ANTENNAS AND WAVE PROPAGATION (20EC0421) R-20 2022-23

SIDDHARTH INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

(AUTONOMOUS)
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi& Affiliated to JNTUA, Ananthapuramu)
(Accredited by NBA for Civil, EEE, Mech., ECE & CSE
Accredited by NAAC with ‘A+’ Grade)
Puttur -517583, Tirupati District, A.P. (India)
_____________________________________________________________________________

UNIT-III
VHF, UHF AND MICROWAVE ANTENNAS – II & ANTENNA MEASUREMENTS

1. a). Explain about micro strip antennas and its types with neat diagrams.

The special class of antennas that is becoming more popular in recent years is
microstrip antenna. The microstrip antenna is also called as patch antenna or printed
antenna or microstrip patch antenna. The microstrip antenna is generally preferred
where thickness and conformability to the surface are the main requirements. As the
MSA are directly printed on to the circuit boards, in the modern era of mobile phone
market there is no other best option than microstrip antennas.

There are different types of microstrip antennas but all the types show following
common features.
1). A thin, flat metallic region which is commonly called patch.
2).A dielectric substrate.
3).A ground plane which is much larger than patch considering dimensions, and
4).A feed network which supplied power to the antenna elements.

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Fig: Different types of Microstrip antenna

Fig: Rectangular, Circular and Triangular with Microstrip antenna

The microstrip antenna is constructed on a very thin dielectric substrate using

different etching techniques. In general, dual copper coated teflon fiber glass is most
commonly used so that the microstrip antenna can be easily curved to the shape of
mounting surface. For the post mostly conducting materials such as copper or gold is
used. In almost all the antennas the feed lines are photo etched on the substrate along
with the patch.

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b). Give the advantages and limitations of micro strip antennas.

Advantages of Microstrip Antenna (MSAs)

The important advantages of the microstrip antenna are as follows:

1).The microstrip antennas are low profile antennas. They are of smaller size, light
weight antennas which occupy very less volume.
2).They can be easily bolted or laminated to the metallic surface such as an aircraft,
missile or automotive.
3).As the fabrication process involved in manufacturing the microstrip antennas is
simple the complete production process is easy and very cheap.
4).By mounting the MSA on a rigid surfaces, we get mechanically robust antenna.
5).The MSA is versatile as it can be designed to produce variety of patterns and
polarizations.
6). The microstrip antenna is most suitable option where the thickness & confirmable
surface

Limitations of Microstrip Antennas (MSAs)

As compared with the conventional antennas, the microstrip antennas have following
disadvantages.
1. The MSAs low gain and low efficiency antennas.

2. The Microstrip Antenna have narrow bandwidth of operation. Moreover they have
lower power handling capacity.
3. The size of microstrip antenna is inversely proportional to frequency, they can be
used only for very high frequencies only.
4. The narrow bandwidth is the major drawback of the microstrip antenna

5. Increasing bandwidth by using any suitable method increases the complexity of

design of the MSA.

6. The bandwidth can be increased by increasing the thickness of substrate

7. The MSAs are poor end fire radiators.

2. a). Discuss the construction of rectangular patch antenna.

The most commonly used microstrip antenna is rectangular microstrip antenna.

Such a rectangular MSA with a ground plane and dielectric is shown in the Fig.

The dimension L (i.e. length) of a patch is always greater than dimension W patch.
The edges with L dimensions causes resonance at its half wavelength frequency. At
the ends of L-dimension, there are radiating edges which give single polarization. At
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the ends of W-dimension, there are non-radiating edges with very less radiation
which give cross polarization.

Fig: Construction of patch antenna

When the patch length is half of wavelength the electric field produced below the
edges of L-dimension are of opposite polarity. These E-field lines emerge out and
propagated in a direction normal to the substrate. Thus both the side's lines are in
same direction. As the fields are in same phase both get added together. The
radiation intensity goes on decreasing as fields move away from edges and
simultaneously two fields change phase also. At two angles particularly the fields
are exactly out of phase and cancel each other. Hence the radiation intensity of the
MSA depends on the direction of viewing
For effective radiation of the microstrip antenna:

Fig: Rectangular patch antenna Fig: Fringing effect

Fig: Radiation Pattern

The structure has to be half wavelength resonator

The dielectric substrate should be sufficiently thicker and with low dielectric constant.

