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04 March 2023 08:43

---------- Table of Content ----------

 Topic 1 : Types of Gases and their Composition
 Topic 2 : Types of Gasoline & it’s Important Properties
 Topic 3 : Important tests & properties of Kerosene
 Topic 4 : Types of Diesel & its Important Properties and Tastes
 Topic 5 : Heavy Fractions and their Important Properties
 Definations

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Topic 1 : Types of Gases and their Composition.

QUE : Which are the various gases that will be evolve during the early stage of fractionation process from the
crude petroleum explain in detail. [4 / 7 - Marks] OR
Describe various types of gases evolved from fractionation of crude petroleum with their composition. [7M]
Ans :
- The various gases that will be evolve during the early stage of fractionation process is as follows;
(1) Natural Gas
(2) Associated Gas
(3) Dissolve Gas
(4) Casing Head Gas
(5) Refinary off Gases.
(6) Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG)

(1) Natural Gas :

- It contains mainly methane and it's proportion range from 85% to 98%.
- In addition it contains small traces of dry gas fractions like ethane and propane is available.
- Moreover that 𝐂𝐎𝟐 , 𝐍𝟐 , Noble gases are also present.

(2) Associated Gas :

- This is obtained from oil reservoirs and this exists as a separate gas cap over liquid phase.
- It mainly consist of methane and some amount of ethane and propane, it's proportion varies depending upon the
reservoir conditions.
- When the gas phase taken out, it may still contain some liquid hydrocarbons mainly of volatile range like butane
and pentane.

(3) Dissolve Gas :

- Gas may be present in the liquid hydrocarbons mainly in the dissolve state depending upon the formation
pressure. When the pressure decreased, it will comes out of the oil.
- Gas production upto 10% crude.

(4) Casing Head Gas :

- Gas that has escaped through oil well such like a Christmas trees.
- It is also more or less similar to natural gas but contains less % of methane and high % of ethane and propane
than natural gas.

(5) Refinery off Gases :

- It is formed in cracking and reforming operations due to the thermal degradation of liquid hydrocarbons.
- The gas is mainly a mixture of saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons.
- This gases contains impurities like 𝐂𝐎𝟐 , 𝐍𝟐 , Mercaptan, 𝐇𝟐 𝐒, water vapour, suspended impurities are present.

 Note :
- Mixture of methane and propane is called dry gas. It's use in refinery fuel system.
- Mixture of propane and butane is called wet gas. It is usually liquified and sold for commercial purpose.

(6) Liquified Petroleum Gas (LPG) :

- LPG mainly contain the mixture of propane and butane.
○ Grades of LPG :
- Predominantly butane.
- Butane - propane mixture, mainly butanes.
- Butane - propane mixture, (equal volumes).
- Less butane -propane mixture.
- Butane - propane mixture (more propane).
- Predominantly propane.
 NOTE :
- If we use gases as fuel, the which characteristic will we measure?
- We measure Aromatic contain and Calorific value.
- High calorific value then gas burns with blue flame.
- Low calorific value then gas burns with yellow flame.

- We are generally use Lignite and anthracite coal in thermal power station.
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Topic 2 : Types of Gasoline & it’s Important Properties and

Tests.
--------

# Gasoline (petrol as is known in India)

- Boiling point range of gasoline is from 37 C to 180 C.

- We can not use gasoline as in pure form but when we are using it we add some additives.
- Straight run gasoline are blended with the processed gasolines by various method, these are :
(1) Reformate gasolines
(2) Coker gasolines
(3) Alkylated gasolines
(4) Cracked gasolines and
(5) Hydrocracked gasolines.

QUE : Enlist important tests for Gasoline. Discuss any one in detail. [7 - marks]
Ans :
○ Tests for Gasoline :
- The important tests :
(1) ASTM distillation
(2) Reid vapour pressure
(3) Octane number
(4) Gum content
(5) Sulfur content etc.

