organizations and data centers is still quite costly, we did find several fingerprint
scanning devices which would fit into the budget of many small offices and home
users. These home and small office products are designed to protect your hard
drive, notebook or even to remove the need for users to remember multiple
passwords.

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Digital Camera

Introduction:

• A camera that stores images digitally rather than recording them on film.
Once a picture has been taken, it can be downloaded to a computer system, and
then manipulated with a graphics program and printed. Unlike film photographs,
which have an almost infinite resolution, digital photos are limited by the amount
of memory in the camera, the optical resolution of the digitizing mechanism, and,
finally, by the resolution of the final output device.

• Even the best digital cameras connected to the best printers cannot produce
film-quality photos. However, if the final output device is a laser printer, it doesn't
really matter whether you take a real photo and then scan it, or take a digital
photo. In both cases, the image must eventually be reduced to the resolution of
the printer.

• The big advantage of digital cameras is that making photos is both


inexpensive and fast because there is no film processing. Interestingly, one of the
biggest boosters of digital photography is Kodak, the largest producer of film.
Kodak developed the Kodak PhotoCD format, which has become the de facto
standard for storing digital photographs.

• Most digital cameras use CCDs to capture images, though some of the newer
less expensive cameras use CMOS chips instead.

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Working Principle
In principal, a digital camera is similar to a traditional film-based camera.
There's a viewfinder to aim it, a lens to focus the image onto a light-sensitive
device, some means by which several images can be stored and removed for later
use, and the whole lot is fitted into a box. In a conventional camera, light-sensitive
film captures images and is used to store them after chemical development. Digital
photography uses a combination of advanced image sensor technology and memory
storage, which allows images to be captured in a digital format that is available
instantly - with no need for a "development" process.

• Although the principle may be the same as a film camera, the inner
workings of a digital camera are quite different, the imaging being performed
either by a charge coupled device (CCD) or CMOS (complementary metal-oxide
semiconductor) sensors. Each sensor element converts light into a voltage
proportional to the brightness which is passed into an analogue-to-digital
converter (ADC) which translates the fluctuations of the CCD into discrete binary
code.

• The digital output of the ADC is sent to a digital signal processor (DSP)
which adjusts contrast and detail, and compresses the image before sending it to
the storage medium. The brighter the light, the higher the voltage and the brighter
the resulting computer pixel. The more elements, the higher the resolution, and
the greater the detail that can be captured.

• This entire process is very environment-friendly. The CCD or CMOS sensors


are fixed in place and it can go on taking photos for the lifetime of the camera.
There's no need to wind film between two spools either, which helps minimize the
number of moving parts.

Features of a Digital Camera:

Resolution

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This term refers to the sharpness, or detail, of a picture. The higher the
number of pixels, the higher the resolutions. You can determined the resolution
you need by determining what you really want to do with these pictures. Picture
size is measured by how many pixels make up an image and is measured by
horizontal by vertical resolution, as in 1280 x 960. The manufacturers break this
down to about 5 main different categories of resolutions, expressed in mega pixels.

* 1 megapixel cameras - These are nearly obsolete. They are good for posting
images to the Internet, looking at images on a monitor, and emailing photos. Cell
phones and camcorders tend to have around 1 megapixel capability.

* 2 megapixel cameras - The maximum resolution here is 1600 x 1200, which is


better than the resolution of most computer monitors. Also good for posting
pictures to the Internet, viewing images on a monitor, and emailing. It can also
print images up to 8x10 inches, and will allow you to do basic graphics work.

* 3-5 megapixel cameras - A 3 megapixel camera will print up to 11x14 inch


images. If you are not a professional, this is probably as detailed as you need to get.
It does everything a 2 does, plus allows you to do professional graphics work. The
cost of a 3 megapixel camera is much more reasonable than that of a 4 or 5, but
still allows you to have great flexibility in use. 4 and 5 mexapixel cameras will have
even larger images and print sizes.

Memory Digital cameras store pictures as data files rather than on film. The size of
your memory determines the number of pictures you can take before downloading
the images to a computer, at which time you can go back and fill the memory up
with new pictures. Most cameras come with only 8 megabytes (MB) of memory,
which for a 2 or 3 mega pixel camera could be only 10 to 40 photos. More memory
is available by buying removable memory, such as a memory card.

Flash Type
A flash, of course, is the extra light needed to shoot inside or in low-light
conditions. Most digital cameras have built-in flash with a range of 10 to 16 feet.
Other flash options include:

Red Eye Reduction - Two flashes are emitted, the first to contract the iris so that
the eye doesn't reflect as much light with the second, which keeps friends and
family member from looking fiendish in the photo.

External Flash - More powerful than automatic, this allows you to attach the flash
to the camera and place it strategically. The types include "flash sync" and "Hot
Shoe." Cameras that include external options will generally have automatic flash as
well.

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Burst Mode - Known also as Rapid Fire and Continuous Shooting mode. In
general, there is a 1-2 second time lag between pressing the shutter button and a
picture being taken with a digital camera. Then there is a 2-30 second recovery
time before the camera is able to take another photo. With the Burst Mode feature
you can take several pictures in a row. This useful for taking shots in motion, such
as children playing or sports events.

Optical Zoom-There are 2 types of zoom lenses, digital and optical. Digital zoom
simply enlarges the picture without adding any clarity of detail. The same thing can
be done with editing and cropping software. Optical zoom will do what you really
want; add detail and sharpness.

Compression - This process shrinks the file size of a photo. Uncompressed photos
are clearer, the files are enormous and require huge amounts of memory. JPEG
format compresses the files, allowing you to store more, save, download, and email
photos at a faster rate. For general use, JPEG is fine.

Power Source - Digital cameras are voracious eaters of batteries. They use either a
rechargeable battery pack or traditional batteries, usually 2 - 4 double A. Some
have an AC adapter as well. For rechargeable batteries, which you want unless you
really like to buy a lot of batteries, and often, NIMH batteries can be charged up to
1000 times, while Lithium Ion batteries can also be charged up to 1000 times and
last twice as long as NIMHs.

Lens - Lens length will determine how much of a scene will fit into a picture. Some
cameras have fixed focus lenses, which are preset to focus at a certain range. These
pictures typically focus between a wide angle lens and normal range. Many
cameras have auto focus, which pick an item in the center of the viewfinder around
which to focus. To get an idea of a camera's range, it will be listed as the 35mm
equivalent.

Focus and Exposure - Most cameras have auto focus, but higher end cameras will
include a manual focus capability. Panorama picture taking is available, as well as
various types of light sensitivity. For instance, a camera rated at ISO 100 has
approximately the same light setting as a normal camera using ISO 100 film. The
higher the ISO setting, determined by the aperture, the less light a camera needs to
take a good image.

I/O devices

Definition:

I/O is an abbreviation of Input / Output and refers to the transfer of data to or


from an application. Input devices are usually but not always character input
devices such as the keyboard, mouse or keyboard. They can also include stream
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devices like a disk. Output devices include the screen or a printer or anything
plugged into a PC's port. Some devices can only send or receive - try sending data
to a mouse! If the device can do both input and output (say another PC attached to
a serial or parallel cable), it is termed bidirectional.

Modem

Definition:

• Modem Short for modulator-demodulator. A modem is a device or program


that enables a computer to transmit data over, for example, telephone or cable
lines. Computer information is stored digitally, whereas information transmitted
over telephone lines is transmitted in the form of analog waves. A modem converts
between these two forms.

• Fortunately, there is one standard interface for connecting external modems


to computers called RS-232. Consequently, any external modem can be attached
to any computer that has an RS-232 port, which almost all personal computers
have. There are also modems that come as an expansion board that you can insert
into a vacant expansion slot. These are sometimes called onboard or internal
modems.

• While the modem interfaces are standardized, a number of different


protocols for formatting data to be transmitted over telephone lines exist. Some,
like CCITT V.34, are official standards, while others have been developed by
private companies. Most modems have built-in support for the more common
protocols -- at slow data transmission speeds at least, most modems can
communicate with each other. At high transmission speeds, however, the
protocols are less standardized.

Aside from the transmission protocols that they support, the following
characteristics distinguish one modem from another:

• bps : How fast the modem can transmit and receive data. At slow rates,
modems are measured in terms of baud rates. The slowest rate is 300 baud (about
25 cps). At higher speeds, modems are measured in terms of bits per second (bps).
The fastest modems run at 57,600 bps, although they can achieve even higher
data transfer rates by compressing the data. Obviously, the faster the
transmission rate, the faster you can send and receive data. Note, however, that
you cannot receive data any faster than it is being sent. If, for example, the device
sending data to your computer is sending it at 2,400 bps, you must receive it at
2,400 bps. It does not always pay, therefore, to have a very fast modem. In
addition, some telephone lines are unable to transmit data reliably at very high
rates.

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• voice/data: Many modems support a switch to change between voice and
data modes. In data mode, the modem acts like a regular modem. In voice mode,
the modem acts like a regular telephone. Modems that support a voice/data
switch have a built-in loudspeaker and microphone for voice communication.

• auto-answer : An auto-answer modem enables your computer to receive


calls in your absence. This is only necessary if you are offering some type of
computer service that people can call in to use.

• data compression: Some modems perform data compression, which enables


them to send data at faster rates. However, the modem at the receiving end must
be able to decompress the data using the same compression technique.

• flash memory : Some modems come with flash memory rather than
conventional ROM, which means that the communications protocols can be easily
updated if necessary.

• Fax capability: Most modern modems are fax modems, which means that
they can send and receive faxes.

Modem:

How modems works:

• When a modem first makes a connection, you will hear screeching sounds
coming from the modem. These are digital signals coming from the computer to
which you are connecting being modulated into audible sounds. The modem
sends a higher-pitched tone to represent the digit 1 and a lower-pitched tone to
represent the digit 0.

• At the other end of your modem connection, the computer attached to its
modem reverses this process. The receiving modem demodulates the various tones
into digital signals and sends them to the receiving computer. Actually, the
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process is a bit more complicated than sending and receiving signals in one
direction and then another. Modems simultaneously send and receive signals in
small chunks. The modems can tell incoming from outgoing data signals by the
type of standard tones they use.

• Another part of the translation process involves transmission integrity. The


modems exchange an added mathematical code along the way. This special code,
called a checksum, lets both computers know if the data segments are coming
through properly. If the mathematical sums do not match, the modems
communicate with each other by resending the missing segments of data. Modems
also have special circuitry that allows them to compress digital signals before
modulating them and then decompressing them after demodulating the signals.
The compression/decompression process compacts the data so that it can travel
along telephone lines more efficiently.