The height of the substrate should be limited to a fraction of wavelength. Let us

consider a rectangular microstrip antenna fed by a microstrip transmission line.
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b). What are the applications of microstrip antenna?

1. Military applications

The high velocity aircrafts, space crafts, missiles, rockets require low profile, ligh
weight antennas which can be conformally mounted to the exterior surfaces of
these vehicles. The microstrip antennas are best suited for above application.

2. Space applications
The microstrip antennas are invariable used in the space programs such as
Earth Limb Measurement Satellite (ELMS), International Sun Earth Explorer
(ISEE), Shuttle Imaging Radar (SIR) A, B, C series, Solar Mesopheric Explorer
(SME), Cosmic Background Explorer, GEOSTAR, SEASAT and Mars Pathfinder.

3. Commercial applications

The microstrip antennas are used commercially in applications such as Mobile

Satellite Communications, Direct Broadcast Satellite (DBS) Services, Global
Positioning System (GPS), Aeronautical and Marine Radars and Earth Remote
Sensing.

3. Discuss the characteristics of Microstrip Antenna.

.
Radiation Pattern

The radiation patterns in 60 (i.e., in azimuth) and 90° (in elevation) were shown.
Yet another typical radiation pattern for a linearly polarized patch antenna. This figure
shows a cross-section in a horizontal (azimuth) plane. The pattern in the vertical
(elevation) plane is similar though not identical. The scale is logarithmic, so (for
example) the power radiated at 180° is about 15 dB less than the power in the center
of the beam, i.e., at 90 The beam width is about 65" and the gain is about 9 dB. An
infinitely large ground plane would prevent any back radiation, but the real antenna
has a fairly small ground plane, and the power in the backward direction is only about
20 dB down from that in the main beam.

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Beam width

Illustrates different radiation patterns for an MSA From these illustrations, it

can be noted that MSA's generally have a very wide beam width, both in azimuth and
elevation.

Directivity

In view of the cavity model of an MSA, the simplified expression for directivity D
for ��10 mode can be written as

2ℎ2 �2� �2�2�

�= �� ���

where h is the thickness of the substrate.

Pr is the radiated power,

W = W+h,

�� = 120�

�0 is the wave number and

�0 is the magnitude of the z-directed electric field intensity

Gain

Gain of a rectangular microstrip patch antenna with air dielectric is roughly

estimated between 7-9 dB in view of the following counts.

 Gain of the patch from the directivity relative to the vertical axis is
normally about 2 dB, provided •
 If the patch is of square shape the pattern in the horizontal plane will be
directional. Such a patch is equivalent to a pair of dipoles separated by
half-wavelength. This counts for another 2 to 3 dB gain.
 If the addition of the ground plane cuts off most or all radiation behind
the antenna, the power averaged over all directions is reduced by a factor
of 2 and thus the gain is increased by 3 dB.

Bandwidth

The impedance bandwidth of a patch antenna is strongly influenced by the

spacing between the patch and the ground plane. As the patch is moved closer to the
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ground plane, less energy is radiated and more energy is stored in the patch
capacitance and inductance: that is, the quality factor Q of the antenna increases and
impedance bandwidth decreases

Quality factor

Microstrip patch antennas have a very high quality factor. The quality factor'Q'
represents the losses gociated with the antenna. A large Q leads to narrow bandwidth,
and a low efficiency can be reduced by increasing the thickness of the dielectric
substrate.

4.a). Explain the types of reflector antennas.

The reflector antennas are most important in microwave radiation applications.
At microwave frequencies the physical size of the high gain antenna becomes so
small that practically any suitable shaped reflector can produce desired directivity.
In reflector antenna, another antenna is required to excite it. Hence the antenna
such as dipole, horn, slot which excites the reflector antenna is called primary
antenna, while the reflector antenna is called secondary antenna. In general,
reflector antenna can be represented in any geometrical configuration, but the most
commonly used shapes are plane reflector, corner reflector and curved or parabolic
reflectors.

