Winter and Summer Air Conditioning: Design Principles

Chapter 21
Winter and Summer

Air Conditioning
The purpose of any air-conditioning system is to control the conditions

within a space for the benefit of the persons, products, or process equipment
that may occupy that space. Air conditioning, in its modern sense, includes
the processes of heating and humidifying, as well as cooling and dehumidify-
ing. Besides thermodynamically controlling temperature and humidity, a
complete air-conditioning system should also be capable of controlling
contamination due to dust, odor, pollen, etc.
The principal methods discussed here all involve sufficiently treating a
quantity of air so that, when it is introduced into a room and mixed with the
air already there, the desired conditions are maintained. The thermodynamic
processes are of major interest in this chapter. Contaminant control is dis-
cussed in the chapter on ventilation.
Design Principles
Any analysis of the advantages of air conditioning ultimately leads to
economic considerations. Economic comparisons and judgments dictate the
choice between complete and partial air conditioning, as well as between
various systems or components. Commercial establishments often find that,
to attract customers, they must have both winter and summer air conditioning.
Similarly, some business establishments find ample economic justification for
complete air conditioning in increased efficiency, decreased absenteeism, etc.
Historically, air conditioning was first used in industry when the quality of the
product, the efficiency of the process, the life of the equipment, or all three,
demanded control of atmospheric conditions. Although the cost of a complete
air-conditioning system may be a large percentage of the total cost of the
building, the yearly cost compared to such annual operating expenses as
salaries, ranges from about 1% for office buildings to about 4% for schools.
There is considerable evidence that, for both office and factory workers,
efficiency gains of several times these values result from air conditioning.
Additional advantages accrue from reduced absenteeism and turnover; re-
duced cleaning, decorating, and maintenance costs; as well as from other
intangible benefits due to a more healthful and inviting atmosphere.
‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

21-2 FAN ENGINEERING
Fan systems range from those providing air simply for ventilation to those
providing air that is also conditioned to satisfy all the thermodynamic re-
quirements. All incorporate provisions to distribute air so as to absorb the
ventilation load, the thermodynamic load, or both. Individual units may be
placed in the spaces served or in central stations that serve several areas.
Various combinations of the two are often used. Direct radiation is also used
together with many air systems. The number of variations and combinations
is so great that only representative systems will be discussed here.
System components include various types of sensible- and latent-heat
transfer devices, filters, dampers, and other control equipment, as well as fans.
Various factory-built assemblies are available, as are individual components
for field erection.
Design Procedure
In general, owing to the large number of variables, each air-conditioning
job should be considered unique and, so, treated individually. However, it is
usually impractical to completely evaluate more than two or three alternative
systems for any given job. Engineering judgment based on experience, rather
than on detailed calculations, is usually used to eliminate all others.
Before actually designing an air-conditioning system, examine the avail-
ability and cost of various services, including fuels, electrical power, water,
sewers, and equipment space. The choice of heating and refrigeration plants
is beyond our scope here, but it does somewhat depend upon the air-
conditioning-system design, and vice versa. The factors that should be
considered include the advantages and disadvantages of (1) the various heat-
transfer media, (2) the various degrees of centralization, (3) the flexibility and
reliability of the equipment, and (4) the expense of installation and operation.
The usual design procedure involves establishing the various extreme
conditions in order to select equipment capable of satisfactory full-load
operation. In doing so, however, be careful to safeguard against over-
conditioning during part-load operation. Zoning, design conditions, loads,
systems, and equipment are all discussed in considering the details of this
procedure.
Zoning
The probability of achieving completely satisfactory air-conditioning
increases rapidly as the size of the space and the number of occupants de-
crease. But, the relative cost of the installation also increases. Although
individual room control has always been desirable, it has become common
only recently.
Some fan systems have been designed for multiple-zone applications.
Others must be applied as individual systems to the individual zones. The
choice should depend on an evaluation of costs.

CHAPTER 21 - WINTER AND SUMMER AIR CONDITIONING 21-3
Several criteria are used to establish zones of substantially uniform air-

conditioning requirements. Generally speaking, these criteria are based on
similarities of occupancy, exposure, or construction. Their basis is the load-
influencing effect of each. The choice of a particular criterion or a combina-
tion of criteria should reflect the magnitude of this influence. It is obvious,
for instance, that equipment producing large amounts of heat should be placed
in an area different from that used for a sales room or for general offices. In
fact, it is often desirable to separately zone the last two mentioned spaces.
Briefly then, separate zones are indicated wherever there is enough difference
in either the duration or the density of occupancy or in the type of activity
there.
The sun and wind produce different load requirements in different areas of
a building, depending on the exposure. Although clouds may sometimes hide
the sun and winds may change direction, both the sun and the wind can often
produce effects that would make it advisable to zone one section of a building
differently from another. Both effects can be modified by the influence of
surrounding buildings or other structures.
An experienced designer may often be able to intelligently zone a small
building by simply noting how the spaces are used and which areas are
exposed to the weather. However, a more detailed analysis of the individual
loads involved, taken in various trial combinations for various times during
the day, is usually in order. The number of occupants, the times of peak
occupancy, the amount of glass, and the degree of shading are frequently
controlling factors.
Large buildings are often divided into two major zones, one of which, the
"interior," has no outside exposure, and the other, or "exterior," which in-
cludes the periphery and topmost story. Tall buildings may be further zoned
by grouping several stories together. These items constitute criteria based on
construction.
Whenever central fan systems are used, especially for multi-story build-
ings, compound zoning may be warranted. That is, it may be advisable to
provide more than one central system (each capable of multi-zone operation)
in order to satisfy the individual requirements of the various spaces on a
particular exposure, etc. A single refrigeration/heating plant may serve
several central fan systems or several individual fan systems. There may also
be times when it will be desirable to zone the refrigeration/heating-plant
system as well. A wise engineering choice requires a complete economic
evaluation.

Design Conditions
In the chapter on ventilation, the effects on comfort of temperature,
humidity, air motion, and radiation were discussed at length. The designer
should choose the combination of these factors that will produce the optimum
conditions for the space considered. Research studies show that the optimum
effective temperatures are 71°F in summer and 68°F in winter, but some
factors not included in these studies should also be considered before estab-
lishing indoor design conditions.
The seasonal difference results partly from acclimatization and partly
from a difference in attire. Any great variation in clothing habits would
change the optimum conditions. The effective temperature of various combi-
nations of temperature, humidity, and velocity is arbitrarily defined as that
saturated air temperature which produces the same sensory effect. However,
using saturated air is certainly not recommended. As a matter of fact, effec-
tive-temperature research has been conducted chiefly in the middle relative-
humidity range.
The two effective-temperature charts presented in the previous chapter list
differences in activity and clothing. Also, women generally prefer a 1°F
higher effective temperature than men, and similarly, persons over 40 prefer a
1°F higher effective temperature than those under 40.
The studies of effective temperature were conducted in rooms where the
surrounding surfaces were approximately at the temperature of the air. Any
difference in wall temperature or, for that matter, in surrounding temperature
due to crowds, etc. should be taken into account.
Indoor winter dry-bulb temperatures of 70°F are usually specified for
those spaces occupied by sedentary adults. Temperatures of around 65°F are
usually specified for factory spaces and 60°F or lower for gymnasiums and
such. Temperatures above 70°F may be specified for some special-purpose
hospital rooms, etc. However, it is not at all unusual to maintain a thermostat
setting at a temperature much different from the specified indoor design. It
should be expected, based on the effective-temperature index, that thermostats
will be set as high as 75°F when there is no humidity control during winter.
During summer, when complete air conditioning is provided, controls are
usually set to maintain conditions at 75°F dry-bulb and 50% relative humid-
ity. It is usual, however, to design for somewhat higher dry-bulb tempera-
tures. Conditions can then be maintained at the lower thermostatic setting
only to the point where the equipment must operate continuously. Beyond
this point, temperatures will exceed the thermostat setting. Table 21.1 lists
some pertinent information about indoor design conditions.

Table 21.1 Indoor Design Conditions
Conditions ET,°F DB,°F RH,% AV, fpm

Optimum winter conditions 68 73 42 25
Optimum summer conditions 71 76 51 25
Common winter conditions 68 76 25 -
Usual winter design - practical applications 66 70 50 -
Usual summer design - practical applications 74 80 51 -
Common summer design - short occupancy 75 82 49 -
- ample peak capacity 72 78 50 -
Corrections:
Sex - Women prefer 1.0° ET higher than men.
Age - Over-40 group prefer 1.0° ET higher than under-40 group.
Activity - Factories 60-65°, gymnasium 55-60° usual winter DB.
Location - Add 1.0° ET for each 5° latitude below 40° latitude.
Clothing - Seasonal variation above reflects mainly clothing differences.
Adapted from the data of W. Bruce: "Man and His Thermal Environment," a report to the
Division of Building Research, National Research Council of Canada, 1953.
Table 21.2 lists winter and summer design temperatures for various places
throughout the world. The outdoor design temperatures listed are not highs or
lows that have been recorded but statistical quantities as explained in the
notes. More extreme temperatures can be expected during a normal winter or
summer. Based on 2160 hours in the three winter months, there will be about
22 hours at or below the 99% value and 54 hours at or below the 97-1/2%
value. Based on 2928 hours in the four summer months, there will be
approximately 30, 75, and 150 hours at or above the 1%, 2-1/2%, and 5%
values, respectively. Without compensating factors, equipment selected for
these design values will not maintain indoor design conditions under more
extreme conditions.
When selecting outdoor design conditions, consider the consequences of
underconditioning and factors such as the heat capacity of the structure, the
hours of occupancy, and the kind of occupants. ASHRAE suggests using the
"low" value if the structure has low heat capacity, if it is uninsulated, or if it is
occupied during the coldest part of the day. The "99%" value might be used
for structures with moderate heat capacity, some internal load, and daytime
occupancy. The "97-1/2%" value can often be used for massive institutional
buildings with little glass.
Summer design conditions can be adjusted to give the approximate 1%, 2-
1/2%, or 5% level for the hottest season in 10 or 50 years by adding the
difference between the 5% and 2-1/2% levels or the 5% and 1% levels,
respectively. For example, the 2-1/2% levels for Buffalo, N.Y. for the hottest
season in 50 years would be 86 + (88 - 83), or 91 dry-bulb and 71 + (72 - 70),
or 73 wet-bulb. (continued on page 21-33)
© 1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

Table 2l.2 Winter and Summer Design Temperatures in °F
Station Winter3 Summer4

City or Elev.2 Dry-Bulb Dry-Bulb Wet-Bulb
Airport1 ft. Low 99 97½ 1% 2½% 5% 1% 2½% 5%
UNITED STATES 0F AMERICA
Alabama
Alexander City 660 12 16 20 96 94 93 79 78 77
Anniston AP 599 12 17 19 96 94 93 79 78 77
Auburn 730 17 21 25 98 96 95 80 79 78
Birmingham AP 610 14 19 22 97 94 93 79 78 77
Decatur 580 10 15 19 97 95 94 79 78 77
Dothan AP 321 19 23 27 97 95 94 81 80 79
Florence AP 528 8 13 17 97 95 94 79 78 77
Gadsden 570 11 16 20 96 94 93 78 77 76
Huntsville AP 619 8 13 17 97 95 94 78 77 76
Mobile AP 211 21 26 29 95 93 91 80 79 79
Mobile CO 119 24 28 32 96 94 93 80 79 79
Montgomery AP 195 18 22 26 98 95 93 80 79 78
Selma-Craig AFB 207 18 23 27 98 96 94 81 80 79
Talladega 565 11 15 19 97 95 94 79 78 77
Tuscaloosa AP 170 14 19 23 98 96 95 81 80 79
Alaska
Anchorage AP 90 -29 -25 -20 73 70 67 63 61 59
Barrow 22 -49 -45 -42 58 54 60 54 51 48
Fairbanks AP 436 -59 -53 -50 82 78 75 64 63 61
Juneau AP 17 -11 -7 -4 75 71 68 66 64 62
Kodiak 21 4 8 12 71 66 63 62 60 58
Nome AP 13 -37 -32 -28 66 62 59 58 56 54
Arizona
Douglas Ap 4098 13 18 22 100 98 96 70 69 68
Flagstaff AP 6973 -10 0 5 84 82 80 61 60 59
Fort Huachuca AP 4664 18 25 28 95 93 91 69 68 67
Kingman AP 3446 18 25 29 103 100 97 70 69 69
Nogales 3800 15 20 24 100 98 96 72 71 70
Phoenix AP 1117 25 31 34 108 106 104 77 76 75
Prescott AP 5014 7 15 19 96 94 91 67 66 65
Tucson AP 2584 23 29 32 105 102 100 74 73 72
Winslow AP 4880 2 9 13 97 95 92 66 65 64
Yuma AP 199 32 37 40 111 109 107 79 78 77
Arkansas
Blytheville AFB 264 6 12 17 98 96 93 80 79 78
Camden 116 13 19 23 99 97 96 81 80 79
El Dorado AP 252 13 19 23 98 96 95 81 80 79
Fayetteville AP 1253 3 9 13 97 95 93 77 76 75
Fort Smith AP 449 9 15 19 101 99 96 79 78 77
Hot Springs N. Pk. 710 12 18 22 99 97 96 79 78 77
Jonesboro 345 8 14 18 98 96 95 80 79 78
Little Rock AP 257 13 19 23 99 96 94 80 79 78
Pine Bluff AP 204 14 20 24 99 96 95 81 80 79
Texarkana AP 361 16 22 26 99 97 96 80 79 78
California
Bakersfield AP 495 26 31 33 103 101 99 72 71 70
Barstow AP 2142 18 24 28 104 102 99 73 72 71
See footnotes at end of table.