 ASTM Distillation (ASTMD - 86): [4 - Marks]

- In this test 100 ml of sample is distilled in a standard flask at a uniform rate of 5cc per minute.
- The distillate is condensed in a brass tube condenser, surrounded by a water bath kept at 𝟎𝟎 𝐂 by ice-water
mixture.
 - First drop from the condenser must be available in 5 to 10 minutes after heating started, at which the recorded
temperature is mentioned as initial boiling point (IBP) of the sample.
- The vapour temperature is recorded at each successive 10cc distillate collected in a measuring cylinder.
- The test continuous in the same way till 95% of fraction is condensed.
- At this juncture(સમયિબંદુ), the heat intensity may be increases (because of higher hydrocarbons range)to obtain
the maximum boiling point also known as End point(EP).

- When middle distillate like diesels are to be tested, instead of 100 ml sample, a 200 ml sample is taken.
- Same here we note IBP and Final boiling point (FBP).

 ASTM Distillation Characteristics curve :

- Ease of starting, at that temperature the combustion of fuel is proper starts.

- In ASTM distillation which type of fuel used, in which range distillation happen and with that distillation which
type of temperature variation get in distillation characteristics and the nature of graph (how you are plotting).

 Reid Vapour Pressure test : ---------

- For Reid Vapour Pressure test we maintain uniform temperature that is 𝟑𝟖𝟎 𝐂 ± 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎 𝐂.
- The apparatus consist of two chambers.
- The lower chamber is in the form of cylindrical bomb for holding the test sample.
- The upper chamber is 4 times larger than lower chamber, which is hollow cylindrical space.
- The Burdon gauge is fitted at the top of the upper chamber for pressure indication.

- Upper and lower chamber is interconnected as the fule is vaporised by heating in lower chamber which is
immersed in a water bath kept at 38 C ± 0.1 C and this vapour coming into the upper chamber where Burdon
gauge is fitted which indicate the pressure, that pressure we are calling as a raid vapour pressure.

- Light distillates such as LPG, gasoline, naphtha, jet fuels are tested like this.
 Octane Number :
- Octane number is defined as percentage volume of i-octane(2,2,4-trimethyl pentane) in a mixture of i-octane
and n-heptane.
- It gives same knocking characteristics as the fuel under consideration.
- Knocking is due to ultimately burning of fuel in a spark ignition engine.
- Octane number is influenced by different factors like speed of the engine, ambient weather conditions, altitude,
combustion chamber deposits and coolant temperature.

 NOTE :
- Some additives like tetraethyl or methyl lead are extensively blended into gasoline to boost the octane number.

 Oxidation stability (Gum content) :

- Gasoline manufactured by cracking process contain unsaturated components which may oxidise during storage
and form undesirable oxidation products or gum, a resinous material.
- The deterioration of gasoline can be eliminated for a substantial period of time by addition of small quantities of
antioxidant additives known as inhibitors.
- Inhibitors retard the oxidation of the olefin constitutes of the fuel.
- Some such inhibitors are normally phenols or amine compounds between 0.001 and 0.02 % by weight are usually
sufficient to ensure good stability.

 Sulfur content :
- In addition to corrosive ness and pollution, sulfur compounds are extremely harmful to the susceptibility of
gasolines to tetra ethyl lead(TEL).
- To eliminate sulfur content we add TEL and Tetra Methyl Lead (TML) into gasoline.
- TEL also reduce knocking intensity as use as anti knocking agent.

QUE : What are additives? Explain various additives and its importance for gasoline. [GTU : Winter 20 : 4M]
Ans :
"Additives are chemical compounds that are added to petroleum products, such as gasoline, diesel fuel, and
lubricating oil, to improve their performance, quality, and environmental properties."

 Additives for different fractions are classified as follows:

(1) Anti-icings agents : (isopropanol)
- In colder climates, gasoline can freeze and cause fuel line blockages, which can be prevented by adding anti-icing
agents to the fuel.

(2) detergents : (Polyisobutylene amine (PIBA))

- Gasoline detergents help to keep engines clean by preventing the build-up of deposits on fuel injectors,
carburettors, and intake valves, which can reduce engine efficiency and increase emissions.
 (2) Inhibitors for
(a) Corrosion : (Naphthenic Acid)
- These additives help to prevent the corrosion of metal components in the fuel system.
(b) Oxidation : (Phenols)
- To prevent or slow down the process of oxidation, which can lead to the formation of harmful by-products, such as
sludge, varnish, and acids.