Fig: Large Flat reflector Fig: Small Flat reflector Fig: Thin linear reflector

Fig: Active corner reflector Fig: Passive corner reflector Fig: Parabolic reflector
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Fig: Cassegrain Feed reflector

Fig: Elliptical reflector Fig: Hyperbolic reflector Fig: Circular reflector

Using reflectors, the radiation pattern of a radiating antenna can be modified. By

using a large, metallic plane sheet as a reflector, the backward radiations from the
antenna can be eliminated thus improving radiation pattern of an antenna. Thus
for an antenna, desired radiation characteristics can be produced with the help of a
large, suitably illuminated and suitably sized and shaped reflector surface. Some of
the common reflectors are plane reflector, corner reflector and curved reflector.

b). Draw and explain the principle of parabolic reflector.

To improve the overall radiation characteristics of the reflector antenna, the

parabolic structure is oftenly used. Basically a parabola is a locus of a point which
moves in such a way that the distance of the point from fixed point called focus plus
the distance from the straight line called directrix is constant.

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Fig: Geometry of parabola Fig: Parabolic reflector at transmitting end

Fig: Parabolic reflector at receiving end

By the geometrical optics, when the point source is placed at the focus or focal point,
then the rays reflected by the parabolic reflector form parallel wave front. This
principle is used in the transmitting antenna. Similarly when the beam of parallel
rays is incident on a parabolic reflector, then the radiations focus at a focal point.
This principle is used in the receiving antenna. The open end of parabolic reflector is
called aperture.

Fig: Paraboloid Fig: Radiation Pattern

Consider that power gain of the paraboloid with the circular aperture with respect to
the half wave dipole is given by

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4� ��
�� = �2

Here �� is the capture area which is less than actual area A of the aperture and it is
given by

�� = � �
Where, � = �������� ��������� �� ���� ������� ����. �� �� �ℎ� ����� �� 0.65 ��� ������.

Then the power gain is given by

4� � �
�� = �2

4� � 0.65 � �
�� = �2
The actual area of circular aperture with diameter d is given by

� �2
� = �( 2 )2 = � 4

4� � 0.65 ��2
�� = �2
. 4

�2 � 0.65 � �2
�� = �2

�2
�� = �2 � 0.65 �2

�
�� = 6( � )2

Here the Beam width first null of the circular aperture is given by

140 �
BWFN = �
������

The beam width first null of the rectangular aperture is given by

115 �
BWFN = ������
�

The half power beam width for large circular aperture is given by

58 �
��BW = �
������

The directivity of the paraboloid for large circular aperture is given by

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4� ��
�= �2

For capture area is given by

�2
�� = � 4
4� ��2 �2 �2
�= �2
.
4
= �2
� 2
�= 9.87( )
�
5. a). Explain the different feed methods to parabolic reflectors.

There are two types of feed method systems. They are

a. Cassegrain Feed system
b. Offset Feed system

a. Cassegrain Feed system

This system of feeding paraboloid reflector is named after a mathematician Prof

Cassegrain. This system is different than the systems, the feed is located at the focus.
But in Cassegrain feed the feed radiator is placed at the vertex of the parabolic
reflector, instead of placing it at the focus.

Fig.: Cassegrain feeding system reflector antenna

This system uses a hyperboloid reflector placed such that its one of the foci
coincides with the focus of the parabolic reflector This hyperboloid reflector is called
Cassegrain secondary reflector or sub-reflector. The primary radiator or feed radiator
used is generally a horn antenna. It aims at the sub-reflector.

When the feed radiator Le. horn antenna radiates towards the Cassegrain or ub-
reflector, it reradiates all the radiations and due to these radiations, the parabolic
reflector gets illuminated similar to the radiations from the feed placed at the focus.
Then ne parabolic reflector collimates all the radiations as previous feed systems.