Airport1 ft. Low 99 97½ 1% 2½% 5% 1% 2½% 5%
California (cont.)
Blythe AP 390 26 31 35 111 109 106 78 77 76
Burbank AP 699 30 36 38 97 94 91 72 70 69
Chico 205 23 29 33 102 100 97 71 70 69
Concord 195 27 32 36 96 92 88 69 67 66
Covina 575 32 38 41 100 97 94 73 72 71
Crescent City AP 50 28 33 36 72 69 65 61 60 59i
Downey 116 30 36 38 93 90 87 72 71 70
El Cajon 525 26 31 34 98 95 92 74 73 72
El Centro AP -30 26 31 35 111 109 106 81 80 79
Escondido 660 28 33 36 95 92 89 73 72 71
Eureka/Arcata AP 217 27 32 35 67 65 63 60 59 58
Fairfield-Travis AFB 72 26 32 34 98 94 90 71 69 67
Fresno AP 326 25 28 31 101 99 97 73 72 71
Hamilton AFB 3 28 33 35 89 85 81 71 68 66
Laguna Beach 35 32 37 39 83 80 77 69 68 67
Livermore 545 23 28 30 99 97 94 70 69 68
Lompoc, Vand. AFB 552 32 36 38 82 79 76 65 63 61
Long Beach AP 34 31 36 38 87 84 81 72 70 69
Los Angeles AP 99 36 41 43 86 83 80 69 68 67
Los Angeles CO 312 38 42 44 94 90 87 72 70 69
Merced-Castle AFB 178 24 30 32 102 99 96 73 72 70
Modesto 91 26 32 36 101 98 96 72 71 70
Monterey 38 29 34 37 82 79 76 64 63 61
Napa 16 26 31 34 94 92 89 69 68 67
Needles AP 913 27 33 37 112 110 107 76 75 74
Oakland AP 3 30 35 37 85 81 77 65 63 62
Oceanside 30 33 38 40 84 81 78 69 68 67
Ontario 995 26 32 34 100 97 94 72 71 70
Oxnard AFB 43 32 35 37 84 80 78 70 69 67
Palmdale AP 2517 18 24 27 103 101 98 70 68 67
PalmSprings 411 27 32 36 110 108 105 79 78 77
Pasadena 864 31 36 39 96 93 90 72 70 69
Petaluma 27 24 29 32 94 90 87 70 68 67
Pomona CO 871 26 31 34 99 96 93 73 72 71
Redding AP 495 25 31 35 103 101 98 70 69 67
Redlands 1318 28 34 37 99 96 93 72 71 70
Richmond 56 28 35 38 85 81 77 66 64 63
Riverside-March AFB 1511 26 32 34 99 96 94 72 71 69
Sacramento AP 17 24 30 32 100 97 94 72 70 69
Salinas AP 74 27 32 35 87 85 82 67 65 64
San Bernardino, N. AFB 1125 26 31 33 101 98 96 75 73 71
San Diego AP 19 38 42 44 86 83 80 71 70 68
SanFernando 977 29 34 37 100 97 94 73 72 71
San Francisco AP 8 32 35 37 83 79 75 65 63 62
San Francisco CO 52 38 42 44 80 77 73 64 62 61
San Jose AP 70 30 34 36 90 88 85 69 67 65
San Luis Obispo 315 30 35 37 89 85 82 65 64 63
Santa Ana AP 115 28 33 36 92 89 86 72 71 70


Airport1 ft. Low 99 97½ 1% 2½% 5% 1% 2½% 5%
California (cont.)
Santa Barbara CO 100 30 34 36 87 84 81 67 66 65
Santa Cruz 125 28 32 34 87 84 80 66 65 63
Santa Maria AP 238 28 32 34 85 82 79 65 64 63
Santa Monica CO 57 38 43 45 80 77 74 69 68 67
Santa Paula 263 28 33 36 91 89 86 72 71 70
Santa Rosa 167 24 29 32 95 93 90 70 68 67
Stockton AP 28 25 30 34 101 98 96 72 70 69
Ukiah 620 22 27 30 98 96 93 70 69 67
Visalia 354 26 32 36 102 100 97 73 72 70
Yreka 2625 7 13 17 96 94 91 68 66 65
Yuba City 70 24 30 34 102 100 97 71 70 69
Colorado
Alamosa AP 7536 -26 -17 -13 84 82 79 62 61 60
Boulder 5385 -5 4 8 92 90 87 64 63 62
Colorado Springs AP 6173 -9 -1 4 90 88 86 63 62 61
Denver AP 5283 -9 -2 3 92 90 89 65 64 63
Durango 6550 -10 0 4 88 86 83 64 63 62
Fort Collins 5001 -18 -9 -5 91 89 86 63 62 61
Grand Junction AP 4849 -2 8 11 96 94 92 64 63 62
Greeley 4648 -18 -9 -5 94 92 89 65 64 63
La Junta AP 4188 -14 -6 -2 97 95 93 72 71 69
Leadville 10177 -18 -9 -4 76 73 70 56 55 54
Pueblo AP 4639 -14 -5 -1 96 94 92 68 67 66
Sterling 3939 -15 -6 -2 95 93 90 67 66 65
Trinidad AP 5746 -9 1 5 93 91 89 66 65 64
Connecticut
Bridgeport AP 7 -1 4 8 90 88 85 77 76 75
Hartford, Brainard Fld. 15 -4 1 5 90 88 85 77 76 74
New Haven AP 6 0 5 9 88 86 83 77 76 75
New London 60 0 4 8 89 86 83 77 75 74
Norwalk 37 -5 0 4 91 89 86 77 76 75
Norwich 20 -7 -2 2 88 86 83 77 76 75
Waterbury 605 -5 0 4 90 88 85 77 76 75
Windsor Locks, Br. Fld. 169 -7 -2 2 90 88 85 76 75 73
Delaware
Dover AFB 38 8 13 15 93 90 88 79 78 77
Wilmington AP 78 6 12 15 93 90 87 79 77 76
District of Columbia
Andrews AFB 279 9 13 16 94 91 88 79 77 76
Washington Nat. AP 14 12 16 19 94 92 90 78 77 76
Florida
Belle Glade 16 31 35 39 93 91 90 80 79 79
Cape Kennedy AP 16 33 37 40 90 89 88 81 80 79
Daytona Beach AP 31 28 32 36 94 92 91 81 80 79
Fort Lauderdale 13 37 41 45 91 90 89 81 80 79
Fort Myers AP 13 34 38 42 94 92 91 80 80 79
Fort Pierce 10 33 37 41 93 91 90 81 80 79
Gainesvil]e AP 155 24 28 32 96 94 93 80 79 79


Airport1 ft. Low 99 97½ 1% 2½% 5% 1% 2½% 5%
Florida (cont.)
Jacksonville AP 24 26 29 32 96 94 92 80 79 79
Key West AP 6 50 55 58 90 89 88 80 79 79
Lakeland CO 214 31 35 39 95 93 91 80 79 78
Miami AP 7 39 44 47 92 90 89 80 79 79
Miami Beach CO 9 40 45 48 91 89 88 80 79 79
Ocala 86 25 29 33 96 94 93 80 79 79
Oriando AP 106 29 33 37 96 94 93 80 79 78
Panama City, Tyn.AFB 22 28 32 35 92 91 90 81 80 80
Pensacola CO 13 25 29 32 92 90 89 82 81 80
St. Augustine 15 27 31 35 94 92 90 81 80 79
St. Petersburg 35 35 39 42 93 91 90 81 80 79
Sanford 14 29 33 37 95 93 92 80 79 79
Sarasota 30 31 35 39 93 91 90 80 80 79
Tallahassee AP 58 21 25 29 96 94 93 80 79 79
Tampa AP 19 32 36 39 92 91 90 81 80 79
West Palm Beach AP 15 36 40 44 92 91 89 81 80 80
Georgia
Albany, Turner AFB 224 21 26 30 98 96 94 80 79 78
Americus 476 18 22 25 98 96 93 80 79 78
Athens 700 12 17 21 96 94 91 78 77 76
Atlanta AP 1005 14 18 23 95 92 90 78 77 76
Augusta AP 143 17 20 23 98 95 93 80 79 78
Brunswick 14 24 27 31 97 95 92 81 80 79
Columbus, Lawson AFB 242 19 23 26 98 96 94 80 79 78
Dalton 720 10 15 19 97 95 92 78 77 76
Dublin 215 17 21 25 98 96 93 80 79 78
Gainesville 1254 11 16 20 94 92 89 78 77 76
Griffin 980 13 17 22 95 93 90 79 78 77
La Grange 715 12 16 20 96 94 92 79 78 77
Macon AP 356 18 23 27 98 96 94 80 79 78
Marietta, Dobbins AFB 1016 12 17 21 95 93 91 78 77 76
Moultrie 340 22 26 30 97 95 93 80 79 78
Rome AP 637 11 16 20 97 95 93 78 77 76
Savannah-Travis AP 52 21 24 27 96 94 92 81 80 79
Valdosta-Moody AFB 239 24 28 31 96 94 92 80 79 78
Waycross 140 20 24 28 97 95 93 80 79 78
Hawaii
Hilo AP 31 56 59 61 85 83 82 74 73 72
Honolulu AP 7 58 60 62 87 85 84 75 74 73
Kaneohe 198 58 60 61 85 83 82 74 73 73
Wahiawa 215 57 59 61 86 84 83 75 74 73
Idaho
Boise AP 2842 0 4 10 96 93 91 68 66 65
Burley 4180 -5 4 8 95 93 89 68 66 64
Coeur D'Alene AP 2973 -4 2 7 94 91 88 66 65 63
Idaho Falls AP 4730 -17 -12 -6 91 88 85 65 64 62
Lewiston AP 1413 1 6 12 98 96 93 67 66 65
Moscow 2660 -11 -3 1 91 89 86 64 63 61


Airport1 ft. Low 99 97½ 1% 2½% 5% 1% 2½% 5%
Idaho (cont.)
Mountain Home AFB 2992 -3 2 9 99 96 93 68 66 64
Pocatello AP 4444 -12 -8 -2 94 91 88 65 63 62
Twin Falls AP 4148 -5 4 8 96 94 91 66 64 63
Illinois
Aurora 744 -13 -7 -3 93 91 88 78 77 75
Belleville, Scott AFB 447 0 6 10 97 95 92 79 78 77
Bloomington 775 -7 -1 3 94 92 89 79 78 77
Carbondale 380 1 7 11 98 96 94 80 79 78
Champaign/Urbana 743 -6 0 4 96 94 91 79 78 77
Chicago, Midway AP 610 -7 -4 1 95 92 89 78 76 75
Chicago, O'Hare AP 658 -9 -4 0 93 90 87 77 75 74
Chicago, CO 594 -5 -3 1 94 91 88 78 76 75
Danville 558 -6 -1 4 96 94 91 79 78 76
Decatur 670 -6 0 4 96 93 91 79 78 77
Dixon 696 -13 -7 -3 93 91 89 78 77 76
Elgin 820 -14 -8 -4 92 90 87 78 76 75
Freeport 780 -16 -10 -6 92 90 87 78 77 75
Galesburg 771 -10 -4 0 95 92 89 79 78 76
Greenville 563 -3 3 7 96 94 92 79 78 77
Joliet AP 588 -11 -5 -1 94 92 89 78 77 75
Kankakee 625 -10 -4 1 94 92 89 78 77 76
La Salle/Peru 520 -9 -3 1 94 93 90 78 77 76
Macomb 702 -5 -3 1 95 93 90 79 78 77
Moline AP 582 -12 -7 -3 94 91 88 79 77 76
Mt. Vernon 500 0 6 10 97 95 92 79 78 77
Peoria AP 652 -8 -2 2 94 92 89 78 77 76
Quincy AP 762 -8 -2 2 97 95 92 80 79 77
Rantoul, Chanute AFB 740 -7 -1 3 94 92 89 78 77 76
Rockford 724 -13 -7 -3 92 90 87 77 76 75
Springfield AP 587 -7 -1 4 95 92 90 79 78 77
Waukegan 680 -11 -5 -1 92 90 87 77 76 75
Indiana
Anderson 847 -5 0 5 93 91 88 78 77 76
Bedford 670 -3 3 7 95 93 90 79 78 77
Bloomington 820 -3 3 7 95 92 90 79 78 76
Columbus, Baka. AFB 661 -3 3 7 95 92 90 79 78 76
Crawfordsville 752 -8 -2 2 95 93 90 79 77 76
Evansville AP 381 1 6 10 96 94 91 79 78 77
Fort Wayne AP 791 -5 0 5 93 91 88 77 76 75
Goshen AP 823 -10 -4 0 92 90 87 77 76 74
Hobart 600 -10 -4 0 93 91 88 78 76 75
Huntington 802 -8 -2 2 94 92 89 78 76 75
lndianapolis AP 793 -5 0 4 93 91 88 78 77 76
Jeffersonville 455 3 9 13 96 94 91 79 78 77
Kokomo 790 -6 0 4 94 92 89 78 76 75
Lafayette 600 -7 -1 3 94 92 89 78 77 76
La Porte 810 -10 -4 0 93 91 88 77 76 74
Marion 791 -8 -2 2 93 91 88 78 76 75


