Unit-4

4.1 Domestic waste water – quantity and characteristics

INTRODUCTION

This chapter deals with the quantity and characteristics of domestic waste water .

4.1.1 Quantity of domestic waste water

In order to find out a suitable section for the sewer, it is necessary to determine the quantity of
sewage that will flow through the sewer. The sewage consists of the following two categories:

1. Dry weather flow

2. Storm water

DRY WEATHER FLOW

This is sometimes written as D.W.F. and it consists of two types of sewage:

1. Domestic or sanitary sewage

2. Industrial sewage

The quantity of D.W.F. is determined by considering the following four factors:

1. Infiltration and exfiltration

2. Nature of industries

3. Population

4. Rate of water supply

Infiltration and exfiltration

The term infiltration is used to indicate the leakage of water from the ground surrounding the
sewer and the term exfiltration is used to indicate the leakage of sewage from the sewer into the
ground surrounding the sewer.

The infiltration and exfiltration are both undesirable. The infiltration unnecessarily increases the
quantity of sewage. The exfiltration pollutes the underground sources of water, if any. The
infiltration, however, is preferred to exfiltration.
The infiltration and exfiltration can be prevented to some extent by constructing watertight joint
of sewers.

The quantity of water through infiltration depends on the following four factors:

 Head of subsoil water level

 Length of sewer

 Nature and type of soil through which sewer is laid and

 Size of sewer

Nature of industries

The quantity of industrial sewge will depend upon the nature of industries. A careful study is,
therefore, made of the industries contributing to the flow of sewage and the quantity of industrial
sewage is then accordingly worked out.

Population

Just as in case of water supply projects, the future population after two or three decades is
determined by applying any suitable method of population forecast. The design period of
different parts of the sewerage system is different and the following factors are taken into
account while fixing the probable life of a particular part of the sewerage system

 Chances of improvement in the equipment

 Cost of adding an extra unit of the equipment

 Labour conditions having important influence on the cost of equipment

 Maintenance cost and overhead charges

 Operation methods and

 Original cost of the part

Usually, the design periods of the following parts of sewerage system are:

 Laterals: These are designed for 50 years or so

 Branches and submains: These are also designed to last for 50 years or more

 Main sewers and trunk sewers: These are designed for 30 to 50 years

 Pumping plant: As additional pump can be installed with short notice, the design period
of pumping plant is about 5 to 10 years.
  Treatment units: These are designed for 10 to 30 years.

Rate of water supply

Usually the quantity of water entering the sewer will be slightly less than the quantity of water
supplied. For practical purposes, it is assumed that the quantity of water which does not enter
sewer is very nearly equal to the extra quantity of water which enter sewer. In other words, the
rate of sewage is assumed as equal to the rate of water supply. The rate of sewage may,
however, be assumed lower than the rate of water supply to the extent of about 60 to 70 per cent
where there are sufficient reasons to justify such assumption.

Following two factors should be carefully considered while comparing rate of sewage with rate
of water supply.

 Intensity of pressure: If water is supplied at high pressure, there is more consumption of

water and more wastage of water from leakage in pipes, valves etc.

 Use of water: The use for which water is consumed should be carefully studied. It is
quite likely that water which is supplied may not appear as sewage after its
consumption. For instance, water that is supplied to fill up the tanks of railway
locomotives will not appear as sewage. Similarly, the quantity of water supplied and the
quantity of sewage formed by various prominent industries such as cotton mills, milk
plants, etc. should be studied and accordingly the rate of sewage should be decided.

STORM WATER

Wherever possible, the storm water is to be collected and conveyed in sewers at proper places for
the following reasons:

 Damp conditions are created which are unhygienic as they provide flourishing ground for
micro organisms

 Existence of waterpools affects the foundations of structures

 Initial washings of streets by storm water contain organic matter and hence such water
requires to be collected and to be taken to the treatment plant

 Low lying areas get flooded and transport system is paralysed. It leads to loss of revenue.

 Stagnant waterpools serve as breeding places for mosquitoes.

The quantity of storm water, which is known as wet weather flow and mentioned as W.W.F., that
will enter sewer is to be carefully determined. It involves various factors such as intensity of
rainfall, characteristics of catchment area, duration of storm, etc. Following two methods are
generally employed for calculating the quantity of storm water for the purpose of designing
sewers:

 Rational method
  Empirical method
Rational method

In this method, the following three factors are combined in the form of an equation:

Q= K I A / 360

Where,

Q = peak runoff in m3 per second

K = Impermeability factor

I = Intensity of rainfall, mm per hour

A = Area in hectares

Catchment area

The catchment area to be served by a storm water sewer is measured directly form the map of the
locality

Impermeability factor

Some quantity of rain water that falls on the ground is absorbed by soil and the percentage of
rain water that enters the sewer is known as impermeability factor.

Intensity of rainfall

The intensity of rainfall can be worked out from the rainfall records of the area under
consideration. Where rainfall records are not available, the intensity of rainfall is obtained by
applying suitable empirical formula.

The general empirical formula adopted to calculate intensity of rainfall is:

\[R=\frac{{25.4\cdot a}}{{t + b}}\]

Where, R = Intensity of rainfall in mm per hour

t = Duration of storm in minutes

a and b are constants

The values of a and b are as follows:

a = 30 and b = 10 when duration of storm is 5 to 20 minutes

a = 40 and b = 20 when duration of storm is 20 to 100 minutes

4.1.2 Characteristics of domestic waste water
In order to determine the line of treatment, constituents of which sewage is composed are to be
properly determined. Quality of sewage plays an important role in the design and construction of
various treatment units. The treatment given to sewage should be such that it can be easily
disposed off in natural stream or river.