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b. Offset feed system

By suitably selecting primary antenna, correct directional pattern for any

arrangement can be obtained. The paraboloidal reflector can be fed using λ/2 antenna
with a small ground plane or a horn antenna as shown in the Fig. (a) and (b)
respectively.

(a) (b)
Fig: Parabolic reflector with offset feed

In both cases reflected wave from paraboloidal reflector causes mismatching and
interaction at primary antenna. Also the primary antenna blocks central portion of the
aperture which increases minor lobes effectively. To overcome the aperture blocking
effect due to the dependence of the secondary reflector dimensions on the distance
between feed and sub-reflector, the offset feed system is used.

Fig: offset feed system

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b). A parabolic dish provides a power gain of 50 dB at 10 GHz with 70% efficiency.
Find out i) HPBW ii) BWFN
Solution: Given data

Power gain , �� = 50��

Operating frequency, f = 10 ��� = 10 � 109 ��

���������� ������, � �� � = 70% = 0.7

� 3 � 108
���������ℎ, � = = 10 � 109
= 0.03
�

(����)�� = 10���10 ��

50 = 10���10 ��

�� = 100000

The power gain of the parabolic reflector is given by

4� �� 4� � � � �
�� = �2
= �2
��2
for Capture area of the parabolic reflector, A = 4

��2
4� � � �
�� = �
( )2
4

�2 � 0.7 � �2
�� = �
( )2
�

�2� 0.7 � �2 �2� 0.7 � �2

100000 = (0.03)2 9 � 10−4

100000 � 9 � 10−4
�2 = �2� 0.7

�2 = 13.027

� = √13.027

�=3.609 �

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�. �ℎ� ℎ��� ����� ���� ����ℎ,

58� 58 � 0.03
���� = �
= 3.609
= 0.4820

����= 0.482 0

ii. The Beam width first null is given by

58� 140 � 0.03

���� = =
� 3.609

����= 1.1636 0

6. a). Explain Cassegrain Feed system and give its advantages

This system of feeding paraboloid reflector is named after a mathematician Prof

Cassegrain. This system is different than the systems, the feed is located at the focus.
But in Cassegrain feed the feed radiator is placed at the vertex of the parabolic
reflector, instead of placing it at the focus.

Fig: Cassegrain feeding system reflector antenna

This system uses a hyperboloid reflector placed such that its one of the foci
coincides with the focus of the parabolic reflector This hyperboloid reflector is called
Cassegrain secondary reflector or sub-reflector. The primary radiator or feed radiator
used is generally a horn antenna. It aims at the sub-reflector.
When the feed radiator Le. horn antenna radiates towards the Cassegrain or ub-
reflector, it reradiates all the radiations and due to these radiations, the parabolic
eflector gets illuminated similar to the radiations from the feed placed at the focus.
Then parabolic reflector colliminates all the radiations as previous feed systems

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Advantages of Cassegrain Feed System

Following are the advantages of cassegrain feed system.

1. It reduces the spill over and thus minor lobe radiations.

2. With this system greater focal length greater than the physical focal length can
be achieved.

3. The system has ability to place a feed at convenient place.

4. Using this system, beam can be broadened by adjusting one of the reflecter surfaces

b). Explain about the reciprocity with respect to antenna measurements.

• If an emf is applied at the terminal of an antenna-I and the current is

measured at the terminals of antenna-2, then an equal current flows on
both antennas and also the amplitude and phase will be obtained at the
terminals of antenna-I. When the same emf is applied at the terminals of
antenna-2, the current is measured at the terminals of antenna-2.

Fig: Reciprocity theorem

• An antenna can be used as both transmitting antenna and receiving

antenna.
• The properties of the antenna might change as its operating mode is also
changed
• So we have a alternate method to maintain same patterns between
transmitter and Receiver
• The properties of antenna being unchangeable are called as the property
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of reciprocity.
• The properties of transmitting and receiving antenna that exhibit the reciprocity
are −
• Equality of Directional patterns.
• Equality of Directivities.
• Equality of Effective lengths.
• Equality of Antenna impedances

7.a). Write short notes on coordination system for antenna measurement.