Airport1 ft. Low 99 97½ 1% 2½% 5% 1% 2½% 5%
Indiana (cont.)
Muncie 955 -8 -2 2 93 91 88 78 77 75
Peru, Bunk.Hill AFB 804 -9 -3 1 91 89 86 77 76 74
Richmond AP 1138 -7 -1 3 93 91 88 78 77 75
Shelbyville 765 -4 2 6 94 92 89 78 77 76
SouthBend AP 773 -6 -2 3 92 89 87 77 76 74
Terre Haute AP 601 -3 3 7 95 93 91 79 78 77
Valparaiso 801 -12 -6 -2 92 90 87 78 76 75
Vincennes 420 -1 5 9 96 94 91 79 78 77
Iowa
Ames 1004 -17 -11 -7 94 92 89 79 78 76
Burlington AP 694 -10 -4 0 95 92 89 80 78 77
Cedar Rapids AP 863 -14 -8 -4 92 90 87 78 76 75
Clinton 595 -13 -7 -3 92 90 87 78 77 76
Council Bluffs 1210 -14 -7 -3 97 94 91 79 78 76
Des Moines AP 948 -13 -7 -3 95 92 89 79 77 76
Dubuque 1065 -17 -11 -7 92 90 87 78 76 75
Fort Dodge 1111 -18 -12 -8 94 92 89 78 77 75
Iowa City 645 -14 -8 -4 94 91 88 79 77 76
Keokuk 526 -9 -3 1 95 93 90 79 78 77
Marshalltown 898 -16 -10 -6 93 91 88 79 77 76
Mason City AP 1194 -20 -13 -9 91 88 85 77 75 74
Newton 946 -15 -9 -5 95 93 90 79 77 76
Offumwa AP 842 -12 -6 -2 95 93 90 79 78 76
Sioux City AP 1095 -17 -10 -6 96 93 90 79 77 76
Waterloo 868 -18 -12 -8 91 89 86 78 76 75
Kansas
Atchison 945 -9 -2 2 97 95 92 79 78 77
Chanute AP 977 -3 3 7 99 97 95 79 78 77
Dodge City AP 2594 -5 3 7 99 97 95 74 73 72
El Dorado 1282 -3 4 8 101 99 96 78 77 76
Emporia 1209 -4 3 7 99 97 94 78 77 76
Garden City AP 2882 -10 -1 3 100 98 96 74 73 72
Goodland AP 3645 -10 -2 4 99 96 93 71 70 69
GreatBend 1940 -5 2 6 101 99 96 77 76 75
Hutchinson AP 1524 -5 2 6 101 99 96 77 76 75
Liberal 2838 -4 4 8 102 100 99 74 73 71
Manhattan, Ft.Riley 1076 -7 -1 4 101 98 95 79 78 77
Parsons 908 -2 5 9 99 97 94 79 78 77
Russell AP 1864 -7 0 4 102 100 97 78 76 75
Salina 1271 -4 3 7 101 99 96 78 76 75
Topeka AP 877 -4 3 6 99 96 94 79 78 77
Wichita AP 1321 -1 5 9 102 99 96 77 76 75
Kentucky
Ashland 551 1 6 10 94 92 89 77 76 75
Bowling Green AP 535 1 7 11 97 95 93 79 78 77
Corbin AP 1175 0 5 9 93 91 89 79 77 76
Covington AP 869 -3 3 8 93 90 88 77 76 75
Hop'ville, Cam. AFB 540 4 10 14 97 95 92 79 78 77


Airport1 ft. Low 99 97½ 1% 2½% 5% 1% 2½% 5%
Kentucky (cont.)
Lexington AP 979 0 6 10 94 92 90 78 77 76
Louisville AP 474 1 8 12 96 93 91 79 71 77
Madisonville 439 1 7 11 96 94 92 79 78 77
Owensboro 420 0 6 10 96 94 92 79 78 77
Paducah AP 398 4 10 14 97 95 94 80 79 78
Louisiana
Alexandria AP 92 20 25 29 97 95 94 80 80 79
Baton Rouge AP 64 22 25 30 96 94 92 81 80 79
Bogalusa 103 20 24 28 96 94 93 80 79 78
Houma 13 25 29 33 94 92 91 81 80 79
Lafayette AP 38 23 28 32 95 93 92 81 81 80
Lake Charles AP 14 25 29 33 95 93 91 80 79 79
Minden 250 17 22 26 98 96 95 81 80 79
Monroe 78 18 23 27 98 96 95 81 81 80
Natchitoches 120 17 22 26 99 97 96 81 80 79
New Orleans AP 3 29 32 35 93 91 90 81 80 79
Shreveport AP 252 18 22 26 99 96 94 81 80 79
Maine
Augusta AP 350 -13 -7 -3 88 86 83 74 73 71
Bangor, Dow AFB 162 -14 -8 -4 88 85 81 75 73 71
Caribou AP 624 -24 -18 -14 85 81 78 72 70 68
Lewiston 182 -14 -8 -4 88 86 83 74 73 71
Millinocket AP 405 -22 -16 -12 87 85 82 74 72 70
Portland AP 61 -14 -5 0 88 85 81 75 73 71
Waterville 89 -15 -9 -5 88 86 82 74 73 71
Maryland
Baltimore AP 146 8 12 15 94 91 89 79 78 77
Baltimore CO 14 12 16 20 94 92 89 79 78 77
Cumberland 945 0 5 9 94 92 89 76 75 74
Frederick AP 294 2 7 11 94 92 89 78 77 76
Hagerstown 660 1 6 10 94 92 89 77 76 75
Salisbury 52 10 14 18 92 90 87 79 78 77
Massachusetts
Boston AP 15 -1 6 10 91 88 85 76 74 73
Clinton 398 -8 -2 2 87 85 82 75 74 72
Fall River 190 -1 5 9 88 86 83 75 74 73
Framingham 170 -7 -1 3 91 89 86 76 74 73
Gloucester 10 -4 2 6 86 84 81 74 73 72
Greenfield 205 -12 -6 -2 89 87 84 75 74 73
Lawrence 57 -9 -3 1 90 88 85 76 74 72
Lowell 90 -7 -1 3 91 89 86 76 74 72
New Bedford 70 3 9 13 86 84 81 75 73 72
Pittsfield AP 1170 -11 -5 -1 86 84 81 74 72 71
Sp'field, West. AFB 247 -8 -3 2 91 88 85 76 74 73
Taunton 20 -9 -4 0 88 86 83 76 75 74
Worcester AP 986 -8 -3 1 89 87 84 75 73 71
Michigan
Adrian 754 -6 0 4 93 91 88 76 75 74


Airport1 ft. Low 99 97½ 1% 2½% 5% 1% 2½% 5%
Michigan (cont.)
Alpena AP 689 -11 -5 -1 87 85 82 74 73 71
Battle Creek AP 939 -6 1 5 92 89 86 76 74 73
Benton Harbor AP 649 -7 -1 3 90 88 85 76 74 73
Detroit Met. CAP 633 0 4 8 92 88 85 76 75 74
Escanaba 594 -13 -7 -3 82 80 77 73 71 69
Flint AP 766 -7 -1 3 89 87 84 76 75 74
Grand Rapids AP 681 -3 2 6 91 89 86 76 74 73
Holland 612 -4 2 6 90 88 85 ,7 67 73
Jackson AP 1003 -6 0 4 92 89 86 76 75 74
Kalamazoo 930 -5 1 5 92 89 86 76 75 74
Lansing AP 852 -4 2 6 89 87 84 76 75 73
Marquette CO 677 -14 -8 -4 88 86 83 73 71 69
Mt. Pleasant 796 -9 -3 1 89 87 84 75 74 73
Muskegon AP 627 -2 4 8 87 85 82 75 74 73
Pontiac 974 -6 0 4 90 88 85 76 75 73
Port Huron 586 -6 -1 3 90 88 85 76 74 73
Saginaw AP 662 -7 -1 3 88 86 83 76 75 73
Sault Ste. Marie AP 721 -18 -12 -8 83 81 78 73 71 69
Traverse City AP 618 -6 0 4 89 86 83 75 73 72
Ypsilanti 777 -3 -1 5 92 89 86 76 74 73
Minnesota
Albert Lea 1235 -20 -14 -10 91 89 86 77 76 74
Alexandria AP 1421 -26 -19 -15 90 88 85 76 74 72
Bemidji AP 1392 -38 -32 -28 87 84 81 73 72 71
Brainerd 1214 -31 -24 -20 88 85 82 74 73 72
Duluth AP 1426 -25 -19 -15 85 82 79 73 71 69
Fairbault 1190 -23 -16 -12 90 88 85 77 75 74
Fergus Falls 1210 -28 -21 -17 92 89 86 75 74 72
International Falls AP 1179 -35 -29 -24 86 82 79 72 69 68
Mankato 785 -23 -16 -12 91 89 86 77 75 74
Minn./St.Paul AP 822 -19 -14 -10 92 89 86 77 75 74
Rochester AP 1297 -23 -17 -13 90 88 85 77 75 74
St. Cloud AP 1034 -26 -20 -16 90 88 85 77 75 73
Virginia 1435 -32 -25 -21 86 83 80 73 71 69
Willmar 1133 -25 -18 -14 91 88 85 77 75 73
Winona 652 -19 -12 -8 91 89 86 77 76 74
Mississippi
Biloxi, Kessler AFB 25 26 30 32 93 92 90 82 81 80
Clarksdale 178 14 20 24 98 96 95 81 80 79
Columbus AFB 224 13 18 22 97 95 93 79 79 78
Greenville AFB 139 16 21 24 98 96 94 81 80 79
Greenwood 128 14 19 23 98 96 94 81 80 79
Hattiesburg 200 18 22 26 97 95 94 80 79 78
Jackson AP 330 17 21 24 98 96 94 79 78 78
Laurel 264 18 22 26 97 95 94 80 79 78
McComb AP 458 18 22 26 96 94 93 80 79 79
Meridian AP 294 15 20 24 97 95 94 80 79 78
Natchez 168 18 22 26 96 94 93 80 80 79


Airport1 ft. Low 99 97½ 1% 2½% 5% 1% 2½% 5%
Mississippi (cont.)
Tupelo 289 13 18 22 98 96 95 80 79 78
Vicksburg CO 234 18 23 26 97 95 94 80 80 79
Missouri
Cape Girardeau 330 2 8 12 98 96 94 80 79 78
Columbia AP 778 -4 2 6 97 95 92 79 78 77
Farmington AP 928 -2 4 8 97 95 93 79 78 77
Hannibal 489 -7 -1 4 96 94 91 79 78 77
Jefferson City 640 -4 2 6 97 95 93 79 78 77
Joplin AP 982 1 7 11 97 95 93 79 78 77
Kansas City AP 742 -2 4 8 100 97 94 79 77 76
Kirksville AP 966 -13 -7 -3 96 94 91 79 78 77
Mexico 775 -7 -1 3 96 94 91 79 78 77
Moberly 850 -8 -2 2 96 94 91 79 78 77
Poplar Bluff 322 3 9 13 98 96 94 80 79 78
Rolla 1202 -3 3 7 97 95 93 79 78 77
St.Joseph AP 809 -8 -1 3 97 95 92 79 78 77
St.Louis AP 535 -2 4 8 98 95 92 79 78 77
St.Louis CO 465 1 7 11 96 94 92 79 78 77
Sedalia, Whitem. AFB 838 -2 4 9 97 94 92 79 77 76
Sikeston 318 4 10 14 98 96 94 80 79 78
Springfield AP 1265 0 5 10 97 94 91 78 77 76
Montana
Billings AP 3567 -19 -10 -6 94 91 88 68 66 65
Bozeman 4856 -25 -15 -11 88 85 82 61 60 59
Butte AP 5526 -34 -24 -16 86 83 80 60 59 57
Cut Bank AP 3838 -32 -23 -17 89 86 82 65 63 61
Glasgow AP 2277 -33 -25 -20 96 93 89 69 67 65
Glendive 2076 -28 -20 -16 96 93 90 71 69 68
Great Falls AP 3664 -29 -20 -16 91 88 85 64 63 61
Havre 2488 -32 -22 -15 91 87 84 66 64 63
Helena AP 3893 -27 -17 -13 90 87 84 65 63 61
Kalispell AP 2965 -17 -7 -3 88 84 81 65 63 62
Lewiston AP 4132 -27 -18 -14 89 86 83 65 63 62
Livingston AP 4653 -26 -17 -13 91 88 85 63 62 61
Miles City AP 2629 -27 -19 -15 97 94 91 71 69 68
Missoula AP 3200 -16 -7 -3 92 89 86 65 63 61
Nebraska
Beatrice 1235 -10 -3 1 99 97 94 78 77 76
Chadron AP 3300 -21 -13 -9 97 95 92 72 70 69
Columbus 1442 -14 -7 -3 98 96 93 78 76 75
Fremont 1203 -14 -7 -3 99 97 94 78 77 76
Grand Island AP 1841 -14 -6 -2 98 95 92 76 75 74
Hastings 1932 -11 -3 1 98 96 94 77 75 74
Kearney 2146 -14 -6 -2 97 95 92 76 75 74
Lincoln CO 1150 -10 -4 0 100 96 93 78 77 76
McCook 2565 -12 -4 0 99 97 94 74 72 71
Norfolk 1532 -18 -11 -7 97 95 92 78 76 75
North Platte AP 2779 -13 -6 -2 97 94 90 74 73 72