Properties of sewage

The properties of sewage will be studied in the following three groups:

1. Physical properties

2. Chemical properties

3. Biological properties

Physical properties

Specific gravity of sewage is very nearly equal to that of water and as such, no modification of
hydraulic formulae is necessary.

Colour of fresh sewage is earthy or grey and it has soapy or oily smell. It starts to give
objectionable odour after few hours of its production.

Normal sewage is usually turbid and it contains some matter which can be easily identified when
the sewage is fresh. Such matter includes faecal matter or night soil, pieces of paper, cigarette
ends, grease, fruit skins, soap, match sticks, vegetable debris, etc.

Sewage contains a very small amount of solid in relation to large amount of water. Liquid
content of normal sewage is about 99.90 per cent and the total amount of solid matter present
either in suspension state or dissolved state is only about 0.10 per cent. For normal sewage, it is
estimated that two tones or 2000 kg of sewage will hardly contain 1 kg of solids. The amount of
1 kg of solids will normally include 0.50 kg in solution stage, 0.25 in settleable state and 0.25 kg
in suspension state.

Sewage contains organic and inorganic matter. It will be interesting to note the proportions of
these matters in a normal sewage. For illustration, one lakh parts of sewage will normally contain
only 100 parts of solids. Distribution of 100 parts of solids in sewage will roughly be as follows:

As a general rule, presence of inorganic solids in sewage is not harmful. It requires only
mechanical appliances for its removal in the treatment plants. Suspended and dissolved organic
solids require treatment and they are as such responsible for creating troubles in sewage
disposal. As seen above, the amount of such solids in one lakh parts of sewage is about (20 +
25) = 45, say 50 parts only, i.e., they form only 1/2000 th part of the entire quantity of sewage and
such a small part requires heavy treatment for its purification.
Inorganic solids in sewge include mineral matter such as gravel, grit, debris, dissolved salts,
sand, chlorides, sulphates, etc. Organic solids in sewage can be grouped in the following three
categories:

 Carbohydrates such as cellulose, cotton filter, starch, sugar, etc.

 Fats and oils received from kitchens, laundries, garages, shops, etc.

 Nitrogenous compounds which are nothing but proteins and their decomposed products
and they include wastes from animals, urea, fatty acids, hydrocarbons, etc.

Chemical properties

Nature of fresh sewage and treated or purified sewage is alkaline. Nature of stale sewage is
acidic.

In addition to solids and liquids, sewage also contains various gases such as hydrogen sulphide,
methane, ammonia and carbon dioxide. These gases are obtained either from atmosphere or
formed by the decomposition of organic matter present in sewage.

It may be noted that the sewage containing industrial wastes may possess unusual chemical
properties.

Biological properties

Sewage contains bacteria and other living micro-organisms such as algae, fungi, protozoa, etc.

Bacteria are present in sewage in large number and depending upon their nature, they may be
classified as pathogenic bacteria and non-pathogenic bacteria. Pathogenic bacteria are harmful
and they are responsible for causing diseases. Sewage obtains such bacteria from the discharges
of persons and animals suffering from various diseases. Non-pathogenic bacteria are harmless.

The major part of bacteria in sewage is engaged in carrying out the process of breaking the
complex organic compounds into simple and stable compounds which may be organic or
inorganic.

4.2 Disposal of domestic waste water in rural and urban areas

INTRODUCTION

The domestic waste water (sewage) begins to cause nuisance as it becomes stale. If it is possible
to dispose off sewage within four to five hours after its production, the treatment required is less
in magnitude. This lesson deals with the methods of disposing domestic waste water.

The methods of sewage disposal can classified as follows:

Disposal by dilution

Disposal by land treatment

4.2.1 Disposal by dilution
In this process, the raw sewage or the partially treated sewage is thrown into natural waters
having large volume. The sewage in due course of time is purified by what is known as the self-
purification capacity of natural waters. The limit of discharge and degree of treatment of sewage
are determined by the capacity of self-purification of natural waters.

Conditions favorable for dilution

Following conditions are favourable for sewage to be disposed off by dilution into natural waters

1. It is possible only to provide primary treatment to sewage i.e., removal of floating matter
and settleable solids.

2. Currents of flow of diluting waters should be favourable which means that nuisance
should not be caused when sewage is discharged into diluting waters

3. Diluting waters are not used for the purpose of navigation for at least some reasonable
distance on the downstream from the point of sewage disposal.

4. Diluting waters should not have habitation or they should not hage been used as source of
water supply for at least some reasonable distance on the downstream from the point of
sewage disposal

5. Dissolved oxygen content of diluting waters should be high

6. The place is situated near natural waters having large volumes

7. The sewage is relatively fresh and it is possible to bring it to the point of discharge within
four or five hours of its production.

