 Sewage: Water; Sewer: Pipe; Sewerage: System

 Types of Sewers based on Sewage: Sanitary, storm, combined.

 Sewers Hierarchy: house sewer, lateral sewer, sub-mains, main/trunk, outfall
 Separate System: Immediate need for collection of sanitary sewage but no
immediate need for storm sewage or sanitary sewage alone needs treatment.
 Combined System: Mixed sewage could be disposed without treatment, both
needs treatment or less space is available.
 Partially Combined: A part of storm sewage is allowed with sanitary for the
purpose of economy.
 Sanitary sewage could not be disposed without treatment. Little quantity of it is
allowed with storm sewer and it remains at bottom due to high density.
 Infiltrated Sewage: Entered in sewers due to poor joints or cracked pipes. More
prominent in rainy season.
 WASA Lhr use infiltration for DSN: 5 % for d<600mm and 10 % d>600mm.
 Inflow: Water that enters sewer through manhole covers, roof drains etc.
 Sewage is 70-90% of water consumption. When infiltration %age is considered
then sewage is equal to water consumption.
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 Herman’s Formula for Peaking Factor: M = 1 +
4+ P
Where P= population in 1000s
 WASA takes Peaking Factor: 2 for flow > 500,000 m3/day & 4 for <2500 m3/day.
 Minimum Rate of Sewage Flow = 50 % of average sewage flow
 Components of Sewerage System are designed for maximum flow but the low
flow velocities are check for minimum flows.
 Pumping station is designed for 10 years and sewage treatment plant is designed
for 15-20 years.
 Steps in Design: Preliminary investigation, design criteria considerations, actual
design, drawing & BOQ and Subsequent modifications.
 Things to Consider in Preliminary Investigation: Population density, water
consumption, soil characteristics, natural slope, disposal points, GWT, Rainfall
data, other systems pipes.
 Infiltration is considered in finding Qdesign.
 WASA takes storm flow equal to peak sewage flow.
So Qdesign = 2 X Peak flow + infiltration
 Hydraulic Radius is R/4 for circular and Manning’s co-efficient is 0.013-0.015.
 Minimum Self-Cleansing Velocity: Minimum velocity to prevent settlement of
suspended matter. 0.6 for sanitary, 1 for combined and 0.7 for
partially-combined.
 Maximum Velocity: 2.4 to avoid sewer abrasion.
 Minimum Sewer Size According to WASA: 225 mm for lateral.
 Minimum Cover: 1 m earth cover on sewer crown to avoid damage from live
loads.
 Manhole Purpose: Cleaning, inspection, house connection.
 Manhole Provision: Change in sewer direction, diameter and slope. 1 for 2-4
houses. Spacing not more than 100 m for small pipes and not more than 150 m
for larger pipes.
 Qd to Qfull Ratio: Important to provide air space. < 0.7 for small and < 0.8 for
larger sewers.
 Area is determined from Discharge equation and slope is determined from
Manning’s equation.
 Drawings include type and size of joints, dimensions and depth of manhole and
location of disposal stations and profiles etc.
 Invert Level: Lowest inside level in a sewer. Used for calculating slopes (to
make sure of self-cleansing velocities).
 Upper End Invert Level = NSL - Earth cover - thickness - diameter
 Lower End Invert Level = Upper Invert Level - Fall
 Fall = Gradient X distance
 For fall of 0.3 m in 24 m distance: Gradient is 0.0125 or 1:80 or 1 in 80.
 When two or more sewers of same diameter discharge in sewer of same diameter
then lowest D/S invert level is taken as U/S invert level of receiving sewer.
 When two or more sewers discharge in sewer of different diameter then crown
(inside top) is taken at same level and U/S invert level of main sewer is lowered
by diameter difference from minimum D/S invert level of discharging sewers.
 Storm Sewer = C I A
 Where: C = co-efficient depending on surface storage, infiltration and
evaporation; I = Rainfall intensity (depth/time); A = Tributary Area
 C varies; increases as rainfall continues.
t 0.3t
 C= for impervious and C = for pervious
8+t 20 + t
 C ranges from 0.05 to 0.3 for unpaved surfaces and soils and it is 0.7 to 0.9 for
paved surfaces.
 Inlet Time: Time required for rain water to flow from farthest point over the
surface to sewer inlet.
 Concentration Time: Time required for maximum runoff rate to develop
 Time of concentration = Inlet time + time of flow
 Critical Duration of Rainfall = Duration of Rainfall producing maximum runoff
= Time of Concentration
V V
 Cycle Time = Running time + time of filling = +
P -Q Q
 For Minimum Cycle Time: Sewage Flow Rate (Q) = Half of Pumping Rate (P)
 tmin = 4V/P
 Nature of sewage is important for design and operation of collection, treatment
and disposal facilities.
 Solids in Waste-water: 0.1 % solids are present which include:
 Total solids: (all matter that remain residue while boiling at 103-105 0C
 Suspended: (retained on 1.2 micrometer filter paper), volatile (organic), fixed
(inorganic).