• Modems convert analog data transmitted over phone lines into digital data,
which computers can read. They also convert digital data into analog data so that
it can be transmitted. This process involves modulating and demodulating the
computer's digital signals into analog signals that travel over the telephone lines.
In other words, the modem translates computer data into the language used by
telephones and then reverses the process to translate the responding data back
into computer language.

Signal conversion performed by modems. A modem converts a digital signal to an


analog tone (modulation) and reconverts the analog tone into its original digital
signal (demodulation).

How to Install an External Modem

Installing an external modem is easy and takes little time. You don't have to open
the computer or install modem cards. This procedure applies to PC and Macintosh
computers.

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Step 1
Unpack the modem and its accessories. You should have the modem, cable, phone
cord, power adapter, installation diskette or CD, and instruction manual.

Step 2
Turn off the computer and any attached devices.

Step 3
Attach one end of the modem cable to the serial port (wide, 25-pin connector) on
the computer and the other end to the modem. The serial port on the Macintosh is
a small, round port marked with a telephone icon.

Step 4
Connect one end of the phone cord to the modem port marked "wall" or "line" and
the other end to the wall jack of your phone line. If the modem will be sharing the
line with a telephone, connect the cord of the telephone to the modem port marked
"phone."

Step 5
Attach the power adapter plug to the modem and the power transformer plug to the
power outlet, if this is required for your modem.

Step 6
Turn on the computer and the modem, if it has an on/off switch.

Step 7
When your computer starts up, follow the software installation instructions if
prompted by your computer system (e.g., Windows Plug 'n Play feature).

Step 8
Insert the installation diskette or CD (if you do not receive prompts for installing
the modem), click the drive, and click (or double-click) the installation program on
the diskette or CD.

Step 9
Run any test program that comes with the installation software to ensure that the
modem is working correctly.

Tips & Warnings

• Check the light indicators on the modem that show that it is working. If the
light indicators are not on or flashing, check all hardware connections.
• If you do not have an available serial port and do not want to replace your
external modem with an internal modem, consider installing a serial card.

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• Internal computer modems. Some computers have an internal modem which
can be a built-in modem or a PC card modem.
• Check the modem specifications to determine whether the modem requires
an analog phone line (used in most homes) or a digital phone line (used in most
offices). Using the wrong phone line can damage your modem.
Router

Definition:

A router is a device in computer networking that forwards data packets to their


destinations, based on their addresses. The work a router does it called routing,
which is somewhat like switching, but a router is different from a switch. The latter
is simply a device to connect machines to form a LAN.

How a Router Works

• When data packets are transmitted over a network (say the Internet), they
move through many routers (because they pass through many networks) in their
journey from the source machine to the destination machine. Routers work with
IP packets, meaning that it works at the level of the IP protocol.

• Each router keeps information about its neighbors (other routers in the
same or other networks). This information includes the IP address and the cost,
which is in terms of time, delay and other network considerations. This
information is kept in a routing table, found in all routers.

• When a packet of data arrives at a router, its header information is


scrutinized by the router. Based on the destination and source IP addresses of the
packet, the router decides which neighbor it will forward it to. It chooses the route
with the least cost, and forwards the packet to the first router on that route.

Routers perform the following functions:

• Restrict network broadcasts to the local LAN


• Act as the default gateway.
• Move data between networks
• Learn and advertise loop free paths between sub-networks.

Types of Modem

The modems are classified into two types. They are

1. Internal modem

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2. External Modem

1. Internal Modem:

• Internal modems are built into the motherboard or a circuit board that plugs
into an expansion slot inside a computer. Internal modems are also known as
analog or dial-up modems. Modern analog modems transfer information at about
56 kilobits per second (56K) over a telephone line.
• Analog dial-up modems are susceptible to phone-line noise or interference
from electrical devices and slower internet connection speeds. However, 56K dial-
up modems can be used anywhere a phone line is available.

2. External Modem:

• The modem which is placed outside the computer is called External Modem.
• External modems are portable devices that you can attach to a serial or USB
(Universal Serial Bus) port on your computer.
• External modems can be disconnected from your computer and used with
other computers.
Printers

Introduction:

In computers, a printer is a device that accepts text and graphic output from a
computer and transfers the information to paper, usually to standard size sheets of
paper. Printers are sometimes sold with computers, but more frequently are
purchased separately. Printers vary in size, speed, sophistication, and cost. In
general, more expensive printers are used for higher-resolution color printing.
Personal computer printers can be distinguished as impact or non-impact printers.
Early impact printers worked something like an automatic typewriter, with a key
striking an inked impression on paper for each printed character . The dot-matrix
printer was a popular low-cost personal computer printer. It's an impact printer
that strikes the paper a line at a time. The best-known non-impact printers are the
inkjet printer, of which several makes of low-cost color printers are an example,
and the laser printer . The inkjet sprays ink from an ink cartridge at very close
range to the paper as it rolls by. The laser printer uses a laser beam reflected from
a mirror to attract ink (called toner ) to selected paper areas as a sheet rolls over a
drum.

The four printer qualities of most interest to most users are:

• Color:

Color is important for users who need to print pages for presentations or maps
and other pages where color is part of the information. Color printers can also be
set to print only in black-and-white. Color printers are more expensive to operate
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since they use two ink cartridges (one color and one black ink) that need to be
replaced after a certain number of pages. Users who don't have a specific need for
color and who print a lot of pages will find a black-and-white printer cheaper to
operate.

• Resolution:

Printer resolution (the sharpness of text and images on paper) is usually


measured in dots per inch ( dpi ). Most inexpensive printers provide sufficient
resolution for most purposes at 600 dpi.

• Speed:

If you do much printing, the speed of the printer becomes important. Inexpensive
printers print only about 3 to 6 sheets per minute. Color printing is slower. More
expensive printers are much faster.

• Memory:
Most printers come with a small amount of memory (for example, one megabyte )
that can be expanded by the user. Having more than the minimum amount of
memory is helpful and faster when printing out pages with large images or tables
with lines around them (which the printer treats as a large image).

Dot-matrix printer
Introduction:

Dot-matrix printer is an impact printer that produces text and graphics when
tiny wire pins on the print head strike the ink ribbon. The print head runs back
and forth on the paper like a typewriter. When the ink ribbon presses on the
paper, it creates dots that form text and images. Higher number of pins means
that the printer prints more dots per character, thus resulting in higher print
quality.

Dot-matrix printers were very popular and the most common type of printer for
personal computer in 70’s to 80’s. However, their use was gradually replaced by
inkjet printers in 90’s. As of today, dot matrix printers are only used in some
point-of-sales terminals, or businesses where printing of carbon copy multi-part
forms or data logging are needed.

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Advantages of dot matrix printer:

• Can print on multi-part forms or carbon copies


• Low printing cost per page
• Can be used on continuous form paper, useful for data logging
• Reliable, durable

Disadvantages of dot matrix printer:

• Noisy
• Limited print quality
• Low printing speed
• Limited color printing
Dot Matrix Printer Mechanisms
1. Print Head
The print head works by firing small pins which impact on the inked ribbon,
which makes a single dot on the paper. The more pins in a print head the higher
the resolution of the printed output. 7 pin and 9 pin are the most common.

2. Platen
The platen is the surface that lies in back of the paper, and is the area where
all of the printing takes place. Certain mechanisms are available in platenless or
platen free versions, which allows the OEM mounting flexibility.

3. Paper Feed Assembly


This is the drive mechanism that feeds the paper, and is typically available in
either friction or sprocket versions. The paper path is also controlled here, and
usually provides for rear or bottom feeding.

4. Control Board
This provides the drive electronics and interface for the mechanisms. Serial,
parallel, and USB are available.

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5. Ribbon Cartridge
Available in purple, black, and red/black variants. It is critical to the life of the
print head and mechanism to use the manufacturers' recommended ribbons.

Dot matrix print head mechanisms

Printhead technologies used today:

If the CPU is the heart of a computer, then the printhead is the engine of a dot
matrix printer. Any matrix printhead uses electro-magnetic field to fire the print
head wires. There are two main printhead engineering technologies - in the first one
electro-magnetic field shoots the print head's wire. In the second one, the so called
permanent magnet printheads, a spring shoots the printhead wire and the
magnetic field just holds the spring in stressed and ready to shoot printhead wire
position. When the electro-magnetic field equalizes the magnetic field, the spring is
released to shoot the wire. To see all this in action, take a look at the picture
bellow.

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Classical printhead mechanism is showed from the left side. The permanent
magnet print head mechanism you may see at right.

How the serial dot matrix printers work?

As the printer head moves in horizontal direction, the printhead controller


sends electrical signals which forces the appropriate wires to strike against the
inked ribbon, making dots on the paper and forming the desired characters. The
most commonly used printer heads has 9 print wires in one column (9-pin
printheads) or 24 print wires in two columns (24-pin printheads), for better print
quality.

Inkjet Printer

Introduction:

The concept of inkjet printing dates back to the 19th century and the technology
was first developed in the early 1950s. Starting in the late 1970s inkjet printers
that could reproduce digital images generated by computers were developed, mainly
by Epson, Hewlett-Packard and Canon. In the worldwide consumer market, four
manufacturers account for the majority of inkjet printer sales: Canon, Hewlett-
Packard, Epson, and Lexmark.

An inkjet printer is a computer peripheral that produces hard copy by spraying


ink onto paper. A typical inkjet printer can produce copy with a resolution of at
least 300 dots per inch ( dpi ). Some inkjet printers can make full color hard copies
at 600 dpi or more. Many models include other devices such as a scanner ,
photocopier , and dedicated fax machine along with the printer in a single box.

Advantages of inkjet printers:

• Low cost
• High quality of output, capable of printing fine and smooth details
• Capable of printing in vivid color, good for printing pictures
• Easy to use
• Reasonably fast

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• Quieter than dot matrix printer
• No warm up time

Disadvantages of inkjet printers:

• Print head is less durable, prone to clogging and damage


• Expensive replacement ink cartridges
• Not good for high volume printing
• Printing speed is not as fast as laser printers
• Ink bleeding, ink carried sideways causing blurred effects on some papers
• Aqueous ink is sensitive to water, even a small drop of water can cause
blurring
• Cannot use highlighter marker on inkjet printouts

Thermal technology
Most inkjets use thermal technology, whereby heat is used to fire ink onto the
paper. There are three main stages with this method. The squirt is initiated by
heating the ink to create a bubble until the pressure forces it to burst and hit the
paper. The bubble then collapses as the element cools, and the resulting vacuum
draws ink from the reservoir to replace the ink that was ejected. This is the method
favored by Canon and Hewlett-Packard.