Types of natural waters

Following are the natural waters into which the sewage can be discharged for dilution

1. Creeks

2. Estuaries

3. Ground waters

4. Lakes

5. Ocean or sea

6. Perennial rivers and streams

Self purification of natural waters

When sewage is discharged into natural water, its organic matter gets oxidized by the dissolved
oxygen content in water. The oxidation of organic matter converts such matter into simple
inoffensive substances. Deficiency of dissolved oxygen thus created in natural waters is filled up
by the absorption of atmospheric oxygen. Thus, the oxygen of water is consumed by sewage and
at the same time, it is replenished by the atmosphere. This phenomena which occurs in all
natural waters is known as self-purification of natural waters. It is thus seen that natural waters,
polluted by sewage, are purified in natural course by the phenomena of self-purification

The rate of self-purification will depend on various factors such as rate of re-aeration type of
organic matter present in sewage, temperature, velocity of flow, presence of available oxygen in
receiving waters, sedimentation, etc

4.2.2 Disposal by land treatment

Here, the raw domestic waste water (sewage) is applied on the land. A part of sewage evaporates
and the remaining portion percolates through the ground and is caught by the underground drains
for disposal into natural waters. The sewage adds to the fertilizing value of land and crops can
be profitably raised on such land. The term sewage farming is also sometimes used for
indicating disposal of sewage by land treatment. The design of a good land treatment system
demands the services of environmental engineers, hydraulic engineers, irrigation engineers,
agronomists, soil scientist, etc.

Conditions favourable for land treatment

1. The area of land treatment is composed of sandy, loamy or alluvial soils. Such soils are
easily aerated and it is easy to maintain aerobic conditions in them

2. The depth of water table is more even in rainy season so that there are no chances of
pollution of underground water sources by land treatment

3. The rainfall in the area is low as it will assist in maintaining good absorption capacity of
soil

4. There is absence of river or other natural water sources in the vicinity of disposal of
sewage

5. There is demand for cash crops which can be easily grown on sewage farms

6. There is availability of large open areas in the surrounding locality for practicing broad
irrigation by sewage

Advantages of land treatment

1. It increases the fertility of land

2. It is cheap where land is available in plenty

3. Application of sewage on land is the best method of supplying manure to the soil
 4. Crops grown on land treated with sewage possess high calorific value and more vitamins.

5. Increased fertility of land results in profitable returns of crops

6. The method becomes very much useful at places where disposal of sewage by dilution is
not possible.

7. The method does not require costly equipment for its working.

8. The method proves economical and safe where available irrigation water is scarce in
quantity

9. The method to some extent charges the underground aquifers

10. Water of irrigation canal is saved when this method is practised.

Disadvantages of land treatment

1. If proper precautions are not taken, nuisance developed by sewage farming may lead to
possible dangers to the health of men. It is therefore, necessary that the sewage farms
should be operated under skilled technical supervision

2. Crops grown on sewage farms are generally not liked by ordinary public

3. The method is not applicable for all the seasons of year. In monsoon, some other
arrangement of sewage disposal has to be found out.

4. The method requires large area of land which may not be available in some cases

5. Types of crops grown on sewage treated land are limited in number.

4.2.3 Sewage sickness

If sewage is applied continuously on a piece of land, pores or voids of soil are filled up or
clogged. Free circulation of air is thereby prevented and anaerobic conditions develop. At this
stage, the land is unable to take any further sewage load. Organic matter decomposes and foul
smelling gases are produced. The phenomena of soil is known as sewage sickness of land.

Preventive measures

In order to prevent sewage sickness of land, the following preventive measures may be adopted

Alternative arrangement: There should be ample provision of extra land so that land with
sewage sickness can be given the desired rest. Alternatively, sewage should be disposed off by
some other method when sewage farms are taking rest

Depth of sewage: If sewage is applied in excess, the chances of sewage sickness are
increased. The land is unable to receive the excess sewage in a satisfactory way and it ultimately
clogs up. Depth of sewage on land should be carefully decided by keeping in view the climatic
conditions, drainage facilities, nature of crops and characteristics of soil.

Drainage of soil: Subsoil drain pipes should be laid in sufficient number to collect the percolated
effluent

Intermittent application: Sewage should be applied on land at intervals. The period between
successive applications depends on general working of sewage farm and the permeability of
soil. Depending on the nature of the soil, this period between successive applications varies
from few hours to few weeks.

Pretreatment of sewage: sewage should be given some pretreatment before it is applied on land.

Rotation of crops: It is desirable to grow different types of crops on a piece of land instead of
one single crop. Rotation of crops minimizes the chances of sewage sickness.

Treatment to land: The land affected by sewage sickness should be properly treated before it is
put up in use again. Clogged surfaces should be broken by suitable equipment.

4.3 Introduction to sewers

INTRODUCTION

Sewers are underground pipes or conduits which carry sewage to the point of discharge or
disposal. The sewage originating from a building passes through fixtures and then lead to lateral
sewers, which in turn discharge into sub mains or main sewers.

Important points to be considered before selecting sewer material

The following points are to be considered before selecting a material for constructing sewer:

Strength and durability

The sewer should have sufficient strength to withstand all the forces that are likely to fall on
them. Sewers are subjected to considerable external loads of backfill material and traffic load, if
any. They are not subjected to internal pressure of water. To withstand external load safely
without failure, sufficient wall thickness of pipe or reinforcement is essential. In addition, the
material selected should be durable and should have sufficient resistance against natural
weathering action to provide longer life to the pipe.