The angle measured from the z-axis is called elevation angle and it is denoted by 0.
The angle measured from the projection of the radius vector to the horizontal x-y plane
is called azimuth angle which is denoted by ϕ.

Fig: Standard Coordination system for antenna measurement

Depending upon the mechanical structure of the antenna the coordinate system is
defined such that the peak radiation takes place along x-axis in general.
When the source antenna is moved along lines of constant 0, the cuts obtained are
called conical cuts or ϕ cuts.

b). Explain near and far fields with respect to antenna measurements.
Near Field and Far Field

There are three main regions of the radiated field of the antenna. The region very close
to antenna is called reactive near field region. The region next to active near field
region which is called radiating near field region (or Fresnel region). Finally the region
located far away from the antenna is called far field region (or Fraunhofer region).
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Fig: Near and far field region

According the Huygen's principle, it hardly matters where the field with sufficient
information is sampled at surface in any region of the radiated field. But practically
there is a limit on the distance between the surface and the AUT.

8. Explain the radiation pattern measurement with fundamental procedure,

arrangements and distance requirement.
Patterns to be measured

• The test antenna is rotated using the test antenna's positioning system
• The received power is recorded at each position. In this manner, the magnitude
of the radiation pattern of the test antenna can be determined.
• The coordinate system of choice for the radiation pattern is spherical
coordinates.

Fig: Patterns to be measured

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• The received power for this case represents the power from the angle:
We record this power, change the position and record again. Recall that we only
rotate the test antenna, hence it is at the same distance from the source
antenna. The source power again comes from the same direction. Suppose we
want to measure the radiation pattern normal to the patch's surface (straight
above the patch).

Pattern measurement Arrangement

• Antenna pattern measurement refers to the determination of the

radiation pattern of an antenna under test (AUT).
• It is the measurement of the relative magnitude and phase of an
electromagnetic signal received from the AUT.

Measurement of Radiation Pattern

The radiation capabilities of an antenna are characterized by the characteristics

of a antenna such as the radiation pattern (including amplitude and phase patterns)
polarization and gain. All these quantities are measured on the surface of a sphere
with constant radius. Any point P on such sphere can be described using spherical co-
ordinate system.

Fig: a. Set up of Radiation Pattern Measurement Fig: b. Phase difference

According to standard condition, the distance between the two antennas should
be

2�2
�2 ≥ �2

r = Distance between transmitter and receiver

λ = Wavelength

d = Maximum dimension of physical aperture of

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either of the antennas

From figure b. we can write,

�
(� + �)2 = ( 2 )2 + �2 , where � is phase difference error

�2
�2 + 2�� + �2 = 4
+ �2

As � is very small, neglecting �2 , we get

�2
2�� = 4

�2
�= 8�

9. a). Explain sources of Error in Antenna measurement.

Sources of errors

For the antenna measurement in far field region, the plane wave with uniform
phase and amplitude is the ideal requirement. But practically there are deviations in
the plane wave. Due to the finite distance between the AUT and the source antenna,
amplitude taper and phase curvature takes place. These errors affect the main lobe of
the antenna significantly. Due to the reflections from the surroundings, ripple in the
amplitude and phase is observed. These ripples affect the accuracy of the side lobe
significantly.
Following are different sources of errors in antenna measurements.

• Errors due to measurement distance between two antennas.

• Errors due to reflection from surroundings.
• Errors due to coupling in the reactive near fields.
• Errors due to misalignment of antenna.
• Errors due to impedance matching.
• Errors due to atmospheric effects.
• Errors due to cables.
• Errors due to manmade interface.
• Errors due to Imperfections of instruments.

b). Explain the measurement of directivity.

Measurement of Directivity

The directivity of the antenna is destined as the ratio of maximum power density to
the average power radiated.
The directivity of the antenna is given by
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�����
�=
����

�����
�= ���� , Directivity is dimensionless quantity
4��2

����� �����
�= ���� = 1 2�
0 �� �,� ��
4��2 4��2

�����
�= 1 2�
0 �� �,� �2 ���� �� ��
4��2

�����
�= 1 2�
0 �� �,� ���� �� ��
4�

4� �����
�= 2�
0 �� �,� ���� �� ��
The directivity can be expressed in terms of the electric field Intensity is given by

4� ���� 2
�= 2�
0 � �,� 2 ���� �� ��

4�
�= 2� � �,� 2
0 ���� �� ��
���� 2

4�
�= 2�
0 �(�,�) ���� �� ��
Where, f (θ, ϕ) is the relative radiation Intensity as a function of space angles θ and ϕ.