Airport1 ft. Low 99 97½ 1% 2½% 5% 1% 2½% 5%
Nebraska (cont.)
Omaha AP 978 -12 -5 -1 97 94 91 79 78 76
Scottsbluff AP 3950 -16 -8 -4 96 94 91 70 69 67
Sidney AP 4292 -15 -7 -2 95 92 89 70 69 67
Nevada
Carson City 4675 -4 3 7 93 91 88 62 61 60
Elko AP 5075 -21 -13 -7 94 92 90 64 62 61
Ely AP 6257 -15 -6 -2 90 88 86 60 59 58
Las Vegas AP 2162 18 23 26 108 106 104 72 71 70
Lovelock AP 3900 0 7 11 98 96 93 65 64 62
Reno AP 4404 -2 2 7 95 92 90 64 62 61
Reno CO 4490 8 12 17 94 92 89 64 62 61
Tonopah AP 5426 2 9 13 95 92 90 64 63 62
Winnemucca AP 4299 -8 1 5 97 95 93 64 62 61
New Hampshire
Berlin 1110 -25 -19 -15 87 85 82 73 71 70
Claremont 420 -19 -13 -9 89 87 84 74 73 72
Concord AP 339 -17 -11 -7 91 88 85 75 73 72
Keene 490 -17 -12 -8 90 88 85 75 73 72
Laconia 505 -22 -16 -12 89 87 84 74 73 72
Manchester, G. AFB 253 -11 -5 1 92 89 86 76 74 73
Portsmouth, P. AFB 127 -8 -2 3 88 86 83 75 73 72
New Jersey
Atlantic City CO 11 10 14 18 91 88 85 78 77 76
Long Branch 20 4 9 13 93 91 88 77 76 75
Newark AP 11 6 11 15 94 91 88 77 76 75
New Brunswick 86 3 8 12 91 89 86 77 76 75
Paterson 100 3 8 12 93 91 88 77 76 75
Phillipsburg 180 1 6 10 93 91 88 77 76 75
Trenton CO 144 7 12 16 92 90 87 78 77 76
Vineland 95 7 12 16 93 90 87 78 77 76
New Mexico
Alamagordo, H.AFB 4070 12 18 22 100 98 96 70 69 68
Albuquerque AP 5310 6 14 17 96 94 92 66 65 64
Artesia 3375 9 16 19 101 99 97 71 70 69
Carisbad AP 3234 11 17 21 101 99 97 72 71 70r
Clovis AP 4279 2 14 17 99 97 95 70 69 68
Farmington AP 5495 -3 6 9 95 93 91 66 65 64
Gallup 6465 -13 -5 -1 92 90 87 64 63 62
Grants 6520 -15 -7 -3 91 89 86 64 63 62
Hobbs AP 3664 9 15 19 101 99 96 72 71 70
Las Cruces 3900 13 19 23 102 100 97 70 69 68
Los Alamos 7410 -4 5 9 88 86 83 64 63 62
Raton AP 6379 -11 -2 2 92 90 88 66 65 64
Roswell, Walker AFB 3643 5 16 19 101 99 97 71 70 69
Santa Fe CO 7045 -2 7 11 90 88 85 65 63 62
Silver City AP 5373 8 14 18 95 93 91 68 67 66
Socorro AP 4617 6 13 17 99 97 94 67 66 65
Tucumcari AP 4053 1 9 13 99 97 95 71 70 69


Airport1 ft. Low 99 97½ 1% 2½% 5% 1% 2½% 5%
New York
Albany AP 277 -14 -5 0 91 88 85 76 74 73
Albany CO 19 -5 1 5 91 89 86 76 74 73
Auburn 715 -10 -2 2 89 87 84 75 73 72
Batavia 900 -7 -1 3 89 87 84 75 74 72
Binghamton CO 858 -8 -2 2 91 89 86 74 72 71
Buffalo AP 705 -3 3 6 88 86 83 75 73 72
Cortland 1129 -11 -5 -1 90 88 85 75 73 72
Dunkirk 590 -2 4 8 88 86 83 75 74 72
Elmira AP 860 -5 1 5 92 90 87 75 73 72
Geneva 590 -8 -2 2 91 89 86 75 73 72
Glens Falls 321 -17 -11 -7 88 86 83 74 72 71
Gloversville 770 -12 -6 -2 89 87 84 75 73 71
Hornell 1325 -15 -9 -5 87 85 82 74 72 71
Ithaca 950 -10 -4 0 91 88 85 75 73 72
Jamestown 1390 -5 1 5 88 86 83 75 73 72
Kingston 279 -8 -2 2 92 90 87 76 74 73
Lockport 520 -4 2 6 87 85 82 75 74 72
Massena AP 202 -22 -16 -12 86 84 81 75 74 72
Newburg-Stew.AFB 460 -4 2 6 92 89 86 78 76 74
NYC-Central Park 132 6 11 15 94 91 88 77 76 75
NYC-Kennedy AP 16 12 17 21 91 87 84 77 76 75
NYC-La Guardia AP 19 7 12 16 93 90 87 77 76 75
Niagara Falls AP 596 -2 4 7 88 86 83 75 74 73
Olean 1420 -13 -8 -3 87 85 82 74 72 71
Oneonta 1150 -13 -7 -3 89 87 84 74 72 71
Oswego CO 300 -4 2 6 86 84 81 75 74 72
Plattsburg AFB 165 -16 -10 -6 86 84 81 74 73 71
Poughkeepsie 103 -6 -1 3 93 90 87 77 75 74
Rochester AP 543 -5 2 5 91 88 85 75 74 72
Rome-Griffiss AFB 515 -13 -7 -3 90 87 84 76 74 73
Schenectady 217 -11 -5 -1 90 88 85 75 73 72
Suffolk County AFB 57 4 9 13 87 84 81 76 75 74
Syracuse AP 424 -10 -2 2 90 87 85 76 74 73
Utica 714 -12 -6 -2 89 87 84 75 73 72
Watertown 497 -20 -14 -10 86 84 81 75 74 72
North Carolina
Asheville AP 2170 8 13 17 91 88 86 75 74 73
Charlotte AP 735 13 18 22 96 94 92 78 77 76
Durham 406 11 15 19 94 92 89 78 77 76
Elizabeth City AP 10 14 18 22 93 91 89 80 79 78
Fay'ville, Pope AFB 95 13 17 20 97 94 92 80 79 78
Goldsboro, S-J. AFB 88 14 18 21 95 92 90 80 79 78
Greensboro AP 897 9 14 17 94 91 89 77 76 75
Greenville 25 14 18 22 95 93 90 81 80 79
Henderson 510 8 12 16 94 92 89 79 78 77
Hickory 1165 9 14 18 93 91 88 77 76 75
Jacksonville 24 17 21 25 94 92 89 81 80 79
Lumberton 132 14 18 22 95 93 90 81 80 79


Airport1 ft. Low 99 97½ 1% 2½% 5% 1% 2½% 5%
North Carolina (cont.)
New Bern AP 17 14 18 22 94 92 89 81 80 79
Raleigh/Durham AP 433 13 16 20 95 92 90 79 78 77
Rocky Mount 81 12 16 20 95 93 90 80 79 78
Wilmington AP 30 19 23 27 93 91 89 82 81 80
Winston-Salem AP 967 9 14 17 94 91 89 77 76 75
North Dakota
Bismarck AP 1647 -31 -24 -19 95 91 88 74 72 70
Devil's Lake 1471 -30 -23 -19 93 89 86 73 71 69
Dickinson AP 2595 -31 -23 -19 96 93 90 72 70 68
Fargo AP 900 -28 -22 -17 92 88 85 76 74 72
Grand Forks AP 832 -30 -26 -23 91 87 84 74 72 70
Jamestown AP 1492 -29 -22 -18 95 91 88 75 73 71
Minot AP 1713 -31 -24 -20 91 88 84 72 70 68
Williston 1877 -28 -21 -17 94 90 87 71 69 67
Ohio
Akron/Canton AP 1210 -5 1 6 89 87 84 75 73 72
Ashtabula 690 -3 3 7 89 87 84 76 75 74
Athens 700 -3 3 7 93 91 88 77 76 75
Bowling Green 675 -7 -1 3 93 91 88 77 75 74
Cambridge 800 -6 0 4 91 89 86 77 76 75
Chillicothe 638 -1 5 9 93 91 88 77 76 75
Cincinnati CO 761 2 8 12 94 92 90 78 77 76
Cleveland AP 777 -2 2 7 91 89 86 76 75 74
Columbus AP 812 1 2 7 92 88 86 77 76 75
Dayton AP 997 -2 0 6 92 90 87 77 75 74
Defiance 700 -7 -1 1 93 91 88 77 76 74
Findlay AP 797 -6 0 4 92 90 88 77 76 75
Fremont 600 -7 -1 3 92 90 87 76 75 74
Hamilton 650 -2 4 8 94 92 90 78 77 76
Lancaster 920 -5 1 5 93 91 88 77 76 75
Lima 860 -6 0 4 93 91 88 77 76 75
Mansfield AP 1297 -7 1 3 91 89 86 76 75 74
Marion 920 -5 1 6 93 91 88 77 76 75
Middletown 635 -3 3 7 93 91 88 77 76 75
Newark 825 -7 -1 3 92 90 87 77 76 75
Norwalk 720 -7 -1 3 92 90 87 76 75 74
Portsmouth 530 0 5 9 94 92 89 77 76 75
Sandusky CO 606 -2 4 8 92 90 87 76 75 74
Springfield 1020 -3 3 7 93 90 88 77 76 75
Steubenville 992 -2 4 9 91 89 86 76 75 74
Toledo AP 676 -5 1 5 92 90 87 77 75 74
Warren 900 -6 0 4 90 88 85 75 74 73
Wooster 1030 -7 -1 3 90 88 85 76 75 74
Youngstown AP 1178 -5 1 6 89 86 84 75 74 73
Zanesville AP 881 -7 -1 3 92 89 87 77 76 75
Oklahoma
Ada 1015 6 12 16 102 100 98 79 78 77
Altus AFB 1390 7 14 18 103 101 99 77 76 75


Airport1 ft. Low 99 97½ 1% 2½% 5% 1% 2½% 5%
Oklahoma (cont.)
Ardmore 880 9 15 19 103 101 99 79 78 77
Bartlesville 715 -1 5 9 101 99 97 79 78 77
Chickasha 1085 5 12 16 103 101 99 77 76 75
Enid-Vance AFB 1287 3 10 14 103 100 98 78 77 76
Lawton AP 1108 6 13 16 103 101 98 78 77 76
McAlester 760 7 13 17 102 100 98 79 78 77
Muskogee AP 610 6 12 16 102 99 96 79 78 77
Norman 1109 5 11 15 101 99 97 78 77 76
Oklahoma City AP 1280 4 11 15 100 97 95 78 77 76
Ponca City 996 1 8 12 102 100 97 78 77 76
Seminole 865 6 12 16 102 100 98 78 77 76
Stillwater 884 2 9 13 101 99 97 78 77 76
Tulsa AP 650 4 12 16 102 99 96 79 78 77
Woodward 1900 -3 4 8 103 101 98 76 74 73
Oregon
Albany 224 17 23 27 91 88 84 69 67 65
Astoria AP 8 22 27 30 79 76 72 61 60 59
Baker AP 3368 -10 -3 1 94 92 89 66 65 63
Bend 3599 -7 0 4 89 87 84 64 62 61
Corvallis 221 17 23 27 91 88 84 69 67 65
Eugene AP 364 16 22 26 91 88 84 69 67 65
Grants Pass 926 16 22 26 94 92 89 68 66 65
Klamath Falls AP 4091 -5 1 5 89 87 84 63 62 61
Medford AP 1298 15 21 23 98 94 91 70 68 66
Pendleton AP 1492 -2 3 10 97 94 91 66 65 63
Portland AP 21 17 21 24 89 85 81 69 67 66
Portland CO 57 21 26 29 91 88 84 69 68 67
Roseburg AP 505 19 25 29 93 91 88 69 67 65
Salem AP 195 15 21 25 92 88 84 69 67 66
The Dalles 102 7 13 17 93 91 88 70 68 67
Pennsylvania
Allentown AP 376 -2 3 5 92 90 87 77 75 74
Altoona CO 1468 -4 1 5 89 87 84 74 73 72
Butler 1100 -8 -2 2 91 89 86 75 74 73
Chambersburg 640 0 5 9 94 92 89 76 75 74
Erie AP 732 1 7 11 88 85 82 76 74 73
Harrisburg AP 335 4 9 13 92 89 86 76 75 74
Johnstown 1214 -4 1 5 91 87 85 74 73 72
Lancaster 255 -3 2 6 92 90 87 77 76 75
Meadville 1065 -6 0 4 88 86 83 75 73 72
New Castle 825 -7 -1 4 91 89 86 75 74 73
Philadelphia AP 7 7 11 15 93 90 87 78 77 76
Pittsburgh AP 1137 -1 5 9 90 87 85 75 74 73
Pittsburgh CO 749 1 7 11 90 88 85 75 74 73
Reading CO 226 1 6 9 92 90 87 77 76 75
Scranton/Wilkes-B. 940 -3 2 6 89 87 84 75 74 73
State College 1175 -3 2 6 89 87 84 74 73 72
Sunbury 480 -2 3 7 91 89 86 76 75 74