Resistance to abrasion

Sewage mostly contains grit. These particles moving at high velocity can cause wear and tear of
sewer material. This abrasion can reduce thickness of pipe and reduces hydraulic efficiency of
the sewer by making the interior surface rough. Therefore, the material of the sewer should be in
a position to offer enough resistance to abrasion.
Resistance to corrosion

Sewer carries wastewater that releases gases such as H2S. This gas in contact with moisture can
be converted in to sulphuric acid. The formation of acids can lead to the corrosion of sewer pipe.
Hence, selection of corrosion resistance material is needed for long life of pipe.

Weight

To facilitate easy handling and transportation, the sewers should have less specific weight.

Imperviousness

This property is also important in selecting a sewer material. To eliminate chances of sewage
exfiltration and infiltration, the material selected for pipe should be impervious.

Cost

Sewer should be less costly to make the sewerage scheme economical.

Hydraulically efficient

The sewer shall have smooth interior surface to have less frictional coefficient

4.3.1 Materials for sewer

4.3.1.1 Asbestos Cement Sewers

These types of sewers are manufactured from a mixture of asbestos fibre, silica and cement.
These pipes are available in size 10 to 100 cm internal diameter and length up to 4.0 m. These
kind of sewers are normally used for house drainage. They are not recommended for
underground situations. These pipes are used for vertical transport of water. For example,
transport of rainwater from roofs in multistoried buildings, for transport of sewage to grounds,
and for transport of less foul sullage i.e., wastewater from kitchen and bathroom.

Advantages

 These pipes are light in weight and hence, easy to carry and transport.

 Easy to cut and assemble without skilled labour.

 Interior is smooth (Manning’s roughness coefficient = 0.011) hence, can make excellent
hydraulically efficient sewer, offering least resistance to flow.

 They are durable against corrosion.

Disadvantages

 These pipes are not very strong and hence should not be subjected to heavy super-
imposed loads.
  These are susceptible to corrosion by sulphuric acid. When bacteria produces H 2S, in
presence of water, H2SO4 can be formed.

4.3.1.2 Plain Cement Concrete or Reinforced Cement Concrete

Plain cement concrete (1: 1.5: 3) pipes are available up to 0.45 m diameter and reinforcement
cement pipes are available up to 1.8 m diameter. Large sized cement concrete sewers are
generally reinforced. These pipes can be cast in situ or precast pipes. Precast pipes are better in
quality than the cast in situ pipes. The reinforcement in these pipes can be different such as
single cage reinforced pipes, used for internal pressure less than 0.8 m; double cage reinforced
pipes used for both internal and external pressure greater than 0.8 m; elliptical cage reinforced
pipes used for larger diameter sewers subjected to external pressure; and hume pipes with steel
shells coated with concrete from inside and outside. Cement concrete pipes may be used for
surface water drains in all diameters.

Advantages

 Economical for medium and large sizes.

 It is possible to effect saving in the cost of jointing, owing to the longer lengths in which
these pipes are generally available.

 They can be made of any desired strength.

 Strong in tension as well as compression.

 These pipes are available in wide range of size and the trench can be opened and
backfilled rapidly during maintenance of sewers.

Disadvantages

 These pipes can get corroded and pitted by the action of H2SO4.

 The carrying capacity of the pipe reduces with time because of corrosion.

 The pipes are susceptible to erosion by sewage containing silt and grit.

When cement concrete pipes are subjected to chemical and corrosive actions, one method of
protecting them from such actions is the lining of the sewer by vitrified clay blocks. These
blocks have projections, projecting downwards and are fixed in cement concrete of the
sewers. The joints between adjacent blocks are filled with cement mortar or with bituminous
compounds.

4.3.1.3 Brick Sewers

Brick sewers are generally made at site. They are used for construction of large size sewers or
particularly for storm water drains. The pipes are plastered from outside to avoid entry of tree
roots and ground water through brick joints. These are lined from inside with stone ware or
ceramic block to make them smooth and hydraulically efficient. Lining also make the pipe
resistant to corrosion. If brick sewers are to be used on a large scale, the purpose made bricks
should be used instead of ordinary bricks. The advantage of brick sewers is that these could be
constructed to any required shape and size.

4.3.1.4 Galvanized iron sewers

Corrugated iron sewers are used for storm sewers. They are made from ingot iron or rust
resisting alloys, with galvanizing for additional protection. Bituminous coatings are also used
inside and outside, and the invert is sometimes, covered with abrasion resistant bituminous
material. It is made in varying metal thickness and in diameters up to 4.5 m.

4.3.1.5 Cast Iron

Cast iron pipes may be used in the form of sewers, where they have to withstand high internal
pressures and external loads. However, these are costly. Cast iron pipes are used for outfall
sewers, rising mains of pumping stations, and inverted siphons, where pipes are running under
pressure. These are also suitable for sewers under heavy traffic load, such as sewers below
railways and highways. Light cast iron pipes are used for house drainage works, whereas, heavy
ones are adopted for city sewers.

4.3.1.6 Steel pipes

These types of sewers are used where lightness, imperviousness and resistance to high pressure
are of paramount importance. These sewers are flexible and can absorb vibrations and shocks
efficiently. They are more ductile and can withstand water hammer pressure better. They are
susceptible to corrosion and are not generally used for partially flowing sewers. They are
protected internally and externally against the action of corrosion. These sewers may be
protected from corrosion by galvanizing or by applying a bituminous coating or by using special
corrosion-resistant steel. Their use may be made in outfall or trunk sewers.