Thermal technology imposes certain limitations on the printing process in that


whatever type of ink is used, it must be resistant to heat because the firing process
is heat-based. The use of heat in thermal printers creates a need for a cooling
process as well, which levies a small time overhead on the printing process.

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Tiny heating elements are used to eject ink droplets from the print-head's
nozzles. Today's thermal inkjets have print heads containing between 300 and 600
nozzles in total, each about the diameter of a human hair (approx. 70 microns).
These deliver drop volumes of around 8 - 10 picolitres (a picolitre is a million
millionth of a litre), and dot sizes of between 50 and 60 microns in diameter. By
comparison, the smallest dot size visible to the naked eye is around 30 microns.
Dye-based cyan, magenta and yellow inks are normally delivered via a combined
CMY print-head. Several small color ink drops - typically between four and eight -
can be combined to deliver a variable dot size, a bigger palette of non-halftoned
colors and smoother halftones. Black ink, which is generally based on bigger
pigment molecules, is delivered from a separate print-head in larger drop volumes
of around 35pl.

Nozzle density, corresponding to the printer's native resolution, varies between


300 and 600dpi, with enhanced resolutions of 1200dpi increasingly available. Print
speed is chiefly a function of the frequency with which the nozzles can be made to
fire ink drops and the width of the swath printed by the print-head. Typically this is
around 12MHz and half an inch respectively, giving print speeds of between 4 to
8ppm (pages per minute) for monochrome text and 2 to 4ppm for colour text and
graphics.

Inkjet Ink

Whatever technology is applied to printer hardware, the final product


consists of ink on media, so these two elements are vitally important when it comes
to producing quality results. The quality of output from inkjet printers ranges from
poor, with dull colors and visible banding, to excellent, near-photographic quality.

Two entirely different types of ink are used in inkjet printers: one is slow and
penetrating and takes about ten seconds to dry, and the other is fast-drying ink
which dries about 100 times faster. The former is generally better suited to
straightforward monochrome printing, while the latter is typically used for color
printing. Because different inks are mixed to create colors, they need to dry as

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quickly as possible to avoid blurring. If slow-drying ink is used for color printing,
the colors tend to bleed into one another before they’ve dried.

The ink used in inkjet technology is water-based, and this caused the results
from some of the earlier printer models to be prone to smudging and running. Oil-
based ink is not really a solution for this problem because it would impose a far
higher maintenance cost on the hardware. Printer manufacturers are making
continual progress in the development of water-resistant inks, but the output from
inkjet printers is still generally poorer than from laser printing.

One of the major goals of inkjet manufacturers is to develop the ability to print
on almost any media. The secret to this is ink chemistry, and most inkjet
manufacturers will jealously protect their own formulas. Companies like Hewlett-
Packard, Canon and Epson invest large sums of money in research to make
continual advancements in ink pigments, qualities of light fastness and water
fastness, and suitability for printing on a wide variety of media.

Today's inkjets use dyes, based on small molecules (<50 nm), for the cyan,
magenta and yellow inks. These have high brilliance and wide color gamut, but are
neither light- or water-fast enough. Pigments, based on larger (50 to 100 nm)
molecules, are more waterproof and fade-resistant, but they aren't transparent and
cannot yet deliver the range of colors available from dye-based inks. This means
that pigments are currently only used for the black ink. Future developments will
likely concentrate on creating water-fast and light-fast CMY inks based on smaller
pigment-type molecules.

Operation
• Inkjet printing, like laser printing, is a non-impact process. Ink is emitted
from nozzles while they pass over media. The operation of an inkjet printer is easy
to visualize: liquid ink in various colors being squirted onto paper and other
media, like plastic film and canvas, to build an image.

• A print head scans the page in horizontal strips, using the printer's motor
assembly to move it from left to right and back again, while the paper is rolled up
in vertical steps, again by the printer. A strip (or row) of the image is printed, then
the paper moves on, ready for the next strip.

• To speed things up, the print head doesn’t print just a single row of pixels in
each pass, but a vertical row of pixels at a time.

• For most inkjet printers, the print head takes about half a second to print
the strip across a page. On a typical 8 1/2"-wide page, the print head operating at
300 dpi deposits at least 2,475 dots across the page.

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• This translates into an average response time of about 1/5000th of a
second. Quite a technological feat! In the future, however, advances will allow for
larger print heads with more nozzles firing at faster frequencies, delivering native
resolutions of up to 1200dpi and print speeds approaching those of current color
laser printers (3 to 4 pages per minute in color, 12 to 14ppm in monochrome).

• In other words, declining costs for improving technology.

• There are several types of inkjet printing. The most common is "drop on
demand" (DOD), which means squirting small droplets of ink onto paper through
tiny nozzles; like turning a water hose on and off 5,000 times a second. The
amount of ink propelled onto the page is determined by the print driver software
that dictates which nozzles shoot droplets, and when.

• The nozzles used in inkjet printers are hairbreadth fine and on early models
they became easily clogged. On modern inkjet printers this is rarely a problem,
but changing cartridges can still be messy on some machines.

• Another problem with inkjet technology is a tendency for the ink to smudge
immediately after printing, but this, too, has improved drastically during the past
few years with the development of new ink compositions.

Piezo-electric technology

Epson's proprietary inkjet technology uses a piezo crystal at the back of the ink
reservoir. This is rather like a loudspeaker cone - it flexes when an electric current
flows through it. So, whenever a dot is required, a current is applied to the piezo
element, the element flexes and in so doing forces a drop of ink out of the nozzle.

There are several advantages to the piezo method. The process allows more
control over the shape and size of ink droplet release. The tiny fluctuations in the
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crystal allow for smaller droplet sizes and hence higher nozzle density. Also, unlike
with thermal technology, the ink does not have to be heated and cooled between
each cycle. This saves time, and the ink itself is tailored more for its absorption
properties than its ability to withstand high temperatures. This allows more
freedom for developing new chemical properties in inks.

Epson's latest mainstream inkjets have black print-heads with 128 nozzles and
colour (CMY) print-heads with 192 nozzles (64 for each color), addressing a native
resolution of 720 by 720dpi. Because the piezo process can deliver small and
perfectly formed dots with high accuracy, Epson is able to offer an enhanced
resolution of 1440 by 720dpi - although this is achieved by the print-head making
two passes, with a consequent reduction in print speed. The tailored inks Epson
has developed for use with its piezo technology are solvent-based and extremely
quick-drying. They penetrate the paper and maintain their shape rather than
spreading out on the surface and causing dots to interact with one another. The
result is extremely good print quality, especially on coated or glossy paper.

Laser Printer

Introduction:

The laser printer was introduced by Hewlett-Packard in 1984, based on


technology developed by Canon. It worked in a similar way to a photocopier, the
difference being the light source. With a photocopier a page is scanned with a
bright light, while with a laser printer the light source is, not surprisingly, a laser.
After that the process is much the same, with the light creating an electrostatic
image of the page onto a charged photoreceptor, which in turn attracts toner in the
shape of an electrostatic charge.

Laser printers quickly became popular due to the high quality of their print and
their relatively low running costs. As the market for lasers has developed,
competition between manufacturers has become increasingly fierce, especially in
the production of budget models. Prices have gone down and down as
manufacturers have found new ways of cutting costs. Output quality has improved,

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with 600dpi resolution becoming more standard, and build has become smaller,
making them more suited to home use.

Advantages of laser printers:

• High resolution
• High print speed
• No smearing
• Low cost per page (compared to inkjet printers)
• Printout is not sensitive to water
• Good for high volume printing

Disadvantages of laser printers:

• More expensive than inkjet printers


• Except for high end machines, laser printers are less capable of printing
vivid colors and high quality images such as photos.
• The cost of toner replacement and drum replacement is high
• Bulkier than inkjet printers
• Warm up time needed

Laser Printing Process


Step 1: Drum Preparation (Cleaning)

Before a new page can be printed, the photosensitive drum must be cleaned.
(This process could be listed as the last or the first step of the printing process.)
The cleaning process is accomplished by a rubber cleaning blade that gently
scrapes any residual toner from the drum. The drum is then exposed to a lamp (the
erase lamp) that will completely remove the last image.

Step 2: Conditioning (Charging)

After the cleaning/erase process, the drum is no longer light sensitive and it
needs charging. This is done by applying a uniform negative charge (about 6000
volts) to the drum's surface. This is accomplished by a very thin solid wire called
the primary corona located very near the drum's surface.

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Step 3: Writing

During the writing process a latent image is formed on the drum surface. The
uniform negative charge from the previous step becomes discharged at precise
points where the image is produced. The actual writing is done with the laser.
Where the laser strikes the drum will now become less-negatively charged.

Step 4: Developing

After the writing process the image is no more than an invisible array of
electrostatic charges on the drum's surface. The toner is used to develop it. When
the toner is ready to be applied, it is exposed to a cylinder (developer roller) that
contains a permanent magnet. It is here that the toner receives a strong negative
charge. The areas of low charge on the drum now attract the toner from the
cylinder. This will fill-in the electromagnetic image. The other areas repel the
equally negatively charged toner. The drum now holds an image that is ready to be
transferred to the paper.

Step 5: Transfer

At this point, the developed image is transferred to the paper. The paper is
exposed to the transfer corona which fixes a powerful positive charge to the paper
that allows it to pry the negatively charged toner particles from the drum.

Step 6: Fusing

After the transfer process, the toner image is only laying on the surface of the
paper, held by a small charge. It must be permanently bonded to the paper before it
can be touched. The fuser assembly, along with the pressure roller, melts and
presses the image into the paper's surface.

Components of a Laser Printer

A laser printer is a combination of mechanical and electronic components.


Although the internal workings of the printer generally are not a concern of the
average PC technician, you should be familiar with the parts and processes
involved in their operation.

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Paper Transport:

The paper path for laser printers ranges from a simple, straight path to the
complicated turns of devices with options such as duplexers, mailboxes, and
finishing tools like collators and staplers. The goal is the same for all these devices-
to move the paper from a supply bin to the engine where the image is laid on the
paper and fixed to it, and then to a hopper for delivery to the user. Most printers
handle a set range of paper stocks and sizes in the normal paper path, and a more
extensive range (usually heavier paper or labels) that can be sent though a second
manual feed, one sheet at a time. When users fail to follow the guidelines for the
allowed stocks, paper jams often result.