CHAPTER 21 - WINTER AND SUMMER AlR CONDITIONING 21-19

Airport1 ft. Low 99 97½ 1% 2½% 5% 1% 2½% 5%
Pennsylvania (cont.)
Uniontown 1040 -1 4 8 90 88 85 75 74 73
Warren 1280 -8 -3 1 89 87 84 75 73 72
West Chester 440 4 9 13 92 90 87 77 76 75
Williamsport AP 527 -5 1 5 91 89 86 76 75 74
York 390 -1 4 8 93 91 88 77 76 75
Rhode lsland
Newport 20 1 5 11 86 84 81 75 74 73
Providence AP 55 0 6 10 89 86 83 76 75 74
South Carolina
Anderson 764 13 18 22 96 94 91 77 76 75
Charleston AFB 41 19 23 27 94 92 90 81 80 79
Charleston CO 9 23 26 30 95 93 90 81 80 79
Columbia AP 217 16 20 23 98 96 94 79 79 78
Florence AP 146 16 21 25 96 94 92 80 79 78
Georgetown 14 19 23 26 93 91 88 81 80 79
Greenville AP 957 14 19 23 95 93 91 77 76 75
Greenwood 671 15 19 23 97 95 92 78 77 76
Orangeburg 244 17 21 25 97 95 92 80 79 78
Rock Hill 470 13 17 21 97 95 92 78 77 76
Spartanburg AP 816 13 18 22 95 93 90 77 76 75
Sumter-Shaw AFB 291 18 23 26 96 94 92 80 79 78
South Dakota
Aberdeen AP 1296 -29 -22 -18 95 92 89 77 75 74
Brookings 1642 -26 -19 -15 93 90 87 77 75 74
Huron AP 1282 -24 -16 -12 97 93 90 77 75 74
Mitchell 1346 -22 -15 -11 96 94 91 77 76 74
Pierre AP 1718 -21 -13 -9 98 96 93 76 74 73
Rapid City AP 3165 -17 -9 -6 96 94 91 72 71 69
Sioux Falls AP 1420 -21 -14 -10 95 92 89 77 75 74
Watertown AP 1746 -27 -20 -16 93 90 87 76 74 73
Yankton 1280 -18 -11 -7 96 94 91 78 76 75
Tennessee
Athens 940 10 14 18 96 94 91 77 76 75
Bristol-Tri City AP 1519 6 11 16 92 90 88 76 75 74
Chattanooga AP 670 11 15 19 97 94 92 78 78 77
Clarksville 470 6 12 16 98 96 94 79 78 77
Columbia 690 8 13 17 97 95 93 79 78 77
Dyersburg 334 7 13 17 98 96 94 80 79 78
Greenville 1320 5 10 14 93 91 88 76 75 74
Jackson AP 413 8 14 17 97 95 94 80 79 78
Knoxville AP 980 9 13 17 95 92 90 77 76 75
Memphis AP 263 11 17 21 98 96 94 80 79 78
Murfreesboro 608 7 13 17 97 94 92 79 78 77
Nashville AP 577 6 12 16 97 95 92 79 78 77
Tullahoma 1075 7 13 17 96 94 92 79 78 77
Texas
Abilene AP 1759 12 17 21 101 99 97 76 75 74
Alice AP 180 26 30 34 101 99 97 81 80 79


Airport1 ft. Low 99 97½ 1% 2½% 5% 1% 2½% 5%
Texas (cont.)
Amarillo AP 3607 2 8 12 98 96 93 72 71 70
Austin AP 597 19 25 29 101 98 96 79 78 77
Bay City 52 25 29 33 95 93 91 81 80 79
Beaumont 18 25 29 33 96 94 93 81 80 79
Beeville 225 24 28 32 99 97 96 81 80 79
Big Spring AP 2537 12 18 22 100 98 96 75 73 72
Brownsville AP 16 32 36 40 94 92 91 80 80 79
Brownwood 1435 15 20 25 102 100 98 76 75 74
Bryan AP 275 22 27 31 100 98 96 79 78 78
Corpus Christi AP 43 28 32 36 95 93 91 81 80 80
Corsicana 425 16 21 25 102 100 98 79 78 77
Dallas AP 481 14 19 24 101 99 97 79 78 78
Del Rio, Laughl. AFB 1072 24 28 31 101 99 98 79 77 76
Denton 655 12 18 22 102 100 98 79 78 77
Eagle Pass 743 23 27 31 106 104 102 80 79 78
El Paso AP 3918 16 21 25 100 98 96 70 69 68
Fort Worth AP 544 14 20 24 102 100 98 79 78 77
Galveston AP 5 28 32 36 91 89 88 82 81 81
Greenville 575 13 19 24 101 99 97 79 78 78
Harlingen 37 30 34 38 96 95 94 80 80 79
Houston AP 50 23 28 32 96 94 92 80 80 79
Houston CO 158 24 29 33 96 94 92 80 80 79
Huntsville 494 22 27 31 99 97 96 80 79 78
Kileen-Gray AFB 1021 17 22 26 100 99 97 78 77 76
Lamesa 2965 7 14 18 100 98 96 74 73 72
Laredo AFB 503 29 32 36 103 101 100 79 78 78
Longview 345 16 21 25 100 98 96 81 80 79
Lubbock AP 3243 4 11 15 99 97 94 73 72 71
Lufkin AP 286 19 24 28 98 96 95 81 80 79
McAllen 122 30 34 38 102 100 98 80 79 78
Midland AP 2815 13 19 23 100 98 96 74 73 72
Mineral Wells AP 934 12 18 22 102 100 98 78 77 76
Palestine CO 580 16 21 25 99 97 96 80 79 78
Pampa 3230 0 7 11 100 98 95 73 72 71
Pecos 2580 10 15 19 102 100 97 72 71 70
Plainview 3400 3 10 14 100 98 95 73 72 71
Port Arthur AP 16 25 29 33 94 92 91 81 80 80
San Angelo, Gdfl. AFB 1878 15 20 25 101 99 97 76 75 74
San Antonio AP 792 22 25 30 99 97 96 77 77 76
Sherman-Perrin AFB 763 12 18 23 101 99 97 79 78 77
Snyder 2325 9 15 19 102 100 97 75 74 73
Temple 675 18 23 27 101 99 97 79 78 77
Tyler AP 527 15 20 24 99 97 96 80 79 78
Vernon 1225 7 14 18 103 101 99 77 76 75
Victoria AP 104 24 28 32 98 96 95 80 79 79
Waco AP 500 16 21 26 101 99 98 79 78 78
Wichita Falls AP 994 9 15 19 103 100 98 77 76 75

CHAPTER 21 - WINTER AND SUMMER AlR CONDITIONING 21-21

Airport1 ft. Low 99 97½ 1% 2½% 5% 1% 2½% 5%
Utah
Cedar City AP 5613 -10 -1 6 94 91 89 65 64 62
Logan 4775 -7 3 7 93 91 89 66 65 63
Moab 3965 2 12 16 100 98 95 66 65 64
Ogden CO 4400 -3 7 11 94 92 89 66 65 64
Price 5580 -7 3 7 93 91 88 65 64 63
Provo 4470 -6 2 6 96 93 91 67 66 65
Richfield 5300 -10 -1 3 94 92 89 66 65 64
St.George CO 2899 13 22 26 104 102 99 71 70 69
Salt Lake City AP 4220 -2 5 9 97 94 92 67 66 65
Vernal AP 5280 -20 -10 -6 90 88 84 64 63 62
Vermont
Barre 1120 -23 -17 -13 86 84 81 73 72 70
Burlington AP 331 -18 -12 -7 88 85 83 74 73 71
Rutland 620 -18 -12 -8 87 85 82 74 73 71
Virginia
Charlottsville 870 7 11 15 93 90 88 79 77 76
Danville AP 590 9 13 17 95 92 90 78 77 76
Fredericksburg 50 6 10 14 94 92 89 79 78 76
Harrisonburg 1340 0 5 9 92 90 87 78 77 76
Lynchburg AP 947 10 15 19 94 92 89 77 76 75
Norfolk AP 26 18 20 23 94 91 89 79 78 78
Petersburg 194 10 15 18 96 94 91 80 79 78
Richmond AP 162 10 14 18 96 93 91 79 78 77
Roanoke AP 1174 9 15 18 94 91 89 76 75 74
Staunton 1480 3 8 12 92 90 87 78 77 75
Winchester 750 1 6 10 94 92 89 78 76 75
Aberdeen 12 19 24 27 83 80 77 62 61 60
Washington
Bellingham AP 150 8 14 18 76 74 71 67 65 63
Bremerton 162 17 24 29 85 81 77 68 66 65
Ellensburg AP 1729 -5 -2 6 91 89 86 67 65 63
Everett-Paine AFB 598 13 19 24 82 78 74 67 65 63
Kennewick 392 4 11 15 98 96 93 69 68 66
Longview 12 14 20 24 88 86 83 68 66 65
Moses Lake, Lar. AFB 1183 -14 -7 -1 96 93 90 68 66 65
Olympia AP 190 15 21 25 85 83 80 67 65 63
Port Angeles 99 20 26 29 75 73 70 60 58 57
Seattle-Boeing Fld 14 17 23 27 82 80 77 67 65 64
Seattle CO 14 22 28 32 81 79 76 67 65 64
Seattle-Tacoma AP 386 14 20 24 85 81 77 66 64 63
Spokane AP 2357 -5 -2 4 93 90 87 66 64 63
Tacoma-McCd AFB 350 14 20 24 85 81 78 68 66 64
Walla Walla AP 1185 5 12 16 98 96 93 69 68 66
Wenatchee 634 -2 5 9 95 92 89 68 66 64
Yakima AP 1061 -1 6 10 94 92 89 69 67 65
West Virginia
Beckley 2330 -4 0 6 91 88 86 74 73 72
Bluefield AP 2850 1 6 10 88 86 83 74 73 72


Airport1 ft. Low 99 97½ 1% 2½% 5% 1% 2½% 5%
West Virginia (cont.)
Charleston AP 939 1 9 14 92 90 88 76 75 74
Clarksburg 977 -2 3 7 92 90 87 76 75 74
Elkins AP 1970 -4 1 5 87 84 82 74 73 72
Huntington CO 565 4 10 14 95 93 91 77 76 75
Martinsburg AP 537 1 6 10 96 94 91 78 77 76
Morgantown AP 1245 -2 3 7 90 88 85 76 74 73
Parkersburg CO 615 2 8 12 93 91 88 77 76 75
Wheeling 659 0 5 9 91 89 86 76 75 74
Wisconsin
Appleton 742 -16 -10 -6 89 87 84 75 74 72
Ashland 650 -27 -21 -17 85 83 80 73 71 69
Beloit 780 -13 -7 -3 92 90 87 77 76 75
Eau Claire AP 888 -21 -15 -11 90 88 85 76 74 72
Fond du Lac 760 -17 -11 -7 89 87 84 76 74 73
Green Bay AP 683 -16 -12 -7 88 85 82 75 73 72
La Crosse AP 652 -18 -12 -8 90 88 85 78 76 75
Madison AP 858 -13 -9 -5 92 88 85 77 75 73
Manitowoc 660 -11 -5 -1 88 86 83 75 74 72
Marinette 605 -14 -8 -4 88 86 83 74 72 70
Milwaukee AP 672 -11 -6 -2 90 87 84 77 75 73
Racine 640 -10 -4 0 90 88 85 77 75 73
Sheboygan 648 -10 -4 0 89 87 84 76 74 72
Stevens Point 1079 -22 -16 -12 89 87 84 75 73 71
Waukesha 860 -12 -6 -2 91 89 86 77 75 74
Wausau AP 1196 -24 -18 -14 89 86 83 74 72 70
Wyoming
Casper AP 5319 -20 -11 -5 92 90 87 63 62 60
Cheyenne AP 6126 -15 -6 -2 89 86 83 63 62 61
Cody AP 5090 -23 -13 -9 90 87 84 61 60 59
Evanston 6860 -22 -12 -8 84 82 79 58 57 56
Lander AP 5563 -26 -16 -12 92 90 87 63 62 60
Laramie AP 7266 -17 -6 -2 82 80 77 61 59 58
Newcastle 4480 -18 -9 -5 92 89 86 68 67 66
Rawlins 6736 -24 -15 -11 86 84 81 62 61 60
Rock Springs AP 6741 -16 -6 -1 86 84 82 58 57 56
Sheridan AP 3942 -21 -12 -7 95 92 89 67 65 64
Torrington 4098 -20 -11 -7 94 92 89 68 67 66
CANADA
Alberta
Calgary AP 3540 -30 -29 -25 87 85 82 66 64 63
Edmonton AP 2219 -30 -29 -26 86 83 80 69 67 65
Grande Prairie AP 2190 -44 -43 -37 84 81 78 66 64 63
Jasper CO 3480 -38 -32 -28 87 84 81 66 64 63
Lethbridge AP 3018 -31 -31 -24 91 88 85 68 66 64
McMurray AP 1216 -44 -42 -39 87 84 81 69 67 65
Medicine Hat AP 2365 -33 -30 -26 96 93 90 72 69 67


Airport1 ft. Low 99 97½ 1% 2½% 5% 1% 2½% 5%
CANADA
Alberta (cont.)
Red Deer AP 2965 -38 -33 -28 88 86 83 67 65 64
British Columbia
Dawson Creek 2200 –47 -40 -35 84 81 78 66 64 63
Fort Nelson AP 1230 -43 -44 -41 87 84 81 66 64 63
Kamloops CO 1150 -15 -16 -10 97 94 91 71 69 68
Nanaimo CO 100 16 17 20 81 78 75 66 64 62
New Westminster CO 50 12 15 19 86 84 82 68 66 65
Penticton AP 1121 -1 0 3 94 91 88 71 69 68
Prince George AP 2218 -38 -37 -31 85 82 79 68 65 63
Prince Rupert CO 170 9 11 15 73 71 69 62 60 59
Trail 1400 -3 -2 3 94 91 88 70 68 67
Vancouver 16 13 15 19 80 78 76 68 66 65
Victoria CO 228 20 20 23 80 76 72 64 62 60
Manitoba
Brandon CO 1200 -36 -29 -26 90 07 84 75 73 71
Churchill AP 115 -43 -40 -38 79 75 72 68 66 63
Dauphin AP 999 -35 -29 -26 89 86 83 74 72 70
Flin Flon CO 1098 -38 -40 -36 85 81 78 71 69 67
Portage la Prairie AP 867 -28 -25 -22 90 87 84 75 74 72
The Pas AP 894 -41 -35 -32 85 81 78 73 71 69
Winnipeg AP 786 -31 -28 -25 90 87 84 75 74 72
New Brunswick
Campbellton CO 25 -20 -18 -14 87 84 81 74 71 69
Chatham AP 112 -17 -15 -10 90 87 84 74 71 69
Edmundston CO 500 -29 -20 -16 84 81 78 75 72 70
Fredericton AP 74 -19 -16 -10 89 86 83 73 70 68
Moncton AP 248 -16 -12 -7 88 85 82 74 71 69
Saint John AP 352 -15 -12 -7 81 79 77 71 68 66
Newfoundland
Corner Brook CO 40 -9 -10 -5 84 81 79 69 68 66
Gander AP 482 -5 -5 -1 85 82 79 69 68 66
Goose Bay AP 144 -28 -27 -25 86 81 77 69 67 65
St. John's AP 463 1 2 6 79 77 75 69 68 66
Stephenville 44 -4 -6 1 79 76 74 69 68 66
Northwest Territories and Inuvik
Fort Smith AP 665 -51 -49 -46 85 83 80 67 65 64
Frobisher Bay AP 68 -45 -45 -42 63 59 56 - - -
Inuvik 75 -54 -50 -48 80 77 75 63 61 60
Resolute AP 209 -52 -49 -47 54 51 49 - - -
Yellowknife AP 682 -51 -49 -47 78 76 74 65 63 62
Nova Scotia
Amherst 63 -15 -10 -5 85 82 79 72 70 68
Halifax AP 136 -4 0 4 83 80 77 69 68 67
Kentville CO 50 -8 -4 0 86 83 80 72 70 69
New Glasgow 317 -16 -10 -5 84 81 79 72 70 68
Sydney AP 197 -3 0 5 84 82 80 72 70 68
Truro CO 77 -17 -12 -7 84 81 79 72 70 69
Yarmouth AP 136 2 5 9 76 73 71 69 68 67