4.3.1.7 Stoneware sewers

The stoneware sewers are also known as vitrified clay sewers. This type of sewer is made of
clay or shale which has been ground, mixed with water, moulded into shape, dried and finally
burnt in the kiln at a very high temperature. At the end of the burning period, some common salt
is put in the kiln. The intensive heat cause the salt to vaporize and there is a reaction between
salt vapours and the clay to form a hard water proof glaze. The heat also causes a fusion or
vitrification of the clay which makes it very dense and hard. The temperature in the kiln is
maintained at 150°C for several hours in the beginning, but it is raised later to about 650°C to
750°C. Finally, the temperature is raised to 1200°C where vitrification takes place.

These sewers are normally favoured for house drainage connections and laterals. The interior
surface of these sewers is smooth and impervious. If properly laid, they are strong enough to
take the load of back-filling and traffic. They are cheap, easy to lay and join, resistant to
corrosion and extremely durable. But they are brittle, heavy and get damaged while handling
and transportation.
4.3.1.8 Plastic sewers

Plastic is recent material used for sewer pipes. These are used for internal drainage works in
house. These are available in sizes 75 to 315 mm external diameter and used in drainage works.
They offer smooth internal surface. The additional advantages they offer are resistant to
corrosion, light weight of pipe, economical in laying, jointing and maintenance, the pipe is tough
and rigid, and ease in fabrication and transportion of these pipes.

4.3.1.9 High Density Polythylene (HDPE) Pipes

Usage of HDPE sewers is in its nascent stage of development. They are not brittle like asbestos
cement pipes and other pipes and hence does not cause damage to pipes during loading,
unloading and handling. They can be joined by welding or can be jointed with detachable joints
up to 630 mm diameter. These are commonly used for conveyance of industrial wastewater.
They offer all the advantages offered by PVC pipes.

4.3.1.10 Glass fibre reinforced plastic pipes

This material is widely used where corrosion resistant pipes are required. GRP or FRP can be
used as a lining material for conventional pipes to protect from internal or external corrosion. It
is made from the composite matrix of glass fiber, polyester resin and fillers. These pipes have
better strength, durability, high tensile strength, low density and high corrosion resistance. These
are manufactured up to 2.4 m diameter and up to 18 m length.

4.3.1.11 Pitch Fibre Pipes

The pitch impregnated fibre pipes are of light weight and have shown their durability in service.
The pipes can be easily jointed in any weather condition as internally tapered couplings join the
pipes without the use of jointing compound. They are flexible, resistant to heat, freezing and
thawing and earth currents which set up electrolytic action. They are also unaffected by acids and
other chemicals, water softeners, sewer gases, oils and greases and laundry detergents. They can
be cut to required length on the site. Because of the larger lengths, cost of jointing, handling and
laying is reduced. These are generally recommended for uses such as house connection to sewers
and septic tanks, farm drainage, down pipes, storm drains, industrial waste drainage, etc. These
have recently been manufactured in India.

4.3.2 Types of sewers

INTRODUCTION

Types of sewers normally refers to the different shapes of sewers. The shapes of sewers play an
important role in the construction and design process, handling and maintenance and decide in
reducing / increasing the cost.

Sewers are generally circular in shape. The advantages of circular sewers are:
  The perimeter of circular sewer is the least with respect to the sewer of other shape.

 The inner surface is smooth hence the flow of sewage is uniform and there is no chance
of deposition of suspended particles.

 The circular sewers are easy to construct.

However non-circular shaped sewers are also adopted for the following reasons:

 They can be construct in such a convenient shape and size so that a man can enter the
sewer for cleaning, maintenance, etc.

 The process of construction is easy.

 The structural strength is more.

 Cost of construction is low.

The following are the non-circular shaped sewers that are more commonly adopted

Standard Egg-shaped sewer

These types of sewers are generally used in combined sewers. These sewers can generate self
cleansing velocity during dry weather flow.
New egg-shaped sewer:

Horse shoe shaped sewer:

This type of sewer is constructed for carrying heavy discharge. This is like a tunnel and
resembles a horse-shoe. The size is so large that the maintenance works within the sewer are
very easy.
Parabolic shaped sewer:

The upper surface of the sewer is of the shape of a parabola and the invert is in the form of an
ellipse. This type of sewer is suitable for carrying small discharges.

Semi-elliptical section:
Rectangular shape section:

This type of sewer can be easily constructed. These are suitable for large sewers to carry heavy
discharge of sewage. The maintenance works are easy in this section

U-shaped section:

The shape of sewer resembles the letter ‘U’. The sewer is suitable for carrying heavy discharges.
Maintenance works are very easy in this type of sewers.
Semi-circular shaped sewer:

Basket handled shape sewer:

In this type of sewer, the outer surface is circular. The inner surface is divided into two
portions. The upper portion resembles a basket-handle and the lower portion is like a
channel. During dry season, the sewage flows through the lower portion and during monsoon,
the combined sewage flows through the full section.

4.4 Design discharge for sewers

INTRODUCTION

Sewers need to be designed before commencing the actual laying work. Designing involves
estimation of period or duration for the which the sewer will serve for an expected population
and the discharge for which the sewer is to be designed.