 Dissolved: (passed from 1.2 micrometer filter)
 Settle-able: (settle at bottom of cone in 60 minutes, also give quantity of sludge)
 Temperature: Waste’s temperature is slightly greater than water supply.
Optimum temperature for bacteria is 25-30 0C.
 Color: Wastewater has light brownish-gray color. By anaerobic activities color
changes to black (called septic).
 Odor: Produced by decomposition of gases etc. Most common odor is that of
Hydrogen sulphide.
 Alkalinity: Bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium. It helps to resist pH.
 Nitrogen: Include organic nitrogen, ammonia nitrogen, nitrite and nitrate. To
control algal growth in receiving water removal of N in wastewater is needed.
 Sulphates: Are converted to sulphide under anaerobic conditions which combine
with hydrogent to form hydrogen sulphide. H2S is oxidized to H2SO4 biologically
and cause corrosion of sewers.
 Dissolved Oxygen: Is necessary to avoid anaerobic conditions.
 Organic Matter: Measured in terms of:
 Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD): Oxygen required by bacteria to oxidize
organic matter to stable end products. BOD5 at 200 C is important.
 Lt = L0 e - kt
 BOD Consumed (y) = L0 (1-e-kt)
 K for domestic water at 200 C is 0.23 per day and Kt = K0 (1.047)T-20
 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): Oxygen required by bacteria to oxidize
organic matter chemically using strong oxidizing agent (K2Cr2O7) in an acidic
medium (H2SO4).
 COD is higher than BOD. COD is determined in only 2 hours.
 COD/BOD indicates extent of biodegradability of wastewater.
 Total Organic Carbon (TOC): Total amount of carbon present.
 Bacteria: 0.5 to 5 Millions Bacteria per ml of water. Important when treated
wastewater is used for irrigation.
 Population Equivalent: No. Of persons producing same BOD as industrial
establishment. 80-90 g BOD/person.
 BOD Load = (Q * BOD) / 1000
 Kg/d = m3/d * mg/L * L/m3
 Wastewater Treatment: The processing of wastewater to remove pollutants to
such a quantity that is not harmful to human health (pathogens, heavy metals and
other toxic compounds) and environment (oxygen depletion, harm to aquatic life,
soil pollution and changing characteristic of water like color, turbidity).
 Treated wastewater can be used for industry, irrigation and GW recharge.
 Pak EPA effluent standard: BOD < 80 mg / L
 Wastewater treatments are:
 Preliminary: Removal of large floating particles and and grit (heavy inorganic
particles) which interfere with mechanical instruments. Include screens and grit
chamber.
 Primary: Removal of suspended (settle-able) organic matter. Primary
sedimentation tank is an example. BOD removal 15-30 % and S.S removal
30-60 %.
 Secondary: Removal of soluble or colloidal matter. Generally is biological
treatment like ASP, Trickling filters, Aerated lagoons and waste stabilization
pound. BOD removal 75-95 % S.S removal 90 %.
 Tertiary: Trace organic materials.
 Screens: Removes large suspended solids. Bar screen is coarse (2-4 inch) to fine
(0.75-2 inch). Screens are 1.5 * 10-5 m3/m3 of waste. Screens are disposed by
landfill or incineration.
 Comminutor: Used in some plants to reduce particle size. That reduced size is
removed in subsequent treatment.
 Grit Chamber: Remove grit (sand, clay, egg shell and metal fragments) which
may damage the pumps etc or cause trouble in primary and secondary treatment
by clogging the sludge lines etc.
 Designed on the basis of separating organic and inorganic particles based on their
specific gravity. Removes particles larger than 0.2 mm. Detention time in grit
chamber is 40-60 seconds.
 Primary Sedimentation Tank: Remove most of settle-able solids or 40-70 % of
suspended solids. 60-80 % of BOD is contributed by suspended and colloidal
matter so primary treatment remove only 30-45 % of BOD.
 Sludge (settling particles) are removed from bottom where skimming (floating
matter) is removed from the surface.
 Clarified liquor (primary effluent) is discharged over tank’s weir.
 Detention Time & Flow Through Time: Theoretical time for which a particle
stays in tank (V / Q) is called detention time where actual time taken by fluid to
pass through tank (determined by tracer studies using NaCl) is called flow
through time.
 Inlet Zone: Provide smooth transition from influent flow to distribute it
uniformly across inlet of tank. Generally include baffles.
 Outlet Zone: Smooth transition from sedimentation zone to outlet. Weirs control
overflow rate and prevent solids from rising and leaving the the tank before they
settle.
 SOR = Vs = Q / A: Critical design parameter. Independent of depth an detention
time.
 Detention time of sedimentation tank is 2-8 hours.
 Secondary Treatment: Biodegarting of organic matter into non-polluting
end-products. Main purpose is removing BOD.
 Aerobic: More sludge, stable effluent.
