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Document 6
Document 6
1. Forebrain:
The human forebrain is involved in a wide range of mental processes, including the sensing,
perceiving, and processing of information. It is also involved in thinking, problem solving,
organizing, and language functions. The human forebrain consists of four sections:
Cerebral cortex:
If you think of the brain as a mushroom, with a top and a stalk, then the cerebral cortex is the top
of the mushroom. It’s divided into two halves, called cerebral hemispheres (the left and the right
— pretty creative, I know). These halves are connected by a bundle of nerve fibers known as the
corpus collosum. Without the corpus collosum, the halves wouldn’t be able to communicate with
each other
The figure shows the four major divisions of the cerebral cortex and their corresponding
functions:
Frontal lobe:
Planning, organizing, coordinating, and controlling movements (in an area known as the primary
motor cortex), reasoning, and overall monitoring of the thinking process
Parietal lobe:
Sensation, spatial and somatosensory (bodily) awareness Temporal lobe: Hearing, language, and
other verbal activity
Occipital lobe: Vision
Limbic system:
Located on the underside of the mushroom top (the cerebral cortex), the limbic system is
involved in learning, memory, emotional behavior, and mating or reproduction. Basal ganglia:
This part of the brain is involved in controlling movement.
Thalamus:
This “neural switchboard” is a relay station for the different parts of the brain. However, it is
more than simply a connection. It analyzes inputs to construct organized outputs.
Hypothalamus:
The hypothalamus takes part in the control of the endocrine system and works with the limbic
system to control behaviors such as aggression, eating, protection, and mating.
1. Mid brain:
Midbrain is involved in the auditory and visual processes and in motor control.
The midbrain consists of the following divisions and their respective areas of responsibility:
Tectum:
Auditory and visual systems
Tegmentum:
Movement, sleep, arousal, attention, muscle tone, and reflexes
Hindbrain
The hindbrain is involved in the autonomic functions of the body such as heart rate and breathing
as well as the coordination of movement.
The hindbrain includes two divisions with assigned duties:
Cerebellum:
Motor movement and its coordination.
Pons:
The bridge connecting the cerebellum to the rest of the brain
Medulla:
Vital functions of the body such as the cardiovascular system, breathing, and the movement of
skeletal muscles.
ENCODING:
Definition:
The technique of cognition where brain perceives sensory input from the outside world and
changes (encodes) it into memories.
The Role of Encoding in Memory Encoding
It is the first step of the memory process. This is where our brain takes in various sensory input
and "encodes" it into something manageable and accessible for later use. Without proper
encoding, our brains would not have the opportunity to store and retrieve memories. Our brains
rely on all our senses to obtain information. Our senses provide a variety of ways to absorb
information and encode it.
Main Types of Encoding:
Psychologists agree there are different ways our brains encode memories. They include:
• Acoustic encoding:
The processing and encoding sounds, words, and other auditory input for storage and retrieval.
This includes using our inner voice to recite information to strengthen memories. For example,
mentally going over facts for a test.
• Visual encoding:
Processing and encoding images and visual sensory information. Visual information is
temporarily stored within iconic memory before being encoded in long-term storage. Since most
of us take in so much visual information daily, this type of information tends to be forgotten
easily.
• Tactile encoding:
The processing of how something feels, usually through touch. Neurons in the somatosensory
cortex react to vibrotactile stimuli caused by the feel or texture of an object. Odors and tastes can
also be part of tactile encoding. This could include remembering the feeling of your first kiss, the
taste of your favorite meal, and the feeling of cuddling with your favorite pet.
• Semantic encoding:
The processing of sensory input having a particular meaning or used in a context. It deals with
remembering facts, ideas, and concepts not drawn from personal experience. For example, word
definitions, the dates of specific events, and finding places on a map. Research suggests our
semantic encoding is much more memorable when we attach importance and emotions to the
information. Some researchers suggest more types of encoding that include:
• Elaborative encoding:
Involves actively relating new information or knowledge to something already in memory. Most
memories are a combination of old and new information. Any particular interpretation of a
memory depends on the old information as well as new information coming to our senses. For
example, a novice pianist may remember her first recital as exciting and excellent. As she gets
better and performs more, she may still see her first recital as exciting but may think her playing
was sloppy and amateur.
• Organizational encoding:
The process of classifying information to the associations of a sequence of terms. This includes
grouping or categorizing by noticing relationships among a series of items. Like elaborative
encoding, this involves encoding existing memories differently. For example, knowing cats,
dogs, monkeys, and humans are mammals.
The optical stage of vision is associated with the optical apparatus of the eye–the front of the eye.
This first part of the visual pathway should result in a clear image of the environment on the
retina.
With age… As one gets older, the lens loses its elasticity and remains too flat even when the
ciliary muscles are completely contracted. When this happens, images of near objects, such as a
book you are reading, are blurred. Potential problems in the optical stage and their solutions:
refraction and opacities Focusing problems When light rays do not converge on the retina
precisely, several types of vision defects may occur.
The ability of the eye to focus properly depends on a few aspects of the eye:
• The cornea’s curvature:
If the front surface of the eye, the cornea, is not adequately spherical, if it's the curve is irregular,
light rays entering the eye will not focus correctly on the retina, resulting in a blurred image.
This is referred to as astigmatism.
• The length of the eye:
If the eye’s shape or length prevents the focused light from landing on the retina, vision will be
distorted. If the eye is too long front to back, light that is focused in front of the retina. This is
myopia or nearsightedness –you can see better up close than far away.
If the eyeball is too short, the light that is focused in the eye lands behind of the retina
and one is farsighted. This is called hyperopia (farsightedness).
Nearsightedness and farsightedness can also result from distortion of the curvature of the
lens inside the eye. A too-flat lens will result in farsightedness, a too-curved lens in
nearsightedness.
As well, the lens loses its natural elasticity with age losing its ability to change shape,
making it more difficult to focus on close objects, as we do when reading or sewing or
typing on a keyboard. In fact, by the age of 30 you have lost around half of your
accommodative power. This hardening of the lens is called presbyopia.
Vision can be diminished by corneal opacities that can lead to scarring or clouding of the
cornea. Corneal opacities can cause minor irritation to severe vision problems. Corneal
opacities can also result from bacterial infections from severe Conjunctivitis and contact
lens-related infection.
A cataract is a clouding of the eye’s lens that occurs when some of the protein that keeps
the lens clear and lets light pass through it clumps together and starts to cloud a small
area of the lens. Although cataracts are related to aging – more than half of all Americans
80 and over either have or have had a cataract – they can also result from smoking and
diabetes.
Potential problems in the optical stage and their solutions: drainage the aqueous fluid
inside the eye plays another important role, one critical to glaucoma: the fluid provides
the necessary pressure inside the eye, known as intraocular pressure (IOP), to maintain
the shape of the eye. If too much fluid is produced or the drainage system does not
adequately remove the used fluid, pressure builds up in the eye and the eye expands,
much like a balloon. When the eye expands with the increasing pressure, it gives way at
its most vulnerable point, which is where the optic nerve exits the eye. The optic nerve is
thin and vulnerable where it leaves the retina, and so the result of the increased
intraocular pressure can be damage and then death to the axons of the nerve cells