4.4.1 Design Period

The length of time up to which the capacity of a sewer will be adequate is referred to as the
design period. In fixing a period of design, consideration must be given for the useful life of
structures and equipment employed, taking into account obsolescence as well as wear and tear.
Because the flow is largely a function of population served, population density and water
consumption, lateral and sub main sewers are usually designed for peak flows of the population
at saturation density as set forth in the Master Plan.

4.4.2 Population Forecasting

There are several methods for estimation or forecasting of population which can predict or
forecast population for a specific design period, usually three to four decades.

4.4.3 Tributary area

The natural topography, layout of buildings, political boundaries, economic factors, etc.,
determine the tributary area. For larger drainage areas, though it is desirable that the sewer
capacities be designed for the total tributary area, sometimes, political boundaries and legal
restrictions prevent the sewers to be constructed beyond the limits of the local authority.
However, in designing sewers for larger areas, there is usually an economic advantage in
providing adequate capacity initially for a certain period of time and adding additional sewers,
when the pattern of growth becomes established. The need to finance projects within the
available resources necessitates the design to be restricted to political boundaries. The
tributary area for any section under consideration has to be marked on a key plan and the area
can be measured from the map.

4.4.4 Per capita sewage flow

The entire spent water of a community should normally contribute to the total flow in a sanitary
sewer. However, the observed dry weather flow quantities usually are slightly less than the per
capita water consumption, since some water is lost in evaporation, seepage into ground, leakage,
etc. In arid regions, mean sewage flows may be as little as 40% of water consumption and in well
developed areas, flows may be as high as 90%. However, the conventional sewers shall be
designed for a minimum sewage flow of 100 litres per capita per day or higher as the case may
be. Non-conventional sewers shall be designed as the case may be.

The flow in sewers varies from hour to hour and also seasonally. But for the purpose of hydraulic
design, estimated peak flows are adopted. The peak factor or the ratio of maximum to average
flows depends upon contributory population as given in following Table.

Table. Peak factor for contributory population

Contributory Peak
Population Factor

up to 20,000 3.00
 above 20,001 to 50,000 2.50

above 50,001 to 7,50,000 2.25

above 7,50,001 2.00

The peak factors also depend upon the density of population, topography of the site, hours of
water supply and therefore individual cases may be further analysed if required. The minimum
flow may vary from 1/3 to 1/2 of average flow.

4.4.5 Infiltration

Estimate of flow in sanitary sewers may include certain flows due to infiltration of groundwater
through joints. Since sewers are designed for peak discharges, allowances for
groundwater infiltration for the worst condition in the area should be made as in Table..

Table. Ground water Infiltration

Description Unit Minimum Maximum

Area litres/ha/day 5000 50000

Length of
litres/km/day 500 5000
sewers

Number of
litres/day/manhole 250 500
manholes
Once the flow is estimated as per the above Table, the design infiltration value shall be limited to
a maximum of 10% of the design value of sewage flow.

4.4.6 Sewage from Commercial institutions

Industries and commercial buildings often use water other than the municipal supply and may
discharge their liquid wastes into the sanitary sewers. Estimates of such flows have to be made
separately.

4.4.7 STORM WATER

Wherever possible, the storm water is to be collected and conveyed in sewers at proper places for
the following reasons:

 Damp conditions are created which are unhygienic as they provide flourishing ground for
micro organisms

 Existence of waterpools affects the foundations of structures

  Initial washings of streets by storm water contain organic matter and hence such water
requires to be collected and to be taken to the treatment plant

 Low lying areas get flooded and transport system is paralysed. It leads to loss of revenue.

 Stagnant waterpools serve as breeding places for mosquitoes.

The quantity of storm water, which is known as wet weather flow (WWF) entering the sewer is
to be carefully determined. It involves various factors such as intensity of rainfall, characteristics
of catchment area, duration of storm, etc. Following two methods are generally employed for
calculating the quantity of storm water for the purpose of designing sewers:

 Rational method

 Empirical method

Rational method

In this method, the following three factors are combined in the form of an equation:

Q= K I A / 360

Where,

Q = peak runoff in m3 per second

K = Impermeability factor

I = Intensity of rainfall, mm per hour

A = Area in hectares

Catchment area

The catchment area to be served by a storm water sewer is measured directly from the map of the
locality.

4.4.8 Impermeability factor

Some quantity of rain water that falls on the ground is absorbed by soil and the percentage of
rain water that enters the sewer is known as impermeability factor. The following table gives the
impermeability factors for various types of surfaces.

Impermeability
Type of surface
Factor

Water tight roofs and such other covered surface 0.70 – 0.95
 Pavements of asphalt or concrete 0.85 – 0.90

Areas with many buildings 0.70 – 0.90

Pavements of bricks, stones or wooden blocks 0.75 – 0.85

Pavements of bricks, stones or wooden blocks with open

0.50 – 0.70
joints

Areas with adjacent well build up sections 0.50 – 0.70

Macadam roads 0.25 – 0.60

Residential areas having detached houses 0.25 – 0.50

Areas with few buildings 0.10 – 0.25

Gravel roads 0.15 – 0.30

Open spaces, railway yards and unpaved surfaces 0.10 – 0.30

Gardens, lawns, parks, etc 0.05 – 0.25

Areas with wooden surfaces 0.01 – 0.20

Fertilized lands and forest land 0.01 – 0.20

4.4.9 Intensity of rainfall

The intensity of rainfall can be worked out from the rainfall records of the area under
consideration. Where rainfall records are not available, the intensity of rainfall is obtained by
applying suitable empirical formula.