Logic Circuits:

Laser printers usually have a motherboard much like that of a PC, complete
with CPU, memory, BIOS, and ROM modules containing printer languages and
fonts. Advanced models often employ a hard disk drive and its controller, a network
adapter, a SCSI host adapter, and secondary cards for finishing options. When
upgrading a printer, check for any updates to the BIOS, additional memory
requirements for new options, and firmware revisions.

User Interface:

The basic laser printer often offers little more than a "power on" LED and a
second light to indicate an error condition. Advanced models have LED panels with
menus, control buttons, and an array of status LEDs.

Toner and Toner Cartridges:

To reduce maintenance costs, laser printers use disposable cartridges and


other parts that need periodic replacement. The primary consumable is toner, a
very fine plastic powder bonded to iron particles. The printer cartridge also holds
the toner cylinder, and often the photosensitive drum. The cartridge requires
replacement when the level of toner is too low to produce a uniform, dark print.
Some "starter" cartridges shipped with a new printer print only 750 sheets or so,
while high-capacity units can generate 12,000 or more pages.

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Photosensitive Drum:

The photosensitive drum is a key component and usually is a part of the toner
cartridge. The drum is an aluminum cylinder that is coated with a photosensitive
compound and electrically charged. It captures the image to be printed on the page
and also attracts the toner which is to be placed on the page.

IMPORTANT The drum should not be exposed to any more light than is absolutely
necessary. Such exposure will shorten its useful life. The surface must also be kept
free of fingerprints, dust, and scratches. If these are present, they will cause
imperfections on any prints made with the drum. The best way to ensure a clean
drum is to install it quickly and carefully and leave it in place until it must be
replaced.

The Laser:

The laser beam paints the image of the printed page on the drum. Before the
laser is fired, the entire surface of the photosensitive drum, as well as the paper,
are given an electrical charge carried by a pair of fine wires.

Primary Corona:

The primary corona charges the photosensitive particles on the surface of the
drum.

Transfer Corona:

The transfer corona charges the surface of the paper just before it reaches the
toner area.

Fuser Rollers:

The toner must now be permanently attached to the paper to make the image
permanent. The fuser rollers-a heated roller and an opposing pressure roller-fuse
toner onto the page. The heated roller employs a nonstick coating to keep the toner
from sticking to it. The occasional cycling heard in many laser printers is generated
when the fuser rollers are advanced a quarter turn or so to avoid becoming
overheated.

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Erase Lamp:

This bathes the drum in light to neutralize the electrical charge on the drum,
allowing any remaining particles to be removed before the next print is made.

Power Supply:

Laser printers use a lot of power and so should not be connected to a UPS
(uninterruptible power supply) device. The high voltage requirements of the imaging
engine and heater will often trip a UPS. In addition to the motors and laser print
heads, the printer also has a low DC voltage converter as part of the power package
for powering its motherboard, display panel, and other more traditional electronic
components.

Drivers and Software:

Most laser printers ship with a variety of software that includes the basic
drivers that communicate with the operating system, diagnostic programs, and
advanced programs that allow full control of all options as well as real-time status
reporting. A recent trend in network laser printing is allowing print-management
tools and printing to work over the Internet. A user can send a print job to an
Internet site or manage a remote print job using a Web browser.

Laser printer scanning

Laser printer scanning assembly:

Laser printers rely on a laser beam and scanner assembly to form a latent image
on the photo-conductor bit by bit. The scanning process is similar to electron beam
scanning used in CRT. The laser beam modulated by electrical signals from the
printer's controller is directed through a collimator lens onto a rotating polygon
mirror (scanner), which reflects the laser beam. Then reflected from the scanner
laser beam pass through a scanning lens system, which makes a number of
corrections to it and scans on the photoconductor.

This technology is the major key for ensuring high precision in laser spot at the
focal plane, accurate dot generation at a uniform pitch and therefore better
printer's resolution.

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Operation of Laser Printer

• Where the image to be printed is communicated to it via a page description


language, the printer's first job is to convert the instructions into a bitmap. This is
done by the printer's internal processor, and the result is an image (in memory) of
which every dot will be placed on the paper. Models designated "Windows printers"
don't have their own processors, so the host PC creates the bitmap, writing it
directly to the printer's memory.

• At the heart of the laser printer is a small rotating drum - the organic photo-
conducting cartridge (OPC) - with a coating that allows it to hold an electrostatic
charge. Initially the drum is given a total positive charge. Subsequently, a laser
beam scans across the surface of the drum, selectively imparting points of
negative charge onto the drum's surface that will ultimately represent the output
image. The area of the drum is the same as that of the paper onto which the image
will eventually appear, every point on the drum corresponding to a point on the
sheet of paper. In the meantime, the paper is passed through an electrically
charged wire which deposits a negative charge onto it.

• On true laser printers, the selective charging is done by turning the laser on
and off as it scans the rotating drum, using a complex arrangement of
spinning mirrors and lenses. The principle is the same as that of a disco
mirror ball. The lights bounce off the ball onto the floor, track across the
floor and disappear as the ball revolves. In a laser printer, the mirror drum
spins incredibly quickly and is synchronised with the laser switching on and
off. A typical laser printer will perform millions of switches, on and off, every
second.

• Inside the printer, the drum rotates to build one horizontal line at a time.
Clearly, this has to be done very accurately. The smaller the rotation, the
higher the resolution down the page - the step rotation on a modern laser
printer is typically 1/600th of an inch, giving a 600dpi vertical resolution
rating. Similarly, the faster the laser beam is switched on and off, the higher
the resolution across the page.

• As the drum rotates to present the next area for laser treatment, the written-
on area moves into the laser toner. Toner is very fine black powder, positively
charged so as to cause it to be attracted to the points of negative charge on
the drum surface. Thus, after a full rotation the drum's surface contains the
whole of the required black image.

• A sheet of paper now comes into contact with the drum, fed in by a set of
rubber rollers. This charge on the paper is stronger than the negative charge
of the electrostatic image, so the paper magnetically attracts the toner

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powder. As it completes its rotation it lifts the toner from the drum, thereby
transferring the image to the paper. Positively charged areas of the drum
don't attract toner and result in white areas on the paper.

• Toner is specially designed to melt very quickly and a fusing system now
applies heat and pressure to the imaged paper in order to adhere the toner
permanently. Wax is the ingredient in the toner which makes it more
amenable to the fusion process, while it's the fusing rollers that cause the
paper to emerge from a laser printer warm to the touch.

• The final stage is to clean the drum of any remnants of toner, ready for the
cycle to start again.

Troubleshooting Laser Printer Problems

Properly installed laser printers are quite reliable when operated and maintained
within the guidelines set by the manufacturer. Still, given the combination of
mechanical parts, the variety of steps in printing, and the innovative ways some
users use the printer, problems do occur. The following table lists a few problems
that can be encountered with laser printing and their possible causes.

Symptom Possible Cause

Photosensitive drum is not fully discharged.


Ghost images appear at
Previous images used too much toner, and the
regular intervals on the
supply of charged toner is either insufficient or
printed page.
not adequately charged to transfer to the drum.

Previous page(s) used too much toner; therefore,


Light ghosting appears on
the drum could not be properly charged for the
pages.
image (called developer starvation).

Dark ghosting appears on


Drum is damaged.
pages.

Primary corona, laser scanning module, or main


Page is completely black.
central board has failed.

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Random black spots or Drum was improperly cleaned; residual particles
streaks appear on page. remain on drum.

Marks appear on every


Drum is damaged and must be replaced.
page.

Printing is too light


(appears in a column-like Toner is low.
streak).

Memory overflow error. Not enough RAM-printing resolution too high.

Print density is incorrect. (Adjust the darkness


Characters are incomplete.
setting on the toner cartridge.

Mass of melted plastic is Wrong transparency material is used (see section


spit out. on transparency, later in this lesson).

Pages are creased. Paper type is incorrect.

There is a problem with the paper or other media


or with the hardware. (For media: avoid paper
that is too rough or too smooth. Paper that is too
Characters are warped, rough interferes with fusing of characters and
overprinted, or poorly their definition. If the paper is too smooth, it can
formed. feed improperly, causing distorted or overwritten
characters. For hardware: run the self-test to
check for connectivity and configuration
problems.)

After clearing a paper jam


from the tray, printer still Printer has not reset. (Open and close the cover.)
indicates a paper jam.

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Problem with the pickup area, turning area, and
Paper continues to jam. registration (alignment) area. (Look for worn
parts or debris.)

Types of printers

Major types of printer:

• Printers can be divided into two main groups, impact printer and non-impact
printer. Impact printer produces text and images when tiny wire pins on print
head strike the ink ribbon by physically contacting the paper. Non-impact printer
produces text and graphics on paper without actually striking the paper.

• Printers can also be categorized based on the print method or print


technology. The most popular ones are inkjet printer, laser printer, dot-matrix
printer and thermal printer. Among these, only dot-matrix printer is impact
printer and the others are non-impact printers.

• Some printers are named because they are designed for specific functions,
such as photo printers, portable printers and all-in-one / multifunction printers.
Photo printers and portable printers usually use inkjet print method whereas
multifunction printers may use inkjet or laser print method.

• Inkjet printers and laser printers are the most popular printer types for
home and business use. Dot matrix printer was popular in 70’s and 80’s but has
been gradually replaced by inkjet printers for home use. However, they are still
being used to print multi-part forms and carbon copies for some businesses. The
use of thermal printers is limited to ATM, cash registers and point-of-sales
terminals. Some label printers and portable printers also use thermal printing.

• Due to the popularity of digital camera, laptop and SoHo office (small office /
home office), the demand for photo printers, portable printers and multifunction
printers has also increased substantially in recent years.

Popular Printers:

• Inkjet printers
• Laser printers

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Less Popular Printers:

• Dot-matrix printers
• Thermal printers

Specialty Printers:

• Photo printers
• Portable printers
• Multifunction / all-in-one printers
SMPS

SWITCH-MODE POWER SUPPLY:

Power electronics deals with four forms of power conversion.

1. ac-dc conversion called rectification


2. ac-ac conversion ,
3. dc-ac conversion and
4. dc-dc conversion.
DC-DC converters were referred to as choppers earlier, when SCRs were used.
Nowadays, IGBTs and MOSFETs are the devices used for dc-dc conversion and
these circuits can be classified as switch mode power supply circuits. The
abbreviation or acronym for switch mode power supply is SMPS.