Airport1 ft. Low 99 97½ 1% 2½% 5% 1% 2½% 5%
CANADA
Ontario
Belleville CO 250 -15 -11 -7 89 86 84 77 75 73
Chatham CO 600 -1 3 6 92 90 88 77 75 74
Cornwall 210 -22 -14 -9 89 86 84 77 75 74
Fort William AP 644 -31 -27 -23 86 83 80 72 70 68
Hamilton 303 -2 0 3 91 88 86 77 75 73
Kapuskasing AP 752 -37 -31 -28 87 84 81 73 71 69
Kenora AP 1345 -33 -31 -28 86 83 80 75 73 71
Kingston CO 300 -16 -10 -7 85 82 80 77 75 73
Kitchener 1125 -11 -3 1 88 85 83 76 75 74
London AP 912 -9 -1 3 90 88 86 76 75 74
North Bay AP 1210 -27 -21 -17 87 84 82 71 70 69
Oshawa 370 -11 -5 -2 90 87 85 77 75 73
Ottawa AP 339 -21 -17 -13 90 87 84 75 74 73
Owen Sound 597 -9 -5 -1 87 84 82 74 72 71
Peterborough CO 648 -20 -13 -9 90 87 85 76 74 73
St. Catharines CO 325 1 2 5 91 88 86 77 75 73
Sarnia 625 -6 2 6 92 90 88 76 74 73
Sault Ste. Marie CO 675 -21 -20 -15 88 85 83 72 70 68
Sudbury 850 -25 -20 -15 89 86 84 72 70 69
Timmins CO 1100 -37 -33 -28 90 87 84 73 71 69
Toronto AP 578 -10 -3 1 90 87 85 77 75 73
Windsor AP 637 -1 4 7 92 90 88 77 75 74
Prince Edward Island
Charlottetown AP 186 -11 -6 -3 84 81 79 72 70 68
Summerside AP 78 -10 -8 -3 84 81 79 72 70 68
Quebec
Bagotville 536 -35 -26 -22 88 84 81 72 71 69
Chicoutimi CO 150 -31 -24 -20 87 83 80 72 71 69
Drummondville CO 270 -26 -18 -13 88 85 82 76 74 72
Granby 550 -23 -17 -12 87 84 82 76 74 72
Hull 200 -21 -17 -13 90 87 84 75 74 73
Megantic AP 1362 -27 -20 -16 84 81 78 75 73 71
Montreal AP 98 -20 -16 -10 88 86 84 76 74 73
Quebec AP 245 -25 -19 -13 86 82 79 75 73 71
Rimouski 117 -18 -16 -12 78 74 71 71 69 68
St. Jean 129 -21 -15 -10 87 85 83 76 74 73
St. Jerome 310 -30 -18 -13 87 84 82 76 74 73
Sept Iles AP 190 -29 -27 -22 80 78 75 66 64 63
Shawinigan 306 -27 -20 -15 88 85 83 76 74 72
Sherbrooke CO 595 -25 -18 -13 87 84 81 75 73 71
Thetford Mines 1020 -25 -19 -14 86 83 80 75 73 71
Trois Rivibres CO 200 -30 -18 -13 88 85 82 76 74 72
Val d'Or AP 1108 -37 -31 -27 88 85 82 72 71 69
Valleyfield 150 -20 -14 -9 87 85 83 76 74 73
Saskatchewan
Estevan AP 1884 -32 -30 -25 93 89 86 75 73 71
Moose Jaw AP 1857 -33 -32 -27 93 89 86 73 71 69
North Battleford AP 1796 -33 -33 -29 90 86 83 71 69 67


Airport1 ft. Low 99 97½ 1% 2½% 5% 1% 2½% 5%
CANADA
Saskatchewan (cont.)
Price Albert AP 1414 -45 -41 -35 88 84 81 72 70 68
Regina AP 1884 -38 -34 -29 92 88 85 73 71 69
Saskatoon AP 1645 -37 -34 -30 90 86 83 71 69 67
Swift Current AP 2677 -31 -29 -25 93 89 86 72 70 68
Yorkton AP 1653 -38 -33 -28 89 85 82 74 72 70
Yukon Territory
Whitehorse AP 2289 -45 -45 -42 78 75 72 62 60 59
MEXICO
Mexico D.F.
Mexico City 7575 33 37 39 83 81 79 61 60 59
Jalisco
Guadalajara 5105 35 39 42 93 91 89 68 67 66
Nuevo Leon
Monterey 1732 31 38 41 98 95 93 79 78 77
Vera Cruz
Vera Cruz 184 55 60 62 91 89 88 83 83 82
Yucatan
Merida 72 56 59 61 97 99 94 80 79 77
CENTRAL AMERICA
British Honduras
Belize 17 55 60 62 90 90 89 82 82 81
El Salvador
San Salvador 2238 51 54 56 98 96 95 77 76 75
Guatemala
Guatemala City 4855 45 48 51 83 82 81 69 68 67
Honduras
Tegucigalpa 3094 44 47 50 89 87 85 73 72 71
Nicaragua
Managua 135 62 65 67 94 93 92 81 80 79
Panama
Panama City 21 69 72 73 93 92 91 81 81 80
WEST INDIES AND ATLANTIC ISLANDS

Bahamas
Nassau 11 55 61 63 90 89 88 80 80 79
Bermuda
Kindley AFB 129 47 53 55 87 86 85 79 78 78
Cuba
Guantanamo Bay 21 60 64 66 94 93 92 82 81 80
Havana 80 54 59 62 92 91 89 81 81 80
Dominican Republic
Santo Domingo 57 61 63 65 92 90 88 81 80 80
Greenland
Nassarssuaq 85 -23 -12 -8 66 63 61 56 54 52
Haiti
Port au Prince 121 63 65 67 97 95 93 82 81 80


2
City or Elev. Dry-Bulb Dry-Bulb Wet-Bulb
Airport1 ft. Low 99 97½ 1% 2½% 5% 1% 2½% 5%
WEST INDIES and ATLANTIC ISLANDS
Iceland
Reykjavik 59 8 14 17 59 58 56 54 53 53
Martinique
Fort de France 13 62 64 66 90 89 88 81 81 80
Puerto Rico
San Juan 82 65 67 68 89 88 87 81 80 79
Trinidad
Port of Spain 67 61 64 66 91 90 89 80 80 79
SOUTH AMERICA
Argentina
Buenos Aires 89 27 32 34 19 89 86 77 76 71
Cordoba 1388 21 28 32 100 96 93 76 75 74
Tucuman 1401 24 32 36 102 99 96 76 75 74
Bolivia
La Paz 12001 28 31 33 71 69 68 58 57 56
Brazil
Belem 42 67 70 71 90 89 87 80 79 78
Belo Horizonte 3002 42 47 50 86 84 83 76 75 75
Brasilia 3442 46 49 51 89 88 86 76 75 75
Curitiba 3114 28 34 37 86 84 82 75 74 74
Fortaleza 89 66 69 70 91 90 89 79 78 78
Porto Alegre 33 32 37 40 95 92 89 76 76 75
Recife 97 67 69 70 88 87 86 78 77 77
Rio de Janeiro 201 56 58 60 94 92 90 80 79 78
Salvador 154 65 67 68 88 87 86 79 79 78
Sao Paulo 2608 36 42 46 86 84 82 75 74 74
Chile
Punta Arenas 26 22 25 27 68 66 64 56 55 54
Santiago 1706 27 32 35 90 89 88 71 70 69
Valpariso 135 39 43 46 81 79 77 67 66 65
Columbia
Baranquilia 44 66 70 72 95 94 93 83 82 82
Bogota 8406 42 45 46 72 70 69 60 59 58
Cali 3189 53 57 58 84 82 79 70 69 68
Medellin 4650 48 53 55 87 85 84 73 72 72
Guayaquil 20 61 64 65 92 91 89 80 80 79
Ecuador
Quito 9446 30 36 39 73 72 71 63 62 62
FrenchGuiana
Cayenne 20 69 71 72 92 91 90 83 83 82
Guyana
Georgetown 6 70 72 73 89 88 87 80 79 79
Paraguay
Asuncion 456 35 43 46 100 98 96 81 81 80
Peru
Lima 394 51 53 55 86 85 84 76 75 74
Surinam
Paramaribo 12 66 68 70 93 92 90 82 82 81


2
Airport1 ft. Low 99 97½ 1% 2½% 5% 1% 2½% 5%
SOUTH AMERICA
Uruguay
Montevideo 72 34 37 39 90 88 85 73 72 71
Venezuela
Caracas 3418 49 52 54 84 83 81 70 69 69
Maracaibo 20 69 72 73 97 96 95 84 83 83
EUROPE
Austria
Vienna 644 -2 6 11 88 86 83 71 69 67
Azores
Lajes (Terceira) 170 42 46 49 80 78 77 73 72 71
Belarus
Minsk 738 -19 -11 -4 80 77 74 67 66 65
Belgium
Brussels 328 13 15 19 83 79 77 70 68 67
Bulgaria
Sofia 1805 -2 3 8 89 86 84 71 70 69
Czech Republic
Prague 662 3 4 9 88 85 83 66 65 64
Denmark
Copenhagen 43 11 16 19 79 76 74 68 66 64
Finland
Helsinki 30 -11 -7 -1 77 74 72 66 65 63
France
Lyon 938 -1 10 14 91 89 86 71 70 69
Marseilles 246 23 25 28 90 87 84 72 71 69
Nantes 121 17 22 26 86 83 80 70 69 67
Nice 39 31 34 37 87 85 83 73 72 72
Paris 164 16 22 25 89 86 83 70 68 67
Strasbourg 465 9 11 16 86 83 80 70 69 67
Georgia
Tbilisi 1325 12 18 22 87 85 83 68 67 66
Germany
Berlin 187 6 7 12 84 81 78 68 67 66
Hamburg 66 10 12 16 86 76 73 68 66 65
Hannover 561 7 16 20 82 78 75 68 67 65
Mannheim 359 2 8 11 87 85 82 71 69 68
Munich 1729 -1 5 9 86 83 80 68 66 64
Gibraltar
Gibraltar 11 38 42 45 92 89 86 76 75 74
Greece
Athens 351 29 33 36 96 93 91 72 71 71
Thessalonika 78 23 28 32 95 93 91 77 76 75
Hungary
Budapest 394 8 10 14 90 86 84 72 71 70
Ireland
Dublin 155 19 24 27 74 72 70 65 64 62
Shannon 8 19 25 28 76 73 71 65 64 63


2
Airport1 ft. Low 99 97½ 1% 2½% 5% 1% 2½% 5%
EUROPE
Italy
Milan 341 12 18 22 89 87 84 76 75 74
Naples 220 28 34 36 91 88 86 74 73 72
Rome 377 25 30 33 94 92 89 74 73 72
Netherlands
Amsterdam 5 17 20 23 79 76 73 65 64 63
Norway
Bergen 141 14 17 20 75 74 73 67 66 65
Oslo 308 -2 0 4 79 77 74 67 66 64
Poland
Krakow 723 -2 2 6 84 81 78 68 67 66
Warsaw 394 -3 3 8 84 81 78 71 70 68
Portugal
Lisbon 313 32 37 39 89 86 83 69 68 67
Rumania
Bucharest 269 -2 3 8 93 91 89 72 71 70
Russia
Archangel 22 -29 -23 -18 75 71 68 60 58 57
Kaliningrad 23 -3 1 6 83 80 77 67 66 65
Kuibyshev 190 -23 -19 -13 89 85 81 69 67 66
Moscow 505 -19 -11 -6 84 81 78 69 67 65
Rostov on Don 159 -9 -2 4 90 87 84 70 69 68
Saint Petersburg 16 -14 -9 -5 78 75 72 65 64 63
Volgograd 136 -21 -13 -7 93 89 86 71 70 69
Spain
Barcelona 312 31 33 36 88 86 84 75 74 73
Madrid 2188 22 25 28 93 91 89 71 69 67
Valencia 79 31 33 37 92 90 88 75 74 73
Sweden
Stockholm 146 3 5 8 78 74 72 64 62 60
Switzerland
Zurich 1617 4 9 14 84 81 78 68 67 66
Ukraine
Kiev 600 -12 -5 1 87 84 81 69 68 67
Kharkov 472 -19 -10 -3 87 84 82 69 68 67
Odessa 214 -1 4 8 87 84 82 70 69 68
United Kingdom
Belfast 24 19 23 26 74 72 69 65 64 62
Birmingham 535 21 24 27 79 76 73 66 64 63
Cardiff 203 21 24 27 79 76 73 64 63 62
Edinburgh 441 22 25 28 73 70 68 64 62 61
Glasgow 85 17 21 24 74 71 68 64 63 61
London 149 20 24 26 82 79 76 68 66 65
Yugoslavia
Belgrade 453 4 9 13 92 89 86 74 73 72