The general empirical formula adopted to calculate intensity of rainfall is:

\[R=\frac{{25.4\c dota}}{{t + b}}\]

Where, R = Intensity of rainfall in mm per hour

t = Duration of storm in minutes

a and b are constants

The values of a and b are as follows:

a = 30 and b = 10 when duration of storm is 5 to 20 minutes

a = 40 and b = 20 when duration of storm is 20 to 100 minutes

4.5 Hydraulic design of sewers

4.5.1 INTRODUCTION

If the velocity and depth of flow is the same for the length of a conduit, it is termed as steady
flow and as otherwise, it is non-steady flow. The hydraulic analysis of sewers is simplified by
assuming steady flow conditions though the actual flow conditions are different during morning
peak flows and varying flows in other parts of the 24 hours.
General approach for the design of sewer is the same as that of water mains. But the following
are the two main differences between the basic principles of design of sewers and those of water
mains.

Presence of particles : The water carried by water mains is practically free from particles of any
solid matter – organic and inorganic. Sewage, on the other hand, contains such particles in
suspension and the heavy particles settle down at the bottom of sewers which may ultimately
result in the clogging of sewers. The sewers are, therefore, to be laid down at gradient and they
should be capable of resisting the wear and tear due to abrasion of these particles.

Pressure : The water mains normally carry water under pressure and hence, within certain limits,
they may be carried up and down the hill. The sewers, on the other hand, are treated as open
channels and they must, therefore, be laid at continuous gradient in downward direction. If
sewage has to be carried under pressure, it will require elaborate equipment at each house which
is to be connected to the drainage system.

4.5.2 Minimum and Maximum velocities

The silting or deposition of particles of solid matter is undesirable in sewers and hence, the
sewers should be laid at such a gradient that a minimum velocity which will prevent the silting of
particles in sewers is developed over a wide variation in discharge of sewage. Such a minimum
velocity is known as self-cleansing velocity and for keeping the sewers free from any trouble,
this velocity should be developed at least once in a day, preferably twice a day.

The self-cleansing velocity depends on the nature of suspended matter in sewage and the size of
the sewer. The following table shows the self-cleansing velocities for different materials in
suspension as recommended by Beardmore.

Name of the Self-cleansing velocity in

material cm/sec

Angular stones 100

 Round pebbles 60

Fine gravel 30

Coarse sand 20

Fine sand and clay 15

The following table shows the self-cleaning velocities for sewers for different sizes as
recommended by Badwin Latham. Usually, a self-cleaning velocity of about 80 cm to 90 cm per
second is adopted for normal sewage.

Diameter of sewer in Self-cleansing velocity in

cm cm/sec

15 to 25 100

30 to 60 75

Above 60 60
The maximum velocity of flow is also to be taken in to consideration. If the velocity of flow
exceeds a certain limit, the particles of solid matter start to damage the inside smooth surface of
sewers or in other words, a scouring action takes place. The maximum permissible velocity at
which no such scouring action will occur is known as non-scouring velocity and it will mainly
depend on the material used in the construction of sewers. The following table shows the non-
scouring velocities for common sewer materials.

Non-scouring velocity in
Material of sewer
cm/sec

Earthen channels 60 to 120

Brick-lined sewers 150 to 240

Cement Concrete
240 to 300
sewers

Stoneware sewers 300 to 450

The velocity which can cause automatic self-cleansing can be found out by the following
formula given by Shield:

\[V=\sqrt{\frac{{8k}}{f}\left[{\frac{{{P_s}-P}}{P}}\right]gd}\]
Where. f = Darcy’s coefficient of friction having a value of 0.05 for usual type of sewers.

k = Characteristics of solid particles carried in suspension by the sewage. .

Ps= Specific gravity of the particles.

P = specific gravity of transporting liquid which is water in the case of sewage.

g = acceleration due to gravity.

d = diameter of the particle in mm to be carried in suspension.

From general observation and also from Shield’s formula, it is clear that heavier and sticky
particles need larger velocity for their transportation, while smaller particles need smaller
velocity. This aspect can be made clear from irrigation canals also. During rainy days water
flowing in canals carries more coarser silt and thus silting of the canals takes place only in rainy
season.

In sewers, the velocity of flow depends, on the following factors:

 Longitudinal slope or gradient in the sewer

 Hydraulic mean depth

 Coefficient of roughness of internal surface of the sewers

The sewage to be transported is mostly liquid containing 0.1 to 0.2 % solid matter in the form of
organic matter, sediments and minerals

Following are the six common empirical formulae used in the determination of velocity of flow.