A switch mode power supply circuit is versatile. It can be used to:

• Step down an unregulated dc input voltage to produce a regulated dc output


voltage using a circuit known as Buck Converter or Step-Down SMPS,
• Step up an unregulated dc input voltage to produce a regulated dc output
voltage using a circuit known as Boost Converter or Step-Up SMPS,
• Step up or step down an unregulated dc input voltage to produce a regulated
dc output voltage ,
• Invert the input dc voltage using usually a circuit such as the Cuk converter,
and
• Produce multiple dc outputs using a circuit such as the fly-back converter.

A switch mode power supply is a widely used circuit nowadays and it is used in
a system such as a computer, television receiver, battery charger etc. The switching
frequency is usually above 20 kHz, so that the noise produced by it is above the
audio range. It is also used to provide a variable dc voltage to armature of a dc

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motor in a variable speed drive. It is used in a high-frequency unity-power factor
circuit.

Introduction to power supplies:

• Power supply is a broad term of circuits that generate a fixed or controllable


magnitude dc voltage from the available form of input voltage. Integrated-circuit
(IC) chips used in the electronic circuits need standard dc voltage of fixed
magnitude.

• Many of these circuits need well-regulated dc supply for their proper


operation. In majority of the cases the required voltages are of magnitudes varying
between -18 to +18 volts.

• Some equipment may need multiple output power supplies. For example, in
a Personal Computer one may need 3.3 volt, ±5 volt and ±12 volt power supplies.
The digital ICs may need 3.3volt supply and the hard disk driver or the floppy
driver may need ±5 and ±12 volts supplies.

• The individual output voltages from the multiple output power supply may
have different current ratings and different voltage regulation requirements.
Almost invariably these outputs are isolated dc voltages where the dc output is
ohmically isolated from the input supply. In case of multiple output supplies
ohmic isolation between two or more outputs may be desired.

• The input connection to these power supplies is often taken from the
standard utility power plug point (ac voltage of 115V / 60Hz or 230V / 50Hz). It
may not be unusual, though, to have a power supply working from any other
voltage level which could be of either ac or dc type.

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• There are two broad categories of power supplies: Linear regulated power
supply and switched mode power supply (SMPS). In some cases one may use a
combination of switched mode and linear power supplies to gain some desired
advantages of both the types.

Linear regulated power supply:

A linear power supply operating from an unregulated dc input. This kind of


unregulated dc voltage is most often derived from the utility ac source.

• The utility ac voltage is first stepped down using a utility frequency


transformer, then it is rectified using diode rectifier and filtered by placing a
capacitor across the rectifier output.

• The voltage across the capacitor is still fairly unregulated and is load
dependent. The ripple in the capacitor voltage is not only dependent on the
capacitance magnitude but also depends on load and supply voltage variations.

• The unregulated capacitor voltage becomes the input to the linear type
power supply circuit.

• The filter capacitor size is chosen to optimize the overall cost and volume.
However, unless the capacitor is sufficiently large the capacitor voltage may have
unacceptably large ripple.

• The representative rectifier and capacitor voltage waveforms, where a 100


volts (peak), 50 Hz ac voltage is rectified and filtered using a capacitor of 1000
micro-farad and fed to a load of 100 ohms

ATX Power Supply


Definition:

ATX is an industry-wide specification for a desktop computer's motherboard.


ATX improves the motherboard design by taking the small AT motherboard
(sometimes known as the "Baby AT" or BAT) that was an earlier industry standard
and rotating by 90 degrees the layout of the microprocessor and expansion slots.
This allows space for more full-length add-in cards. A double-height aperture is
specified for the rear of the chassis, allowing more possible I/O arrangements for a
variety of devices such as TV input and output, LAN connection, and so forth. The
new layout is also intended to be less costly to manufacture. Fewer cables are
needed. The power supply has a side-mounted fan, allowing direct cooling of the
processor and cards, making a secondary fan unnecessary. Almost all major

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computer manufacturers, including IBM, Compaq, and Apple build desktops with
ATX motherboards. IBM is using ATX in both Intel and PowerPC platforms.

Features:

• The ATX power supply is used for Pentium-4 motherboards.


• All of our ATX power supplies meet Intel's 2.03 compliancy, which means
they all have 2500mA at the +5VSB (standby voltage) for Intel 2.03 version 1.3.
• This ATX power supply has a minimum of 75% high efficiency at full load.
• The ATX power supply also has low ripple and noise, a +3.3V regulation (2%
tolerance) and a thermal fan speed control.
ATX power supply connectors

4 Pin Berg Connector

Used to connect the PSU to small form factor devices, such as 3.5" floppy drives.
Available in: AT, ATX & ATX-2

4 Pin Molex Connector

This is used to power various components, including hard drives and optical drives.
Available in: AT, ATX & ATX-2

20 Pin Molex ATX Power Connector

This is used to power the motherboard in ATX systems.


Available in: ATX( ATX-2 have four extra pins)

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4 Pin Molex P4 12V Power Connector

Used specifically for Pentium 4 Processor Motherboards.


Available in: ATX (integrated into the power connector in ATX-2)

6 Pin AUX Connector

Provides +5V DC, and two connections of +3.3V.


Available in: ATX/ATX-2

ATX Power Supply Pinouts:

Below are pinout diagrams of the common connectors in ATX power supplies.

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Scanner

Introduction:

A scanner is just another input device, much like a keyboard or mouse, except
that it takes its input in graphical form. These images could be photographs for
retouching, correction or use in DTP. They could be hand-drawn logos required for
document letterheads. They could even be pages of text which suitable software
could read and save as an editable text file.

The list of scanner applications is almost endless, and has resulted in products
evolving to meet specialist requirements:

• high-end drum scanners, capable of scanning both reflective art and


transparencies, from 35mm slides to 16-foot x 20in material at high (10,000dpi+)
resolutions
• compact document scanners, designed exclusively for OCR and document
management
• dedicated photo scanners, which work by moving a photo over a stationary
light source
• slide/transparency scanners, which work by passing light through an image
rather than reflecting light off it
• handheld scanners, for the budget end of the market or for those with little
desk space.

However, flatbed scanners are the most versatile and popular format. These are
capable of capturing colour pictures, documents, pages from books and magazines,
and, with the right attachments, even scan transparent photographic film.

Scanner Image:

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Color Scanners

• Color scanners have three light sources, one for each of red, green and blue
primary. Some scanning heads contain a single fluorescent tube with three filtered
CCDs, while others have three colored tubes and a single CCD. The former
produce the entire color image in a single pass, the target being illuminated by the
three rapidly changing lights, while the latter have to go back-and-forth three
times.

• Single-pass scanners have problems with the stability of light levels when
they're being turned on and off rapidly. Older three-pass scanners used to suffer
from registration problems along with being slow. More modern three-pass units
are much improved and able to match some single-passers for speed. However, by
the late 1990s most colour scanners were single-pass devices.

• These scanners use one of two methods for reading light values: beam
splitter or coated CCDs. When a beam splitter is used, light passes through a
prism and separates into the three primary scanning colors, which are each read
by a different CCD. This is generally considered the best way to process reflected
light, but to bring down costs many manufacturers use three CCDs, each of which
is coated with a film so that it reads only one of the primary scanning colors from
an unsplit beam. While technically not as accurate, this second method usually
produces results that are difficult to distinguish from those of a scanner with a
beam splitter.

FILE FORMAT

File format is a particular way that information is encoded for storage in


a computer file.

Since a disk drive, or indeed any computer storage, can store only bits, the
computer must have some way of converting information to 0s and 1s and vice-
versa. There are different kinds of formats for different kinds of information. Within

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any format type, e.g., word processor documents, there will typically be several
different formats. Sometimes these formats compete with each other.

File formats are divided into proprietary and open formats.

Operation
The Scanning Process:

• The document is placed on the glass plate and the cover is closed. The inside
of the cover in most scanners is flat white, although a few are black. The cover
provides a uniform background that the scanner Software can use as a reference
point for determining the size of the document being scanned. Most flatbed
scanners allow the cover to be removed for scanning a bulky object, such as a
page in a thick book.

• A lamp is used to illuminate the document. The lamp in newer scanners is


either a cold cathode fluorescent lamp (CCFL) or a xenon lamp, while older
scanners may have a standard fluorescent lamp.

• The entire mechanism (mirrors, lens, filter and CCD array) make up the scan
head. The scan head is moved slowly across the document by a belt that is
attached to a stepper motor. The scan head is attached to a stabilizer bar to
ensure that there is no wobble or deviation in the pass. Pass means that the scan
head has completed a single complete scan of the document.

• The image of the document is reflected by an angled mirror to another


mirror. In some scanners, there are only two mirrors while others use a three
mirror approach. Each mirror is slightly curved to focus the image it reflects onto
a smaller surface.

• The last mirror reflects the image onto a lens. The lens focuses the image
through a filter on the CCD array.

• The filter and lens arrangement vary based on the scanner. Some scanners
use a three pass scanning method. Each pass uses a different color filter (red,
green or blue) between the lens and CCD array. After the three passes are
completed, the scanner software assembles the three filtered images into a single
full-color image.

• Most scanners today use the single pass method. The lens splits the image
into three smaller versions of the original. Each smaller version passes through a
color filter (either red, green or blue) onto a discrete section of the CCD array. The

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scanner combines the data from the three parts of the CCD array into a single
full-color image.

• Another imaging array technology that has become popular in inexpensive


flatbed scanners is contact image sensor (CIS). CIS replaces the CCD array,
mirrors, filters, lamp and lens with rows of red, green and blue light emitting
diodes (LEDs). The image sensor mechanism, consisting of 300 to 600 sensors
spanning the width of the scan area, is placed very close to the glass plate that the
document rests upon. When the image is scanned, the LEDs combine to provide
white light. The illuminated image is then captured by the row of sensors. CIS
scanners are cheaper, lighter and thinner, but do not provide the same level of
quality and resolution found in most CCD scanners.

The sensor component itself is implemented using one of three different


types of technology:

• PMT (photomultiplier tube), a technology inherited from the drum scanners


of yesteryear
• CCD (charge-coupled device), the type of sensor used in desktop scanners
• CIS (contact image sensor), a newer technology which integrates scanning
functions into fewer components, allowing scanners to be more compact in size.