(3) Combustion aids : (Methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE))

- Combustion aids are chemical compounds that are added to fuel to enhance the combustion process and improve
fuel efficiency.

(4) Anti-knocks : (Ethanol or Methanol)

- Anti-knock additives are chemical compounds that are added to gasoline to reduce engine knocking, which is the
sound produced by premature ignition of the fuel-air mixture in the engine.

(5) Colours and dyes : (Red, Blue and Green Dyes)

- Colorants and dyes are additives that are sometimes used in gasoline to give it a distinctive color or to help
distinguish between different grades or types of fuel.

 NOTE :
- Toluene and xylene, are often used as octane boosters in gasoline.
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Topic 3 : Important tests & properties of Kerosene

---------

# Kerosene

- All these fraction have approximate boiling range 150 - 250 𝐶.

- These fraction are low in viscosity, light in colour and free from smoky ill smelling substances.
- Kerosene is used as illuminating oil in domestic needs (mantle burners & wick burners).
○ Tests and properties of kerosene :
(i) Flash point and Fire point
(ii) Smoke point (Burning quality)
(iii) Volatility
(iv) Sulfur content
(v) Aniline point

QUE : Discuss about different tests and properties of kerosene in brief. OR Enlist important tests for
 Kerosene. Explain any three. [GTU : Winter 20, Summer 21, Winter 21, Summer 22 : 7M]
Ans :
 (i) Flash point and Fire point
- This is defined as

"The vapour from oil sample will give momentary flash at minimum temperature on application of a
standard flame under specific test condition."

 Apparatus frequently used for this test:

- Abel (P : 21 ; IP 170/59)
- Pensky - Martens (P : 21 ; IP 34/58)
- Cleve - land

- Significance of the flash point is that it can predict the possible fire hazards during transportation, storage and
handling.
- The flash point of marketable kerosene should be above 45 𝐶.

 (ii) Fire Point :

"When the oil vapours can burnt continuously for 5 seconds, at that time temperature is noted is called fire
point."

- Fire point occurs after the flash point by 3-4 𝐶.

 Apparatus frequently used for this test:

- Clave-land apparatus (ASTM D 92)

- For a domestic need very high flash point above 50 𝐶 is also not desirable.

 (iii) Smoke Point : ---------

"Smoke point is defined as the maximum height of flame in millimetres at which the given oil will burnt
without giving smoke."

- Different flame heights are obtained due to the presence of different components such as paraffins, Napthenes,
and aromatics.

- Aromatics contribute smoke, hence removal of aromatics increases the smoke point.
- In India, marketable kerosene should possess a smoke point 18mm.
 Smoke point = 0.48(% pf peraffins) + 0.32(% of naphthenes) + 0.20(aromatics)

 (iv) Aniline point :

"It is defined as the minimum temperature at which equal volume of kerosene and aniline become
completely miscible."

- This test indicates qualitatively the amount of aromatics present in kerosene.

- Kerosene with low aniline point has a higher concentration of aromatic hydrocarbons, which can lead to increased
carbon deposit in engines and other equipment.

 (v) Sulphure content :

- Kerosene typically has a low sulfur content, which is important for reducing air pollution and minimizing the
environmental impact of its use.
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Topic 4 : Types of Diesel & its Important Properties and

Tests
---------

# Diesel

- Diesel oils are the fractions in the boiling range of 250 - 320 C and fall under gas oil fractions.
- These are basically divided into two classes as high speed diesels(above 1000 RPM) and low speed diesels(Below
300 RPM).
○ The general tests recommended for diesel fuels are :
(1) Pour Point
(2) Aniline point - Diesel Index (Cetane Number)
(3) Flash point
(4) Calorific value
(5) Viscosity

QUE : Describe any two important properties employed for Diesel in detail. [GTU : Summer 22 : 7 M]
Ans :
 (i) Pour Point :

"Pour point is the temperature at which diesel fuel starts to solidify and becomes too thick to flow."
 - The criteria of pour point fixation depends upon two factors namely climate conditions and storage (handling).
- In India pour point is fixed at 5 𝐶.
- A low pour point is important for diesel fuel to be used in cold weather conditions.