2
Airport1 ft. Low 99 97½ 1% 2½% 5% 1% 2½% 5%
AFRICA
Algeria
Algiers 194 38 43 45 95 92 89 77 76 75
Congo
Brazzaville 1043 54 60 62 93 92 91 81 81 80
Democratic Republic of the Congo (Zaire)
Kinshasa (Leopoldville) 1066 54 60 62 92 91 90 81 80 80
Kisangani (Stanleyville) 1370 65 67 68 92 91 90 81 80 80
Ethiopia
Addis Ababa 7753 35 39 41 84 82 81 66 65 64
Asmara 7628 36 40 42 83 81 80 65 64 63
Egypt
Cairo 381 39 45 46 102 100 98 76 75 74
Ghana
Accra 88 65 68 69 91 90 89 80 79 79
Ivory Coast
Abidjan 65 64 67 69 91 90 88 83 82 81
Kenya
Nairobi 5971 45 48 50 81 80 78 66 65 65
Liberia
Monrovia 75 64 68 69 90 89 88 82 82 81
Libya
Benghazi 82 41 46 48 97 94 91 77 76 75
Madagascar
Tananarive 4531 39 43 46 86 84 83 73 72 71
Morocco
Casablanca 164 36 40 42 94 90 86 73 72 70
Nigeria
Lagos 10 67 70 71 92 91 90 82 82 81
Senegal
Dakar 131 58 61 62 95 93 91 81 80 80
Somalia
Mogadishu 39 67 69 70 91 90 89 82 82 81
South Africa
Capetown 55 36 40 42 93 90 86 72 71 70
Johannesburg 5463 26 31 34 85 83 81 70 69 69
Pretoria 4491 27 32 35 90 87 85 70 69 68
Sudan
Khartoum 1279 47 53 56 109 107 104 77 76 75
Tanzania
Dar es Salaam 47 62 64 65 90 89 88 82 81 81
Tunisia
Tunis 217 35 39 41 102 99 96 77 76 74
ASIA
Aden
Aden 10 63 68 70 102 100 98 83 82 82
Afghanistan
Kabul 5955 2 6 9 98 96 93 66 65 64


2
Airport1 ft. Low 99 97½ 1% 2½% 5% 1% 2½% 5%
ASIA
Burma
Mandalay 252 50 54 56 104 102 101 81 80 80
Rangoon 18 59 62 63 100 98 95 83 82 82
Cambodia
Phnom Penh 36 62 66 68 98 96 94 83 82 82
(Ceylon) Sri Lanka
Colombo 24 65 69 70 90 89 88 81 80 .80
China
Chungking 755 34 37 39 99 97 95 81 80 79
Shanghai 23 16 23 26 94 92 90 81 81 80
Hong Kong
Hong Kong 109 43 48 50 92 91 90 81 80 80
India
Ahmadabad 163 49 53 56 109 107 105 80 79 78
Bangalore 3021 53 56 58 96 94 93 75 74 74
Bombay 37 62 65 67 96 94 92 82 81 81
Calcutta 21 49 52 54 98 97 96 83 82 82
Madras 51 61 64 66 104 102 101 84 83 83
Nagpur 1017 45 51 54 110 108 107 79 79 78
New Delhi 703 35 39 41 110 107 105 83 82 82
Iran
Abadan 7 32 39 41 116 113 110 82 81 81
Meshed 3104 3 10 14 99 96 93 68 67 66
Tehran 4002 15 20 24 102 100 98 75 74 73
Iraq
Baghdad 111 27 32 35 113 111 108 73 72 72
Mosul 730 23 29 32 114 112 110 73 72 72
Israel
Jerusalem 2485 31 36 38 95 94 92 70 69 69
Tel Aviv 36 33 39 41 96 93 91 74 73 72
Japan
Fukuoka 22 26 29 31 92 90 89 82 80 79
Sapporo 56 -7 1 5 86 83 80 76 74 72
Tokyo 19 21 26 28 91 89 87 81 80 79
Jordan
Amman 2548 29 33 36 97 94 92 70 69 68
Korea - North
Pyongyang 186 -10 -2 3 89 87 85 77 76 76
Kazakhstan
Alma Ata 2543 -18 -10 -6 88 86 83 69 68 67
Korea - South
Seoul 285 -1 7 9 91 89 87 81 79 78
Lebanon
Beirut 111 40 42 45 93 91 90 78 77 76
Malaysia
Kuala Lumpur 127 67 70 71 94 93 92 82 82 81
Penang 17 69 72 73 93 93 92 82 81 80
Singapore 33 69 71 72 92 91 90 82 81 80


2
Airport1 ft. Low 99 97½ 1% 2½% 5% 1% 2½% 5%
ASIA
Nepal
Kathmandu 4388 30 33 35 89 87 86 78 77 76
Pakistan
Chittagong 87 48 52 54 93 91 89 82 81 81
Karachi 13 45 49 51 100 98 95 82 82 81
Lahore 702 32 35 37 109 107 105 83 82 81
Peshawar 1164 31 35 37 109 106 103 81 80 79
Russia
Krasnoyarsk 498 -41 -32 -27 84 80 76 64 62 60
Petropavlovsk 286 -9 -3 0 70 68 65 58 57 56
Sverdlovsk 894 -34 -25 -20 80 76 72 63 62 60
Vladivostok 94 -15 -10 -7 80 77 74 70 69 68
Saudi Arabia
Dhahran 80 39 45 48 111 110 108 86 85 84
Jidda 20 52 57 60 106 103 100 85 84 83
Riyadh 1938 29 37 40 110 108 106 78 77 76
Syria
Damascus 2362 25 29 32 102 100 98 72 71 70
Taiwan
Tanian 70 40 46 49 92 91 90 84 83 82
Taipei 30 41 44 47 94 92 90 83 82 81
Thailand
Bangkok 39 57 61 63 97 95 93 82 82 81
Turkey
Adana 82 25 33 35 100 97 95 79 78 77
Ankara 2825 2 9 12 94 92 89 68 67 66
Istanbul 59 23 28 30 91 88 86 75 74 73
Izmir 16 24 27 29 98 96 94 75 74 73
Ubekistan
Tashkent 1569 -4 3 8 95 93 90 71 70 69
Viet Nam
Da Nang 23 56 60 62 97 95 93 86 86 85
Hanoi 53 46 50 53 99 97 95 85 85 84
Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon) 30 62 65 67 93 91 89 85 84 83
EAST INDIES and PACIFIC ISLANDS

lndonesia
Djakarta 26 69 71 72 90 89 88 80 79 78
Kupang 148 63 66 68 94 93 92 81 80 80
Makassar 61 64 66 68 90 89 88 80 80 79
Medan 77 66 69 71 92 91 90 81 80 79
Palembang 20 67 70 71 92 91 90 80 79 79
Surabaya 10 64 66 68 91 90 89 80 79 79
New Guinea
Manokwari 62 70 71 72 89 88 87 82 81 81
Port Moresby 126 62 67 69 92 91 90 80 80 79


2
Airport1 ft. Low 99 97½ 1% 2½% 5% 1% 2½% 5%
EAST INDIES and PACIFIC ISLANDS
New Zealand
Auckland 140 37 40 42 78 77 76 67 66 65
Christ Church 32 25 28 31 82 79 76 68 67 66
Wellington 394 32 35 37 76 74 72 66 65 64
Philippines
Manila 47 69 73 74 94 92 91 82 81 81
AUSTRALIA
New South Wales
Sydney 138 38 40 42 89 84 80 74 73 72
Northern Territory
Alice Springs 1795 28 34 37 104 102 100 75 74 72
Darwin 88 60 64 66 94 93 91 82 81 81
Queensland
Brisbane 137 39 44 47 91 88 86 77 76 75
South Australia
Adelaide 140 36 38 40 98 94 91 72 70 68
Victoria
Melbourne 114 31 35 38 95 91 86 71 69 68
Western Australia
Perth 210 38 40 42 10 09 69 37 67 73
1
Stations listed with CO letter designations are city-office locations surrounded by buildings
and streets. Stations listed without letter designations are semi-rural locations, which are
usually comparable to airport AP and air-force-base AFB locations.
2
The ground elevations of 1964 stations are listed.
3
The winter-design dry-bulbs listed under "Low" are the medians of the coldest temperatues
recorded each year for periods of up to 30 years for the U.S. stations and the average annual
minimum for the Canadian and other stations. The values listed under 99% and 97½% are the
hourly temperatures that were equaled or that exceeded the listed percentage of hours during
December, January, and February for the U.S. stations, or during January only for Canadian
stations. For the other stations, the coldest three months were chosen.
4
The summer-design dry-bulbs and wet-bulbs are the hourly temperatures that were equaled
or exceeded 1%, 2½%, or 5% of the hours during June, July, August, and September for the
U.S. stations or during July only for Canadian stations. For the other stations, the warmest
four months were chosen.
Adapted from the data of ASHRAE Guide and Data Book - Fundamentals, ASHRAE, New
York, 1967, pp. 373-392.
Editors note: ASHRAE has adopted a modification of the design temperature concept since
the above data were first published. The 1997 ASHRAE Handbook – Fundamentals now lists
winter conditions for 99.6% and 99%. Summer prercentiles are 0.4, 1, and 2. Data on wind
speeds, dew-point temperatures, and daily temperature ranges are given. Additional stations
are listed. together with their latitude, longitude, and World Meteorological Number. Air-
conditioning designers should consult the latest ASHRAE data. The information in Fan
Engineering is suitable only for preliminary design.

If no weather station close to the proposed installation is listed, the data

for the nearest station can be adjusted as follows:
1) Add 1°F to the dry-bulb for each 200 ft that the installation is lower in
elevation than the weather station.
2) Add 1°F to the wet-bulb for each 500 ft that the installation is lower in
elevation than the weather station.
3) Add 2°F to the dry-bulb and 1°F to the wet-bulb if the installation is
surrounded by buildings and streets and if the weather station is downwind of
any foliage.
4) Add 2°F to the dry-bulb and 1°F to the wet-bulb if the installation is
inland and the weather station is downwind of large bodies of water.
A 15-mph wind is usually assumed in winter heat-loss calculations, as was
done for the winter-condition parts of Tables 21.5 and 21.6. ASHRAE
suggests that a somewhat lower value could often be used in most places and
that it should be based on the average wind velocity for that specific area.
Table 21.3 gives a means of correcting transmission calculations. In summer,
a 7-1/2-mph wind might be considered average, and this value has been
assumed in the summer-condition parts of Tables 21.5 and 21.6.
The effect of the sun is usually ignored for winter design; however, its
approximate maximum effect is accounted for in summer design. These are
justifiable assumptions for maximum design. However, both the reflection of
winter sunlight from snow (or other light surfaces) and the shading of the
summer sun due to clouds and neighboring buildings are important considera-
tions, since they may affect part-load operations, zoning, etc.
Heating and Cooling Loads

To help zone a structure and as a necessary prerequisite for sizing and
otherwise designing a complete system, the peak heating and cooling loads
must be calculated. It is also often necessary to compute the peak load for the
various zones and for the total structure at various times of the day. Where
central heating or refrigeration plants are used, the peak demand for those
plants is not necessarily the sum of the peak loads for all the zones. Similarly,
because of the phenomena of thermal storage and temperature lag, the peak
load for any given zone may not correspond, either in time or magnitude, to
the instantaneous peak gain or loss of heat. Many sources of heat gain or loss
must be considered in establishing loads.
The total occupancy load is the sum of the individual gains based on
individual activity. As discussed in the chapter on ventilation and tabulated in
Table 20.1, human occupants produce both sensible and latent heat gains,
which depend upon their activity. This table can be used to establish the rate
of gain per person for any activity reasonably close to one described. When
determining the desirability of zoning, the total load should be determined for
various possible zones.

Table 21.3
Transmission-Coefficient Conversions for Various Wind Velocities
In Btu/hr-ft2-°F
U for U for 0 to 30 MPH Wind Velocities U for

15 mph 0 5 10 20 25 30 7½ mph
0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06
0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07
0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08
0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09 0.09
0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10

0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11 0.11
0.13 0.12 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.13
0.15 0.14 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15
0.17 0.16 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17 0.17
0.19 0.18 1.18 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.18

0.21 0.19 0.20 0.21 0.21 0.21 0.21 0.20
0.23 0.21 0.22 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.22
0.25 0.23 0.24 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.24
0.27 0.24 0.26 0.27 0.27 0.27 0.28 0.26
0.29 0.26 0.28 0.29 0.29 0.30 0.30 0.28

0.31 0.27 0.30 0.31 0.31 0.32 0.32 0.30
0.33 0.29 0.31 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.34 0.31
0.35 0.30 0.33 0.34 0.35 0.36 0.36 0.33
0.37 0.32 0.35 0.36 0.38 0.38 0.38 0.35
0.39 0.33 0.37 0.38 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.37

0.41 0.35 0.39 0.40 0.42 0.42 0.42 0.39
0.43 0.36 0.40 0.42 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.41
0.45 0.38 0.42 0.44 0.46 0.46 0.47 0.43
0.50 0.41 0.46 0.49 0.51 0.51 0.52 0.48
0.60 0.47 0.55 0.58 0.61 0.62 0.63 0.56

0.70 0.54 0.63 0.68 0.72 0.73 0.74 0.65
0.80 0.59 0.71 0.77 0.82 0.84 0.85 0.74
0.90 0.65 0.79 0.86 0.93 0.95 0.96 0.82
1.00 0.70 0.87 0.95 1.03 1.06 1.08 0.91
1.10 0.74 0.94 1.04 1.14 1.17 1.19 0.99

1.20 0.79 1.01 1.13 1.25 1.29 1.32 1.07
1.30 0.83 1.08 1.22 1.36 1.40 1.43 1.15
Adapted from the data of ASHRAE Guide and Data Book – Fundamentals, ASHRAE, New
York,1967, p. 453.