Scan modes
PCs represent pictures in a variety of ways - the most common methods being are
line art, halftone, grayscale, and color:

• Line art is the smallest of all the image formats. Since only black and white
information is stored, the computer represents black with a 1 and white with a 0.
It only takes 1-bit of data to store each dot of a black and white scanned image.
Line art is most useful when scanning text or line drawing. Pictures do not scan
well in line art mode.

• While computers can store and show grayscale images, most printers are
unable to print different shades of gray. They use a trick called
halftoning. Halftones use patterns of dots to fool the eye into believing it is seeing
grayscale information

• Grayscale images are the simplest of images for the computer to store.
Humans can perceive about 255 different shades of grey - represented in a PC by
a single byte of data with the value 0 to 255. A grayscale image can be thought of
as equivalent to a black and white photograph

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• True color images are the largest and most complex images to store, PCs
using 8-bits (1 byte) to represent each of the color components (red, green, and
blue) and therefore 24-bits in total to represent the entire color spectrum.

Types of Scanner

Scanners have become an important part of the home office over the last few
years. Scanner technology is everywhere and used in many ways:

• Flatbed scanners, also called desktop scanners, are the most versatile and
commonly used scanners. In fact, this article will focus on the technology as it
relates to flatbed scanners.

• Sheet-fed scanners are similar to flatbed scanners except the document is


moved and the scan head is immobile. A sheet-fed scanner looks a lot like a small
portable printer.

• Handheld scanners use the same basic technology as a flatbed scanner, but
rely on the user to move them instead of a motorized belt. This type of scanner
typically does not provide good image quality. However, it can be useful for quickly
capturing text.

• Drum scanners are used by the publishing industry to capture incredibly


detailed images. They use a technology called a photomultiplier tube (PMT). In
PMT, the document to be scanned is mounted on a glass cylinder. At the center of
the cylinder is a sensor that splits light bounced from the document into three
beams. Each beam is sent through a color filter into a photomultiplier tube where
the light is changed into an electrical signal.

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UNIT - V

TROUBLESHOOTING PC

Anti-virus Software

Antivirus software is a computer program that detects, prevents, and takes


action to disarm or remove malicious software programs, such as viruses and
worms. You can help protect your computer against viruses by using antivirus
software. Computer viruses are software programs that are deliberately designed to
interfere with computer operation, record, corrupt, or delete data, or spread
themselves to other computers and throughout the Internet. To help prevent the
most current viruses, you must update your antivirus software regularly. You can
set up most types of antivirus software to update automatically.

Anti-virus software packages:

These anti virus software’s are called ‘Virus Scanners’. Virus scanners are
program which search system areas as well as program files for known virus
infections. These scanner program searches for a specific virus cod sequences
called signatures within a normal program to check for any virus infection. These
scanner programs may be memory resident or a normal file type.

A memory resident virus detection program is loaded in the RAM while the
system is booting, and it is active as long as the system is ON, whenever a program
is copied into RAM it checks for the known virus code or the signature and tells
about the infection. Or in some cases it informs whenever the boot record (or) a file
is about to modify.

PC-Clean is antivirus scanner software available in Windows 95 environments.


Vx2000 is another anti -virus scanner software used in Novell Netware LAN
environments and Dr.Solomon is virus scanning software used both in DOS and
windows environments.

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How to choose the best antivirus software?

The number of new computer viruses is rising every year and they are getting
more malicious than before. In 2003, 7 new viruses were unleashed every day. In
2004, more than 10,000 new computer viruses were identified, many of them have
several variants. Computer viruses, computer worms and Trojan horses spread
through the network by sharing diskettes, downloading files from the internet and
email attachments. To protect your computer, always use the best antivirus
software from reputable publishers and update it regularly. Do not open
suspicious files or attachments even if they come from people in your address book.

The Best Antivirus Software usually have several characteristics:

• They come from well known reputable publishers. Be wary if you have never
heard of the name of the antivirus programs or the software publishers. Do not
run any free downloads or free scans unless you have researched about the
software publishers.

• Installing a poorly designed program or one which is accompanied by hidden


applications (such as spyware/adware) will do more harm than good to your
computer. They may damage your system, create security holes and give you a
false sense of security.

• The software are user friendly, i.e. they are easy to install and easy to use.
• They provide rich features, including real time protection, stopping computer
viruses, worms and Trojan horses before they infect the computer, scanning of
incoming and outgoing email, instant messages, and employing advanced worm
stopping and script stopping technology.

• The software publishers update their detection database frequently and


release new version regularly. The antivirus software should have the option of
automatic update.
• Provide good and prompt technical support, such as live message, email and
phone support.

• Computer viruses are just one of the IT security problems, hackers and
spyware / adware are two other major threats. Although antivirus programs can
now detect and remove some spyware programs, they cannot stop hacker attacks,
nor can they detect most of the spyware programs which are usually installed with
other applications or free download.

Anti-Virus Software:
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• McAfee Virus Scan
• AVG
• PC Security ShieldAVG Antivirus
• Kaspersky Anti-Virus
• Avecho
• Panda Antivirus
• F-Secure
• Norton Anti-Virus
• Sophos Anti-Virus

How Computer Viruses Work

Strange as it may sound, the computer virus is something of an Information


Age marvel. On one hand, viruses show us how vulnerable we are -- a properly
engineered virus can have a devastating effect, disrupting productivity and doing
billions of dollars in damages. On the other hand, they show us how sophisticated
and interconnected human beings have become.

• Viruses - A virus is a small piece of software that piggybacks on real


programs. For example, a virus might attach itself to a program such as a
spreadsheet program. Each time the spreadsheet program runs, the virus
runs, too, and it has the chance to reproduce (by attaching to other
programs) or wreak havoc.
• E-mail viruses - An e-mail virus travels as an attachment toe-mail
messages, and usually replicates itself by automatically mailing itself to
dozens of people in the victim's e-mail address book. Some e-mail viruses
don't even require a double-click -- they launch when you view the
infected message in the preview pane of your e-mail software
[source:Johnson].
• Trojan horses - A Trojan horse is simply a computer program. The
program claims to do one thing (it may claim to be a game) but instead
does damage when you run it (it may erase your hard disk). Trojan horses
have no way to replicate automatically.
• Worms - A worm is a small piece of software that uses computer
networks and security holes to replicate itself. A copy of the worm scans
the network for another machine that has a specific security hole. It
copies itself to the new machine using the security hole, and then starts
replicating from there, as well.

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Computer Viruses

Introduction to computer viruses

What is a computer virus?

A computer virus is a computer program that can infect your computer system
by executing itself without your permission or knowledge and run against your
wishes. Viruses can also replicate itself to maximize the infection.

What is a computer program?

A computer program is a list of instruction for a computer to execute. Basically,


people create computer programs to do good things such as music player, video
player, email programs, calculator and many more. They are all helpful program
which bring benefits to the people. Unfortunately, some people write programs to
do bad things such as programs that might corrupt or delete your files or
documents on your hard drive or programs that might send your private data(ex.
credit card number) to strangers or to the writer himself. This kind of program is
known as computer virus.

Why we call it a VIRUS?

Well, it’s just like a human virus, it can be very dangerous and destructive. It
can also spread itself from one computer to another by many ways. For instance,
viruses are most easily spread by attachments in e-mail messages or instant
messaging messages over the network or the internet. Viruses are also easily
spread by carrying it on a removable medium such as floppy disk, USB drive or CD.

What is the difference between viruses, worms and Trojan horses?

Some people distinguish between general viruses, worms and Trojan horses. A
worm is a special type of malware programs that can replicate itself and use
memory, but cannot attach itself to other programs, and a Trojan horse is a file
that appears harmless until executed.

Firewalls

Definition:

A firewall is a set of related programs, located at a network gateway server, that


protects the resources of a private network from users from other networks. (The
term also implies the security policy that is used with the programs.) An enterprise
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with an intranet that allows its workers access to the wider Internet installs a
firewall to prevent outsiders from accessing its own private data resources and for
controlling what outside resources its own users have access to.

Basically, a firewall, working closely with a router program, examines each


network packet to determine whether to forward it toward its destination. A firewall
also includes or works with a proxy server that makes network requests on behalf
of workstation users. A firewall is often installed in a specially designated computer
separate from the rest of the network so that no incoming request can get directly
at private network resources.

There are a number of firewall screening methods. A simple one is to screen


requests to make sure they come from acceptable (previously identified) domain
name and Internet Protocol addresses. For mobile users, firewalls allow remote
access in to the private network by the use of secure logon procedures and
authentication certificates.

A number of companies make firewall products. Features include logging and


reporting, automatic alarms at given thresholds of attack, and a graphical user
interface for controlling the firewall. Computer security borrows this term from
firefighting, where it originated. In firefighting, a firewall is a barrier established to
prevent the spread of fire.

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How To Avoid Virus Infections

Some Hints and Tips on how to avoid virus infections:

Tip 1 : The most common viruses can be disguised as attachments of funny


images, greeting cards, or audio and video files and spread by sending them via e-
mail messages. Thus, you are advice not to open e-mail attachments unless you
know who it’s from and you are expecting it.

Tip 2 : MSN Messenger is getting more and more famous, or even becomes the
world’s leading messenger. Unfortunately, many bad people are taking this
opportunity to spread computer viruses to the people who are using MSN
messenger around the world. This kind of virus is very destructive and they spread
from one to another by forcing your messenger to send the virus automatically to
your friends by offering some sort of interesting words and notable files such as a
message like “is that you on this photo?” with a zipped file which probably be
named as “photo0050.jpg” or “photo0050.zip”. These files are definitely viruses.

• So, you are advice not to receive any suspected files from your friends, even
the closest one.
• You should judge a file by its size with your common sense.
• You should ask your friend once again to determine whether or not they are
really there to send you something, but not the auto-virus.

Tip 3 : Viruses are easily spread by carrying it on a removable medium such as


floppy disk, USB drive or CD.

• Therefore, you should always scan diskettes, CD’s and any other removable
media before using them.

Tip 4 : Internet is the main media for virus to spread. Every downloadable file may
consists of viruses.

• You should always scan files downloaded from the Internet before using
them.
• You are advice not to install any unapproved software on your computer.
Tip 5 :The General tip to avoid virus infection.

• An anti-virus software must be installed in your computer.


• Ensure that your anti-virus software is up to date.
• Ensure that your operating system is up to date and patched with the latest
security updates. For instance, you should enable Windows Update if you are
using Microsoft Windows Operating System.