 Anaerobic: Less sludge, odour due to H2S.
 Suspended Growth: Activated sludge process & Aerated lagoons. Treatment is
done by keeping bacteria in suspension.
 Attached Growth: Microbial layer grown on surface and wastewater is sprayed
on it. Also called fix film reactors. Trickling filter is an example.
 Activated Sludge: Heterogeneous microbial culture composed of
microorganisms produced in raw or settled sewage by growth of these organisms.
Bacteria present in it metabolize organic matter into CO2 and NH3 etc. Mixer of
this and sewage is called mixed liquor.
 Sludge Volume Index = (Settled sludge volume * 1000) / (Mixed liquor
suspended solids). Value of 50-150 means good settling characteristics.
 Sludge Buckling: Excessive carryover of flocs resulting inefficient operation of
secondary clarifier.
 Growth of Filamentous Microorganisms: Insufficient operation, lack of
nutrients, presence of toxic compounds, low pH and over loading.
 F:M Ratio: Food to microorganism ratio is most important design criteria.
Controls rate of oxidation and mass of organisms. It is kg of BOD per day per kg
of MLSS. Usually 0.25-0.5 F:M ratio is kept.
 Aeration time for ASP is 4-8 hours.
 Types of aeration processes are conventional, tapered, step, mixed, extended and
high rate aeration processes.
 Operational Control of ASP includes DO, MLSS, F:M, SVI, return sludge etc.
 Advantages are high BOD removal, less land area, odor free operation and
treating industrial waste well.
 Disadvantages are sensitivity, skilled required, sludge buckling problem and high
operating costs.
 Aerated Lagoons: Earthen basins in which wastewater is treated on flow through
basis. Low MLSS concentration and long concentration time compared with
ASP.
 Partially Mixed (Facultative) Lagoons: Aeration only to fulfill oxygen demand.
Sludge decomposes anaerobically.
 Fully Mixed (Aerobic) Lagoons: Aeration for BOD and solids suspension.
 Detention time is 4-7 days. L = L0 / (1 + Kt); K2 = K1 (1.047)T2-T1; K = 0.5-1.5
 Advantages: Less area than WSP, low capital cost, easy to operate, no skilled
labor, less odour problem and no mechanical equipment.
 Disadvantages: Poor fecal coliform removal than WSP, need final clarifier and
sludge handling problem.
 Trickling Filter: Bed of highly permeable material on which microorganisms
grow and and wastewater is percolated or trickled. As water percolates,
microorganisms remove the organic matter. This is an attached growth biological
treatment method.
 Nutrients and organic matter is transferred to fixed layer and to bacteria and
waste products are transferred to moving water layer by diffusion. This is
collected by under-drainage system and treated in secondary treatment.
 A portion of wastewater collected in the under-drainage system is recycled to
dilute influent and reduce odor problem.
 Trickling filters are classified as standard, low rate and high rate filters.
 Advantages: Satisfactory BOD removal, good for shock loads and low operating
cost.
 Disadvantages: Head loss (3-5 m), experts required, less parts are available
locally, high construction cost and odor and fly problem.
 Waste Stabilization Pounds: Shallow man-made basins into which waste water
flows and after detention time of several days a well treated effluent is
discharged.
 Types of WSP: Anaerobic & facultative (for BOD removal) and maturation (for
pathogens removal)
 Maturation ponds are used when treated wastewater is to be used for unrestricted
irrigation.
 Restricted Irrigation: Includes industrial crops like cotton and sunflower and
food crops not for direct human use.
 Unrestricted Crops: Vegetables etc.
 Anaerobic Pounds: Such high organic loading (>100 g BOD / m3.day) that they
contain no DO and no algae. BOD and SS removal is 40-70 %. Retention time is
small 1-5 days. Have odour problem. BOD removal is done by sedimentation of
settle-able solids and subsequent anaerobic digestion. Works well in warm
climates. Designed on volumetric BOD loading (Lamda = L * Q /V = 100-400).
 Facultative Pounds: Have 7-20 days retention time and designed relatively low
surface loading rate (100-400 Kg BOD / ha. Day). Oxygen is provided by algal
growth. Primary Type receive raw sewerage whereas Secondary Type receive
settled wastewater from anaerobic pounds.
 Bacteria-Algae Symbiosis: Mutual relation of pond bacteria and pond algae in
secondary facultative pond. DO has varying concentrations throughout a day due
to photosynthesis. Facultative ponds are designed on the basis of surface BOD
loading .
 Pathogens removal in maturation ponds occurs by adsorption onto settle-able
solids including algae and subsequent sedimentation. Parasites are removed by
sedimentation and consequently removal takes place in anaerobic and facultative
ponds.
 Advantages: Simplicity, low operating cost, local availability of material, no
electrical energy used, no problem of flies and odour and high efficiency. Good
for developing countries like Pakistan.
 Disadvantages: Large land area needed & Variable capital cost depending upon
land cost.