 (ii) Cetane Number :

"The percentage of n-cetane in a mixture of n-cetane and 𝛂-methyl naphthalene."

- This is a measure of the ignition quality of diesel fuel, which is related to its ability to burn cleanly and efficiently.
- It is a measure of diesel's ignition delay.
- A higher cetane number indicates better combustion and smoother engine performance.
- The cetane number of diesel fuel typically ranges from 40 to 55.

 (iii) Diesel Index :

"This is a measure of the ignition quality of diesel fuel based on its density and distillation properties."

- A higher diesel index indicates better ignition quality and better cold weather performance.
- The diesel index of diesel fuel typically ranges from 45 to 55.

 For knowledge purpose :

 (iv) Calorific Value : ---------

"It is defined as the total amount of heat liberated when a unit mass or volume of fuel is burnt completely."

- Unit for Solid and Liquid Fuels: Calories/gram

- Unit for gaseous fuels: Calorie/cubic centimetre (cal/cm3) or Kcal/cubic meter (kcal/m3)
 - A good fuel should possess high calorific value because calorific value determines the efficiency of the fuel.
- Higher the calorific value, greater is the heat liberated per unit mass or volume.

 NOTE : The temperature at which the explosion takes place without the aid(help) of fire is called self ignition
temperature.
- Self ignition temperature is low for peraffins while it is high for aromatics.
- Cloud Point: This is the temperature at which diesel fuel starts to form a haze or cloud due to the formation of
wax crystals.
- A low cloud point is important for diesel fuel to be used in cold weather conditions.
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Topic 5 : Heavy Fractions and their Important Properties

---------

 Heavy fractions :
Lube Oil, Bitumen ,Asphalt etc.

○ Their important properties :

(1) Viscosity Index
(2) Carbon Residue
(3) Penetration Index
(4) Softening Point

QUE : Which heavy fractions remain after fractionation of crude petroleum? List out various important
properties of heavy fractions. [GTU : winter 21 : 3-M]
Ans :
 Heavy fractions remain after fractionation of crude oil :
Lube Oil, Bitumen & Asphalt.

 Their important properties :

(1) Viscosity Index
(2) Carbon Residue
(3) Penetration Index
(4) Softening Point

# Lube Oil
 - Generally lubes have a boiling point above 350 𝐶 and these are obtained as the main products from vaccume
distillation units.

 Composition of lube oil :

- Lubricating oils are composed of paraffins, Naphthenes, aromatic and unsaturated bodies.
- The chief molecular structure of lubes seems to be naphthene rings or naphthenes and aromatic rings arranged in
groups of as many as six with paraffinic side chains.
- The more such chains the more paraffinic the oil is.
- Normal paraffins (long chains) in this range are usually waxy in nature and have to be separated for maintaining
free flow of oil.
- Thus a crude oil rich with paraffinic chains gives high viscosity index, less viscosity gravity constant and higher
stability lube oils.

 The lube oils are used in different services:

- HVI(High Viscosity Index) oil for planes, high speed operations
- MVI(Medium Viscosity Index) oils for petrol, diesel and stationary vehicles.
- LVI(Low Viscosity Index) oils for light equipment.

 Depending upon the services intended for, lube oils are classified.
- Nelson grouped the oils into seven categories:
(1) Machine and Engine oils (Neutral oil)
(2) Compounded Oils -----> (steam engine, compressors, quenching and tempering operation)
//Quenching involves the rapid cooling of a metal to adjust the mechanical properties of its original state
Tempering, in metallurgy, process of improving the characteristics of a metal, especially steel, by heating it to a
high temperature, though below the melting point, then cooling it, usually in air//
(3) Turbine Oils -----> (High speed machinery such as steam turbine, electric motors)
(4) Cold test Oils -----> (refrigeration and hydraulic system)
(5) Transformer Oils
(6) Colour Oils (White Oils) -----> (textiles, food, paper industries)
(7) Corrosive Oils (cutting, sharping of metals)

○ Tests for Lube oil : ---------

(1) Flash point
(2) Pour point
(3) Viscosity and Viscosity Index
(4) Oxidation Stability
(5) Carbon Residue.
 (i) Viscosity Index :

"Viscosity index is a measure of the change in viscosity of a lubricating oil with temperature."