Chezy’s formula:

The formula given by Chezy in 1775 as follows:

\[=V\sqrt{RS}\]

Where, V = velocity of flow in metres per second

R = hydraulic mean depth in metres

S = slope or hydraulic gradient

C = Chezy’s constant

Bazin’s formula

According to Bazin, the value of constant C in chezy’s formula can be obtained by the
following equation
\[C = \frac{{157.6}}{{1.81 + \frac{K}{{\sqrt R }}}}\]

Where, R = hydraulic mean depth in metres

K = Bazin’s constant

Manning’s formula

This formula, as given by Manning, is as follows:

\[V = \frac{1}{n}{R^{0.66}}{S^{0.50}}\]

Where, R = hydraulic mean depth in metres

S = slope or hydraulic gradient

Crimp and Bruges formula

\[V=\frac{1}{n}{R^{0.66}}{S^{0.50}}\]

Where, R = hydraulic mean depth in metres

S = slope or hydraulic gradient

Hazen and Williams formula

\[V=0.85{R^{0.63}}{S^{0.54}}\]

Where, C = friction coefficient based on the type and the condition of sewer

R = hydraulic mean depth in metres

S = slope or hydraulic gradient

4.5.3 Size of sewers

The minimum size of a sewer depends upon the practice followed in the locality. Usually,
sewers of 10 cm diameter are allowed upto a maximum length of 6 m or so. But when the length
of sewer line exceeds about 6 m, a sewer of minimum diameter 15 cm is allowed. The smaller
the diameter of sewer, the greater will be the slope and hence, in order to take advantage of
available fall, sewers of large diameter are sometimes used.

The design of sewers should be made in such a way that it ends in sections of sewers which are
commercially available. The non-commercial sizes are difficult to obtain and they prove to be
costly. For sewers to be constructed on site of work, this problem does not arise.

There is no upper limit for the size of sewer. It is however submitted that it is desirable to lay
duplicate sewer line when sewer diameter exceeds about 3 m or so.
4.5.4 Time of concentration
This term is used in connection with the design of storm water drains. As the rain falls on the
ground, all the area to be served by the sewer does not start to contribute immediately to the flow
of sewer. But the flow is build-up gradually as follows:

 The area just near the sewer line will start contributing first and it will go on increasing as
more and more area starts to contribute.
 When the whole area is contributing to the flow of sewer, the maximum limit of flow will
be reached and it will be equal to the rate of precipitation of rain water.
 The maximum flow continues until the storm stops. The flow then gradually falls down
as the area near the sewer line stops contributing firstly, while flow continues to come for
considerable time from the distant areas.
The importance of time of concentration in the design of storm water sewers lies in the fact that
out of all the storms of equal frequency of occurrence, that storm which has duration equal to the
time of concentration, produces maximum flow in sewer.

4.6 Introduction to domestic waste water treatment

INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, we will learning on the basic processes involved in the treatment of domestic
waste water

The raw sewage must be treated before it is discharged into the river stream. The extent of
treatment required to be given depends not only upon the characteristics and quality of the
sewage but also upon the source of disposal, its quality and capacity to tolerate the impurities
present in the sewage effluents without itself getting potentially polluted.

The unit operations and processes commonly employed in domestic wastewater treatment, their
functions and units used to achieve these functions are as follows:

4.6.1 Screening

The main purpose of the installation of screens is to remove floating matter of comparatively
large size. If such materials are not removed, they will choke up the small pipes or affect
seriously the working of sewage pumps. Thus, the main idea of providing screens is to prevent
the pumps and other equipment from the possible damage due to floating matter of the sewage.
Screens should preferably be located just before grit chambers. If the quality of grit is of not
much importance, as in case of land filling, screens may even be placed after the grit
chambers. Screens are usually placed in an inclined position with an angle of about 30) to 60)
with the direction of flow. Screens are sometimes accommodated in the body of grit chambers.

4.6.2 Grit removal

Sewage contains both types of material, namely, organic and inorganic. The purpose of
providing grit chamber in the sewage treatment process is to remove grit, sand and such other
inorganic matter from sewage. To achieve this purpose, velocity of flow in grit chamber is
decreased to such an extent that the heavier inorganic materials settle down at bottom of grit
chamber and lighter organic materials are carried forward for further treatment.

In general, grit chambers are placed after pumping stations and before the screens. But, there is
no fixed rule regarding the location of grit chambers.

4.6.3 Primary Sedimentation

Sedimentation tanks are also known as settling tanks or clarifier and the overall features of these
tanks are more or less the same as for those tanks which are provided in water supply schemes.

Following are the objects of installing sedimentation tanks in sewage treatment works

 The process of sedimentation reduces the strength of sewage to the extent of about 30 to
35 per cent.

 Quantity of settleable solids in sewage is reduced to the extent of about 80 to 90 per cent.

 There is reduction in B.O.D. to the extent of about 30 to 35 per cent.

 Sewage after being treated in sedimentation tanks becomes fit for further treatment
processes.

4.6.4 Sedimentation process

When velocity of flow is decreased or when sewage is allowed to stand at rest, the suspended
particles carried by the sewage tend to settle at the bottom of tanks. Material collected at the
bottom of sedimentation tanks is knows as sludge and the partially treated sewage is known as
effluent. Sludge and effluent both require further additional treatment to make them
unobjectionable.

4.6.5 Aerobic biological suspended growth process

Its function is to convert the colloidal, dissolved and residual suspended organic matter into
settleable biofloc and stable inorganics. This can be achieved by activated sludge process, waste
stabilization ponds and aerated lagoons

4.6.6 Aerobic biological attached growth process

Its function is similar to that of the previous process, viz., aerobic biological suspended growth
process. This can be achieved by trickling filter and rotating biological contactor

4.6.7 Anaerobic biological growth processes

The purpose of this process is to convert organic matter into methane and carbondioxide and
relatively stable organic residues. Anaerobic filter, Fluid bed submerged media anaerobic
reactor, Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor, Anaerobic rotating biological contactor are
some of the treatment methods adopted for this process.