41,253
�=
�1 . �2

Where, �1 = Halt power beam width is one plane expressed in degree.

�2 = Half power beam width in a plane right angle to the other expressed in
degree.

10.a). Explain Gain measurement by direct comparison method.

At high frequencies, the gain measurement is done using direct comparison method.
In this method, the gain measurement is done by comparing the strengths of the
signals transmitted or received by the antenna under test and the standard gain
antenna. The antenna whose gain is accurately known and can be used for the gain
measurement of other antennas is called standard gain antenna. At high frequency,
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the universely accepted standard gain antenna is the horn antenna.

Fig: Set up of gain measurement by gain comparison method

The gain measurement by the gain-comparison method is two step procedure.

1) Through the switch SW, first standard gain antenna is connected to the receiver.
The antenna is adjusted in the direction of the secondary antenna to have maximum
signal intensity. The input connected to the secondary or transmitting antenna is
adjusted to required level. For this input corresponding primary antenna reading at
the receiver is recorded. Corresponding attenuator and power bridge readings are
recorded as A₁ and P₁.

2) Secondly the antenna under test is connected to the receiver by changing the
position of the switch SW. To get the same reading at the receiver (obtained with the
standard gain antenna), the attenuator is adjusted. Then corresponding attenuator
and power bridge readings are recorded as A2 and P2.

Case-1: If �1 = �2 , then no corrections need to be applied and the gain of the

subject antenna under test is given by

�2
Power gain, �� = �1
, where �1 ��� �2 are relative power levels,

Taking logerithms on both sides, we get,

�
���10 �� = ���10 ( �2 )
1

���10 �� = ���10 �2 − ���10 �1

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�� = �2(��) − �1(��)
�� (��)

Case-2: If , then the correction need to be included.

�1
= � , �ℎ��
�2

�1
���10 = �(��)
�2
Hence power gain is given by

�1 � �
� = �� � �2
= �2 . �1
1 2

�1
� = �� �
�2

Taking logerithms on both sides, we get,

�1
���10 � = ���10 (�� � )
�2

�1
���10 � = ���10 �� + ���10 ( )
�2

��� (��) = ��(��) + �(��)

b). Explain the gain measurement using absolute method.

Measurement of Absolute gain

Let the transmitted power be denoted by �� , and the received power be �� . Let the
effective apertures of the transmitting and receiving antennas be ��1 ��� ��2
respectively.

Fig: Set up of Measurement of Absolute gain

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As the two antennas are identical, we can write,

� �2
��1 = ��2 = �
4�
From the Fris transmission equation is given by,

1
�� = �� . ��1 . ��2 . �2 . �2

�� 1 �� �2 �� �2 1
= ��1 . ��2 . �2 �2
= . �2
�� . 4� 4� . �2

�� ���2 �� 1
= .
�� 4� 4� . �2

�� �� � 2
= 4��
��

�� � ��
4��
= ��

4�� ��
�� = .
� ��

By knowing wavelength λ, distance between two antennas r, and measuring the

radiated and received powers, the absolute gain of the antenna can be obtained.

First the antennas are oriented for maximum signal. Using the calibrated variable
attenuator, the input signal level of the transmitting antenna is adjusted. Then
corresponding receiver reading is recorded. The corresponding attenuator and power
bridge readings are recorded as A1 and Pt, respectively. Then the transmitter is
disconnected from the antenna and is connected to the receiver through pad providing
fixed attenuation. Again attenuator dial is adjusted to get same reading at the receiver
as obtained in first step. Again corresponding attenuator and power bridge readings
are recorded as A2 and Pt2.

23
ECE, SIETK. WEDNESDAy, July 12, 2023