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• Scan your computer on a regular basis.
• Install and run a firewall on your computer.
How to Find Computer Virus

Computer viruses are small applications that contaminate files inside your
computer and are capable of transferring from one computer to another. The
purpose of the virus is to spread and corrupt a computer’s system. Infected
computers start to slow down until the entire system eventually crash or
malfunction. Antivirus programs are sold all over the world to fight virus infestation
that has now found a way to disguise itself to infiltrate low level computer security.
To find a virus, you will need to have an antivirus program.

MaterialsNeeded:

Step1

Install an antivirus program. Secure a licensed antivirus program from a reputable


antivirus company. Antivirus programs are available online via downloading or
offline via CD or DVD copy.

Step2

After installing your antivirus program run an immediate update of the software.
Antivirus updates are important as some antivirus employs signatures to recognize
viruses. Signature is a traditional process to identify malicious files. It identifies
viruses by checking the contents of a file or a program against its data base of
viruses. Updating your antivirus program would also mean updating your virus
database of the newly identified viruses. Nowadays, well known antivirus
companies also employ heuristics to identify viruses and other malicious files.
Heuristic is a process in which an antivirus program analyzes files and programs
command lines to be able to identify if they are malicious and harmful.

Step3

Another way to find a computer virus is to check manually. Go to Control Panel.


Click on the Start then select Control Panel from the Start Menu.

Step4

Select Add or Remove Programs from the Control Panel window. Check on the list
of programs installed in your computer.

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Step5
Note the names of the programs you are not familiar with.

Step6
Check the program’s name on the Internet. Research about its functions and
possible effects on your system.

Step7
If this file was indeed malicious delete it at once. If you are not sure if a file is
malicious do not delete anything as it might affect your computer’s system and
cause even greater damage.

Step8
Another way to find a virus in your computer is to check the Windows Start-up
folder. To go to Windows Start-up folder select My Computer. Select Drive C: from
My Computer.

Step9
Select the Documents and Settings folder in Drive C: Go to the All Users folder in
the Documents and Settings. Inside the Documents and Settings click on the Start
Menu folder. Check the programs inside the Start Menu folder. Identify listed
programs that you do not recognize and research on them. This way you would be
able to find out which files are harmful or a part of your computer’s system.

Types of Computer Virus

Computer viruses can be classified into six groups:

1. Boot or partition infecting viruses


2. Executable file infecting viruses
3. Multipart viruses
4. Directory infecting viruses
5. Hardware infecting viruses
6. Network infecting viruses
All these six types of viruses can be further classified into resident and non
resident types.

Resident Viruses Resident viruses are those which install their code in memory on
execution and infect other programmes or disk from there.

Non Resident Viruses The first sector containing the code to load and start the
operating system is called the boot sector in any floppy diskette. These type of
viruses modify the boot sector of the floppy disks. This leads to boot the system.

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Partition Table Viruses The first physical sector in any hard disk is called master
boot record which contains booting information and also the partition table
information in the hard disk. These viruses modify the partition table and lead to
unrecoverable data from the hard disk.

File Virus All viruses that modify executable program files to replicate or spread
are called fie viruses. These viruses infect the files with filename extension .COM,
EXE, DLL or executable regardless of their extension.

Multipart Viruses These viruses infect both boot sectors as well as files. These are
dangerous viruses as they infect all parts of the diskettes.

Directory Viruses These viruses infect the directory information in any diskettes
and spread fastly. These viruses use an undocumented DOS structure to point the
start of every executable file to an area of the disk where the virus code is written.
Whenever a program is about to run, the virus gets control and does whatever it is
programmed to do, and then loads the original programs in normal fashion. Here, it
does not modify or damage any files or boot sectors but infect the entire drives
within seconds.

Hardware Infecting Viruses These viruses can damage hardware. These viruses
are known to reprogram the CRT chips to emit higher frequencies and can cause
the monitor to burn or. Also some of the hardware infecting viruses keep moving
the hard disk drives heads randomly, this increased and unnecessary activity often
damages hard disk over a period of time.

Network Viruses These type of viruses spreads easily in a network environment.


They may be file virus, boot virus or a hardware virus. Recently with the
developments in Internet based networking environments, these viruses are
attached through the e-mail letters and down loaded programs.

Virus Signature
What is a Virus Signature?

In the antivirus world, a signature is an algorithm or hash (a number derived


from a string of text) that uniquely identifies a specific virus. Depending on the type
of scanner being used, it may be a static hash which, in its simplest form, is a
calculated numerical value of a snippet of code unique to the virus. Or, less
commonly, the algorithm may be behavior-based, i.e. if this file tries to do X,Y,Z,
flag it as suspicious and prompt the user for a decision. Depending on the antivirus
vendor, a signature may be referred to as a signature, a definition file, or a DAT file.

A single signature may be consistent among a large number of viruses. This


allows the scanner to detect a brand new virus it has never even seen before. This
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ability is commonly referred to as either heuristics or generic detection. Generic
detection is less likely to be effective against completely new viruses and more
effective at detecting new members of an already known virus 'family' (a collection
of viruses that share many of the same characteristics and some of the same code).
The ability to detect heuristically or generically is significant, given that most
scanners now include in excess of 250k signatures and the numbers of new viruses
being discovered continues to increase dramatically year after year.

The reoccurring need to update

Each time a new virus is discovered that is not detectable by an existing


signature, or may be detectable but cannot be properly removed because its
behavior is not totally consistent with previously known threats, a new signature
must be created. After the new signature has been created and tested by the
antivirus vendor, it is pushed out to the customer in the form of signature updates.
These updates add the detection capability to the scan engine. In some cases, a
previously provided signature might be removed or replaced with a new signature
to offer better overall detection or disinfection capabilities.

Depending on the scanning vendor, updates may be offered hourly, or daily, or


sometimes even weekly. Much of the need to provide signatures varies with the type
of scanner it is, i.e. with what that scanner is charged with detecting. For example,
adware and spyware are not nearly as prolific as viruses, thus typically an
adware/spyware scanner may only provide weekly signature updates (or even less
often). Conversely, a virus scanner must contend with thousands of new threats
discovered each month and therefore, signature updates should be offered at least
daily.

Of course, it's simply not practical to release an individual signature for each
new virus discovered, thus antivirus vendors tend to release on a set schedule,
covering all of the new malware they have encountered during that time frame. If a
particularly prevalent or menacing threat is discovered between their regularly
scheduled updates, the vendors will typically analyze the malware, create the
signature, test it, and release it out-of-band (which means, release it outside of
their normal update schedule).

To maintain the highest level of protection, configure your antivirus software to


check for updates as often as it will allow. Keeping the signatures up to date
doesn't guarantee a new virus will never slip through, but it does make it far less
likely.

POST

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When IBM PCs were first introduced by IBM in1991, they included safety
features that had never been seen before in Personal computer. These features were
the POST and parity checked memory. The POST is a series of program routines
buried in the motherboard ROM firmware. It tests all the main system components
when power is turned on. When we turn on an IBM compatible system, this
program is executed first before the system loads the operating system.

Functions:

Whenever a system is powered on, the computer automatically performs a


series of tests that check various components in the system. The components
tested by this procedure are the primary ones such as the CPU, ROM, motherboard
support circuitry, memory and major peripherals. These tests are brief and not very
through compared with the other disk based diagnostics.

POST provides error or waring messages whenever a faulty component is


encountered. Two types of messages are provided: Audio error codes and Display
screen messages or codes. The POST programs are stored in the BIOS ROM in the
final 8KB area of 1MB memory space. Immediately after power-on or reset, the
microprocessor starts instruction processing from the memory address FFFF0 from
where the POST begins.

IPL Hardware:

In order to begin POST successfully, certain minimum hardware should be


working properly. This minimum hardware is known as IPL (Initial Program Load)
hardware. After power-on or reset, the IPL hardware transfers control to POST. The
POST, after completion of all tests, transfers control to the bootstrap program
which is read either from floppy disk or hard disk.
The IPL hardware includes the following:

• Power supply
• Clock logic
• Bus controller
• Microprocessor
• Address latches
• Data bus and control bus transceivers
• BIOS ROM
• ROM address decode logic
BIOS Error Messages

Most BIOS systems display a three or four-digit error code along with the error
message to help pinpoint the apparent source of the problem. The documentation

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for the BIOS system or your motherboard should list the exact codes used on your
PC’s make and model.

The BIOS POST error codes are categorized by ROMs and services and
numbered in groups of 100. For example, a 600- series error, such as a 601, 622,
or 644 error code, indicates a problem with the floppy disk drive or the floppy disk
drive controller.

POST Boot Error codes:

Series Category

100 Motherboard errors

200 RAM errors

300 Keyboard errors

600 Floppy disk drive errors

900 Parallel printer adapter errors

1100 COM1 errors

1300 Game port adapter errors

1700 Hard disk drive errors

1800 Expandion bus errors

2400 VGA errors

3000 NIC errors

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Boot up Sequence

Upon starting, a personal computer's x86 CPU runs the instruction located
at the memory location CS:IP F000:FFF0 of the BIOS, which is located at the
0xFFFF0 address. This memory location is close to the end of the 1MB of system
memory accessible in real mode. It typically contains a jump instruction that
transfers execution to the location of the BIOS start-up program. This program
runs a power-on self test (POST) to check and initialize required devices. The BIOS
goes through a pre-configured list of non-volatile storage devices ("boot device
sequence") until it finds one that is bootable. A bootable device is defined as one
that can be read from, and the last two bytes of the first sector contain
the word 0xAA55 (also known as the boot signature).

Once the BIOS has found a bootable device it loads the boot sector to
hexadecimal Segment:Offset address 0000:7C00 or 07C0:0000 (maps to the same
ultimate address) and transfers execution to the boot code. In the case of a hard
disk, this is referred to as the master boot record (MBR) and is often not operating
system specific. The conventional MBR code checks the MBR's partition table for a
partition set as bootable (the one with active flag set).[14] If an active partition is
found, the MBR code loads the boot sector code from that partition and executes it.
The boot sector is often operating-system-specific; however, in most operating
systems its main function is to load and execute the operating system kernel,
which continues startup. If there is no active partition, or the active partition's boot
sector is invalid, the MBR may load a secondary boot loader which will select a
partition (often via user input) and load its boot sector, which usually loads the
corresponding operating system kernel.

Some systems (particularly newer Macintoshes) use Intel's proprietary EFI.