- It is an important property of lube oil because the viscosity of the oil affects its ability to lubricate moving parts, as
well as its flow characteristics and ability to maintain a protective film between metal surfaces.
- A high viscosity index means that the viscosity of the lube oil changes relatively little with temperature.

- In practical terms, the viscosity index of lube oil is determined by measuring its viscosity at two different
temperatures, typically 40°C and 100°C, and comparing these values to the viscosity of two reference oils with
known viscosity index values.
- The result is a numerical value that represents the degree to which the viscosity of the lube oil changes with
temperature, with

 (ii) Carbon Residue :

- In the context of lube oil, carbon residue is an important property that is used to assess the tendency of the oil to
form deposits or carbonaceous residues in engines and other machinery.

- To control the carbon residue content in lube oil, various methods are used to remove or reduce the amount of
carbonaceous material in the oil, such as hydrotreating, solvent extraction, and clay treatment.
- The carbon residue content of lube oil is typically measured using standardized test methods, such as Ramsbottom
method (IP 14/65 ; IS : 1448 P : 8) or Conradson method (IP 13/66).

 (iii) Oxidation Stability (Gum content):

- When lube oil is exposed to heat, air, and metal surfaces in an engine or machinery, it can begin to oxidize, forming
various harmful contaminants such as acids, sludge, and varnish.
- These contaminants can cause engine deposits, corrosion, and wear, leading to reduced engine performance and
shorter service life.
- To ensure good oxidation stability, lube oil is typically formulated with various antioxidants and other additives
that can help to prevent or slow down the oxidation process.
.

# Bitumen & Asphalt

- , containing much mineral matter.

- It is essentially solid at room temperature.
- Most of the bitumen is used in highway constructions, waterproofing and coating works.
○ Bitumen is specified by the following two tests :
(1) Softening Point
(2) Penetration Index.
- Other tastes like viscosity, volatility, durability, ductility.

 (i) Softening Point :

"Solid material lose its semi solidify and solidify characteristics and it will become soft at that minimum
temperature that is softening point."

- The softening point is found out by ASTMD 1398 IP.198 Ball & Ring test : weighing of ball(3.5 ± 0.05)gms and
dia(9.35 mm)
- Higher the softening point, the better is consistency of bitumen.

 (ii) Penetration Index :

---------

"It is the ratio of penetration value of a bitumen sample at given temperature to its penetration value at a
reference temperature."

- Penetration Index (PI) is a measure of the consistency of bitumen or asphalt.

- The hardness or penetration quality of bitumen is assessed by this test (IP 49/72).

- The Penetration Index value can range from negative to positive, depending on the consistency of the bitumen or
asphalt being tested.
- A positive PI value indicates that the material is more resistant to temperature-induced changes in consistency,
while a negative PI value indicates that the material is more susceptible to such changes.

- It helps to choose the proper bitumen in the desired weather condition for safe road construction.

QUE : Explain Penetration index test for Bitumen in brief [GTU : Winter 22 : 4 M ]
Ans :
- A standerd needle is allowed to penetrate under a load of 100 gms, through a sample kept at 25 𝐶 for 5 sec.
- Distance travelled under those conditions indicates the consistency of sample.
- Here we use toluene and other solvent for clean the needle.
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Definations
---------
(1) Octane number :

- It represent antiknock characteristic of fuel.

(2) Cetane number :

- Cetane number show quality of diesel fuel.

- It is a measure of diesel's ignition delay.

(3) Flash & Fire point :

(4) Smoke point :

(5) Aniline point :

(6) Pour point :

 (7) Softening point :

(8) Cloud point :

(9) Diesel Index :

(10) Viscosity index :

(11) Penetration Index :

(12) Kinematic Viscosity :

(13) U.O.P. Characterization factor :

- It is used to classify and compare the physical and chemical properties of different petroleum products, such as
crude oil, gasoline, diesel, and jet fuel.

(14) API gravity :

- It is expressed in degrees.
- It is a standardized scale developed by the American Petroleum Institute (API) that is used to classify crude oil and
other petroleum products based on their density.

(15) Sour crude :

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