Also coreboot allows a computer to boot without having an over-complicated
firmware/BIOS constantly running in system management mode. The legacy 16-bit
BIOS interfaces are required by certain x86 operating systems, such as Windows.
However most boot loaders have 16-bit support for these legacy

BIOS systems.
Most PCs, if a BIOS chip is present, will show a screen detailing the BIOS
chip manufacturer, copyright held by the chip's manufacturer and the ID of the
chip at startup. At the same time, it also shows the amount of computer memory
available and other pieces of information about the computer.

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Power On Self Test (POST)

The computer power-on self-test tests the computer to make sure it meets
the necessary system requirements and that all hardware is working properly
before starting the remainder of the boot process. If the computer passes the POST,
the computer may have a single beep (with some computer BIOS suppliers it may
beep twice) as the computer starts and the computer will continue to start
normally.

POST Beep Codes

When you turn the computer on, it performs Power On System Test (POST),
during which it checks and initializes the system's internal components.If a serious
error occurs, the computer does not display a message but emits a series of long
and short beeps instead. Beeps are your computer's way of letting you know what's
going on when the video signal is not working. These codes are built in to the BIOS
of the PC. There is no official standard for these codes due to the many brands of
BIOS that are out there. To decode the meaning of your computer POST beep codes
you must consult the manual of your motherboard.If you don't have a motherboard
manual or if it's incomplete you must search on the site of your computer
manufacturer.

IBM BIOS

The following are IBM BIOS Beep Codes that can occur. However because of
the wide variety of models shipping with this BIOS the beep codes may vary.

Beep Code Descriptions

No Beeps No Power, Loose Card, or Short.

1 Short Beep Normal POST, computer is ok.

2 Short Beep POST error, review screen for error code.

Continuous Beep No Power, Loose Card, or Short.

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Repeating Short Beep No Power, Loose Card, or Short.

One Long and one


Motherboard issue.
Short Beep

One Long and Two


Video (Mono/CGA Display Circuitry) issue.
short Beeps

One Long and Three


Video (EGA) Display Circuitry.
Short Beeps

Three Long Beeps Keyboard / Keyboard card error.

One Beep, Blank or


Video Display Circuitry.
Incorrect Display

Room Preparation and Power supply


Air-conditioning
Defintion:

A computer room air conditioning (CRAC) unit is a device that monitors and
maintains the temperature, air distribution and humidity in a network room or
data center. CRAC units are replacing air-conditioning units that were used in the
past to cool data centers. According to Industrial Market Trends, mainframes and
racks of servers can get as hot as a seven-foot tower of powered toaster ovens, so
climate control is an important part of the data center's infrastructure.

There are a variety of ways that the CRAC units can be situated. One CRAC
setup that has been successful is the process of cooling air and having it dispensed
through an elevated floor. The air rises through the perforated sections, forming
cold aisles. The cold air flows through the racks where it picks up heat before
exiting from the rear of the racks. The warm exit air forms hot aisles behind the
racks, and the hot air returns to the CRAC intakes, which are positioned above the
floor.

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Environment conditions:

S.NO Environment Conditions Required

1 Temperature 20 to 25 deg. cen (72 (+or -) 2 deg. faren)

2 Relative humidity 50 to (+ or -) 5%

3 Filteration quality 45%, minimum 20%

Location

Computer room location, planning and preparation are as important as the


computer itself for the effective use of the system. Earlier days computing facilities
were provided as a common resource and everyone in the organization assessed the
common computer center. The availability of high power computer systems at
bottom rock prices and the network connectivity technologies has lead to individual
desk top computing. Even then many enterprises have common computer centers
for separate work groups.

Proper control should be imposed for the entry into the computer hall. This is to
avoid unauthorized persons entering the computer room and to avoid computer
crimes. The room should be away from airborne contamination's such as smoke
and other pollutions. Power should be provided with properly grounded outlets. The
computer hall should be away from the radio transmitters or any other sources of
radio frequency. The communication lines like telephone lines should be easily
connected to the room if there is a need for fax or modem for communication
purposes.

Pollution
Computer room pollution:

Dirt, smoke,. Dust and any other pollutants are not good for the system. The
suspended particles in the air will be carried through the system and will be
collected inside by the power supply cooling fan. The following suggestions are
given to avoid room pollution:

• Chappals and shoes may be left outside the computer room to avoid dust
entering into the room.

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• An air curtain above the doorway may be provided to avoid contamination's
that can be carried in by the users.
• Keyboards are impervious to liquids and dirt. Hence don’t permit drinks
inside the computer room that may accidentally spill over the keyboards.
• Cigarette smoke causes corrosion in the internal connectors and sockets of
circuit boards. Hence smoking inside room may be prohibited.
• Computer room should be kept clean, a vacuum cleaner may be used
periodically to remove the dust.
• Humidifiers should not be used inside computer room because water
sprayed particles may affect computer system. Air conditioners may be used to
keep room cool and free from dust.
• Periodically room fresheners may be used to refresh air and also avoid bad
smell.

Power supply

Clean power supply

A clean AC power supply source is fundamental to the operations of most


sensitive electronic equipments like computers, medical equipments and
telecommunication systems. Of all the devices which rely on AC power, computers
are probably the most sensitive to power disturbances and failures. In computer
systems any power interruption even of the order of milliseconds can cause loss of
data, the entire system to malfunction or fail, and loss of data, the entire system to
malfunction or fail, and loss of computer time resulting in extensive financial loss
and inconveniences.

Power Supply Problems

Nowadays the users of sophisticated electronic equipments are aware of the


problems with electrical power. The power supply which appears to be clean and
steady for many of the ordinary household appliances is not suitable for computer
systems. In many installations the power line that the computer is connected to
also serves heavy equipments. The switching ‘on’ and ‘off’ of these equipments may
introduce voltage variations in the line. The corrupted power comes in a number of
forms, such as transient disturbances, unstable voltage, dips and surges, noise,
brownouts and blackouts.

Transients A transient is any brief change in power that doesn’t repeat itself. It can
be an under voltage or an overvoltage. Sags (momentary undervoltage) and surges
(momentary overvoltages) are transients.

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Spikes and Surges The deadliest power line problem is overvoltage. It is lighting
like high voltage that sneaks through the filter capacitor into the computer and
melts down its silicon circuitry. As its name implies an overvoltage is pushing more
voltage into the computer then it is equipped to handle. The fluctuations may have
a range of 10% of its rated voltage. Spikes are high voltage transients which last for
short duration of few microseconds. Surges are high voltage transients which will
last for longer duration and will stretch for many milliseconds.

Blackouts and Brownouts Besides overvoltage or over current conditions other


problems can occur with incoming power. They are blackouts and brownouts. Due
to under voltage without switching off if the supply voltage dips or sags for a short
duration is called brownouts. Most PC’s are designed to withstand prolonged
voltage dips of about 20% without shutting down. Deeper dips or blackouts may
switch off the power good signal and shut down the computers suddenly. But they
can cause the most detrimental effect on equipment and data files.

UPS
Introduction

Uninterruptible power supplies (UPSs) are devices that maintain the supply of
power to a load even when the AC input power is interrupted or disturbed. This is
typically accomplished by drawing the necessary power from a stored energy
source, such as a battery. UPSs may also convert unregulated input power to
voltage and frequency-filtered AC power. Thus, the UPS will provide stable power
and minimize the effects of electric power supply disturbances and variations.UPSs
are currently found in commercial, industrial, medical and residential markets.

Applications include:

• individual computers and computer systems


• Shipboard systems
• Automated manufacturing
• Microprocessor- and microcontroller-based equipment
• Medical applications
• Laboratories
• Analytical systems
• Robotics
• Precision motor-speed applications
• Military applications
• Mission-critical fields such as telecommunications and Internet nodes
• Finance
• Public health

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• Air traffic control
• Transport

UPS

Sizes of UPSs vary, from approximately 250 VA to 1000 kVA. Small UPSs are
used for single personal computers and workstations where down time is tolerable
but data loss must be avoided. These UPSs provide enough backup time for reliable
equipment shutdown. Large UPSs support mission-critical applications where
large-scale protection is essential.

Types of UPS
Types of Uninterruptible Power Supplies

The three main types of UPSs are:

• Standby (offline)
• Online
• Line interactive
Offline (or standby) UPSs are the simplest and most efficient. Normally, power
reaches loads directly from its source. During a power failure, a switch connects a
backup battery to the load, with a short, distinct power interruption. During
unstable conditions such as when input power frequency deviates from the
required range, the same switching occurs, connecting the backup battery. In
persistently unstable conditions, the battery may be drained, making it inadequate
during a blackout. Since offline UPSs provide only partial protection from many
common power problems, they are most often used to shield single-user personal

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computers and other less critical applications.Offline UPSs are smaller and lower-
priced than online UPSs.

Online UPSs provide load power at all times through a battery that is continuously
charged by input power. The battery is always online; therefore, no switching is
called for during power failures. Online UPSs provide complete protection and
isolation from almost all types of power problems and provide digital-quality power
that is not possible with offline systems. For these reasons, they are typically used
for mission-critical applications that demand high productivity and systems
availability. "Double-converter system" is another name for an online UPS since it
must convert AC input power to DC for charging the battery and afterward convert
DC to AC for use by the load. Double conversion makes this UPS less efficient than
other types. Online systems provide the same benefits of an offline UPS combined
with a line conditioner, at a price lower than the cost of both components
purchased separately.

Line-interactive UPSs retain some of the efficiency of offline UPSs while providing
the voltage regulation features of online systems. Instead of converting the input
power to DC and storing it in a battery, the UPS sends the power to the load
through a ferroresonant transformer that provides voltage regulation and power
conditioning for disturbances such as electrical line noise. In addition, when a
power outage occurs, the transformer maintains an energy reserve that is usually
sufficient to power most personal computers briefly during the switchover to the
UPS's battery power. In general, these UPSs work best with linear loads such as
motors, heaters and lights. Line-interactive UPSs are very efficient, highly reliable
and, unlike offline systems, offer voltage regulation features.

Web Camera
A webcam is a video capture device connected to a computer or computer
network, often using a USB port or, if connected to a network, ethernet or Wi-Fi.
The most popular use is for video telephony, permitting a computer to act as a
videophone or video conferencing station. This can be used in messenger programs
such as Windows Live Messenger, Skype and Yahoo messenger services. Other
popular uses, which include the recording of video files or even still-images, are
accessible via numerous software programs, applications and devices. Webcams
are known for low manufacturing costs and flexibility, making them the lowest cost
form of video telephony.

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