Table 2l.4 Heat Gains Due to Lighting and Other Sources

In Btu/hr
Source Total Heat Gain

Lighting
Fluorescent (including ballast) 4.09 per watt rating
Incandescent 3.41 per watt rating
Motor-Driven Equipment
Motor outside space 2544 per hp output
Motor inside space 2544 per hp input
Electrical Cooking Appliances*
Not vented 1.70 per watt rating
Vented to outside 0.55 per watt rating
Gas Cooking Appliances*
Not vented 500 per cu ft gas
Vented to outside 100 per cu ft gas
Meals* 50 per person
*Latent heat may range from 25% to 75% of the total heat
Adapted from the data of ASHRAE Guide and Data Book Fundamentals, ASHRAE, New
York, pp. 496-500.
Other internal sources of heat include lighting and electrical or steam

appliances such as those listed in Table 21.4. These unit heat rates, when
used together with the total number of units, will establish the sensible- or
latent-heat gain, or both, due to that equipment. Also, chemical processes
may be exothermic or endothermic. The heats of evolution of various farm
produce in storage are listed in the chapter on air-blast applications. Appro-
priate allowances should be made for such loads. Whenever any of these
internal loads is active only intermittently, a time-weighted average should be
used.
A transmission load exists whenever the temperature of the air on one side
of a wall differs from that on the other. Heat will naturally pass from the
high-temperature air to the low-temperature air. The rate at which this heat
travels through the wall depends on the resistance it encounters. Natural
convection brings the heat close to the wall, but it is usual to assume that a
stagnant film of air exists right at the surface. Increased air motion reduces
the resistance of such films; therefore, a higher resistance is usually assigned
to an indoor surface in comparatively still air than for an outdoor surface. In
air-conditioning work it is usual to assume still air on the inside, a 7½-mph
wind on the outside in summer, and a 15-mph wind in winter. Tables 21.5
.

through 21.12 use air-film resistances based on these conditions. Also, the
thermal conductivity and the thickness of the various building materials and
insulation have also been considered. The direction of heat flow, whether
horizontal, vertically up, or vertically down, as it affects the conductance of
any air spaces, has been considered, too. These tables list the overall
coefficient U for the transmission of heat through the air films, the wall, the
insulation, etc. in Btu per hr per sq ft of surface per °F. The proper value,
when included in the convection heat-transfer formula
1
Qû H = UA t o − ti 6 (21.1)
1 6
with the appropriate area A in sq ft and the temperature difference t o − ti in
°F, yields Qû H , the transmission loss or gain (depending on the direction of
heat flow) in Btu per hr. The area depends on the actual building dimensions,
and the temperature difference should be based on the design indoor ti and
outdoor t o dry-bulb temperatures.
In summer design, a sun load must be figured since the maximum load is
usually due to solar radiation. For glass surfaces, the peak sun effect occurs at
different times for the various exposures but always produces an immediate
load on the system. This is not so for opaque walls and roofs because thermal
storage produces a temperature lag. So, the time of maximum cooling load
may differ greatly from the time of maximum solar-radiation intensity. The
theoretical approach to calculating sun effect involves such considerations as
solar altitude, azimuth, and declination, but the greatly simplified method
presented here is accurate enough for most air-conditioning work. For best
accuracy, refer to the data in the ASHRAE Handbook - Fundamentals, which
includes equations and coefficients for calculating solar-heat-gain factors by
computer.
For relatively opaque surfaces, the effect of the sun can be estimated by
using the equivalent temperature differences ETD listed in Tables 21.13 and
1 6
21.14 instead of t o − ti in the usual convection heat-transfer formula. For
transparent surfaces, heat gains per unit area are listed in Table 21.15. Here
the heat gain is divided into that which is transmitted directly through the
glass by radiation, that which is absorbed, and that which is transmitted by
convection and radiation due to the temperature difference between the two
surfaces. Listed in Table 21.16 are various correction factors that account for
different types of glass and shading and deviations from indoor and outdoor
design temperatures.
Whenever outdoor conditions differ from those indoors, a ventilation load
must be considered. As discussed in the ventilation chapter, some outside air
will infiltrate through various cracks, etc. unless the pressure within is enough
to offset the normal wind or stack effect, or both.
(continued on page 21-54)
© 1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc

Table 2l.5 Transmission Coefficients U for Roofs & Ceilings

In Btu/hr-ft2-°F
Rafter Space
Unventilated/Uninsulated Insulated
PITCHED ROOFS Shingles
Asph Asph Tile Wood
Sheathing Any
ply 25/32 wood 1 × 4
Ceiling BP BP BP Strips
Finish Backing R .95 1.48 1.09. 87 -
Upward Direction of Heat Flow (Winter Conditions)
None None - .57 .44 .53 .60 .66
None Gyp. bd. 3/8" .32 .34 .29 .32 .35 .54
Plaster-lt. 1/2" Gyp. lath 3/8" .64 .30 .26 .29 .31 .46
Plaster-sd. 1/2" Gyp. lath 3/8" .41 .33 .28 .31 .34 .52
Plaster-lt. 3/4" Metal lath .47 .32 .27 .31 .33 .50
Plaster-sd. 1/4" Metal lath .13 .36 .30 .34 .37 .61
None Insul. bd. 1/2" 1.43 .25 .22 .24 .25 .34
Plaster-sd. 1/2" Insul. bd. lath 1.52 .24 .21 .23 .25 .33
Plaster-sd. 1/2" Wood lath .40 .33 .28 .31 .34 .52
Acous. tile 1/2" Gyp. bd. 3/8" 1.51 .24 .21 .23 .25 .33
Acous. tile 1/2" Furring 1.19 .26 .23 .25 .27 .37
Acous. tile 3/4" Gyp. bd. 3/8" 2.10 .21 .19 .20 .21 .26
Acous. tile 3/4" Furring 1.78 .23. 20 22 .23 30
Downward Direction of Heat Flow (Summer Conditions)
None None - .51 .40 .48 .53 .56
None Gyp. bd. .32 .30 .26 .29 .31 .47
Plaster-lt. 1/2" Gyp. lath 3/8" .64 .28 .24 .27 .28 .41
Plaster-sd. 1/2" Gyp. lath 3/8" .41 .29 .25 .28 .30 .45
Plaster-lt. 3/4" Metal lath .47 .29 .25 .28 .30 .44
Plaster-sd. 3/4" Metal lath. .13 .32 .27 .31 .33 .52
None lnsul. bd. 1/2" 1.43 .23 .20 .22 .23 .31
Plaster-sd. 1/2" Insul. bd. lath 1.52 .22 .20 .22 .23 .30
Plaster-sd. 1/2" Wood lath .40 .29 .26 .28 .30 .46
Acaus. tile 1/2" Gyp. bd. 3/8" 1.51 .22 .20 .22 .23 .30
Acous. tile 3/4" Gyp. bd. 3/8" 2.10 .20 .18 .19 .20 .26
Note: Based-on 15-mph outside in winter (.17), 7-1/2-mph outside in summer (.25), still air
inside (.61 up -.92 down), and air space, if any (.85 up - 1.25 down).
Adapted from the data of ASHRAE Guide and Data Book-Fundamentals ASHRAE, New
York, 1967, p. 449.

Table 21.5 (Cont.)

Transmission Coefficients U for Roofs & Ceilings
In Btu/hr-ft2-°F
FLAT MASONRY Roofing (built-up over)

ROOFS Concrete
Gravel Agg. Lt. Wgt. Agg.
Ceiling 4" 6" 8" 2" 3" 4"
Finish Backing R .32 .48 .64 2.22 3.33 4.44
None None - .70 .63 .57 .30 .23 .18
None Sus. gp. bd. 3/8" .32 .38 .36 .34 .22 .18 .15
Plaster-lt. 1/2" Sus. gp. bd.3/8" .64 .34 .32 .31 .21 .17 .14
Plaster-sd. 1/2" Sus. gp. bd. 3/8" .41 .37 .35 .33 .22 .18 .15
Plaster-lt. 3/4" Sus. metal lath .47 .36 .34 .33 .22 .17 .15
Plaster-sd. 3/4" Sus. metal lath .13 .41 .39 .37 .23 .18 .15
Acous. tile 1/2" Gyp. bd. 3/8" 1.51 .26 .25 .24 .18 .15 .13
Acous. tile 1/2" Fur. or chan. 1.19 .29 .27 .26 .19 .15 .13
Acous. tile 3/4" Gyp. bd. 3/8" 2.10 .23 .22 .21 .16 .14 .12
None None - .55 .51 .47 .27 .21 .17
None Sus. gp. bd.3/8" .32 .30 .28 .27 .19 .16 .13
Plaster-lt. 1/2" Sus. gp. bd. 3/8" .64 .27 .26 .25 .18 .15 .13
Plaster-sd. 1/2" Sus. gp. bd. 3/8" .41 .29 .28 .26 .19 .15 .13
Plaster-lt. 3/4" Sus. metal lath .47 .28 .27 .26 .18 .15 .1 3
Acous. tile 1/2" Gyp. bd. 3/8" 1.51 .22 .21 .20 .15 .13 .12
Acous. tile 3/4" Gyp. bd. 3/8" 2.10 .19 .19 .18 .14 .12 .11
Acous. tile 3/4" Fur. or chan. 1.78 .21 .20 19 .15 .13 .11
Note: Based on 15-mph outside in winter (.17), 7-1/2-mph outside in summer (.25), still air
inside (.61 up - .92 down), and airspace, if any (.85 up - 1.25 down).
Adapted from the data of ASHRAE Guide and Data Book- Fundamentals, ASHRAE, New
York, 1967, pp. 445-446.

Table 21.5 (Cont.)

Transmission Coefficients U for Roofs & Ceilings
In Btu/hr-ft2-°F
FLAT WOOD OR Rafter Construction

METAL ROOFS Roofing (built-up over)
Wood Deck Slabs Metal
Ceiling 21/32 1-5/8 2-5/8 2 3 Deck
Finish Backing R .98 2.03 3.23 3.6 5.4 -
None None - .48 .32 .23 .21 .15 .90
None Gyp. bd. 3/8" .32 .31 .23 .18 .17 .13 .44
Plaster-lt. 1/2" Gyp. bd. 3/8" .64 .28 .22 .17 .16 .13 .38
Plaster-sd. 1/2" Gyp. bd. 3/8" .41 .30 .23 .18 .17 .13 .42
Plaster-lt. 3/4" Metal lath .47 .29 .22 .18 .17 .13 .41
Plaster-sd. 3/4" Metal lath .13 .33 .24 .19 .18 .13 .48
Pl. or p. sd. 1/2" Insul. bd. 1/2" 1.47 .23 .18 .15 .14 .11 .29
Acous. tile 1/2" Gyp. bd. 3/8" 1.51 .22 .18 .15 .14 .11 .29
Acous. tile 1/2" Furring 1.19 .24 .19 .16 .15 .12 .32
Acous. tile 3/4" Gyp. bd. 3/8" 2.10 .20 .16 .14 .13 .11 .25
Acous. tile 3/4" Furring 1.78 .21 17 14 .14 .11 .27
None None - .40 .28 .21 .20 .14 .67
None Gyp. bd. 3/8" .32 .25 .20 .16 .15 .12 .33
Plaster-lt. 1/2" Gyp. bd. 3/8" .64 .23 .19 .15 .14 .11 .30
Plaster-sd. 1/2" Gyp. bd. 3/8" .41 .24 .19 .16 .15 .12 .32
Pl. or pl. sd. 1/2" Insul. bd. 1/2" 1.47 .19 .16 .13 .13 .10 .24
Acous. tile 1/2" Gyp. bd. 3/8" 1.51 .19 .16 .13 .13 .10 .24
Acous. tile 3/4" Gyp. bd. 3/8" 2.10 .17 .15 .12 .12 .10 .21
Acous. tile 3/4" Furring 1.78 18 .15 .13 .12 .10 .22
Note: Based on 15-mph outside in winter (.17), 7-1/2-mph outside in summer (.25), still air
inside (.6 1 up - .92 down),and air space, if any (.85 up-1.25 down).
Adapted from the data of ASHRAE Guide and Data Book – Fundamentals, ASHRAE,
NewYork, 1967, pp. 447-448.

Table 21.6 Transmission Coefficients U for Walls

In Btu/hr-ft2-°F
Overall coefficients given for OUTSIDE WALLS without interior finishing.
Insert values in Table 21.7 to obtain value with interior finish.
FRAME Sheathing
CONSTRUCTION Bldg. Ply. Gyp. Pap. Insulation
None Pap. wood Bd. & Wd. Board
5/16 1/2 25/32 1/2 25/32
Exterior Finish R .00 .06 .39 .45 1.04 1.32 2.06
Asphalt insul. siding 1.45 .43 .42 .37 .36 .30 28 .23
Wood panels, 3/4 .94 .56 .54 .46 .45 .35 .32 .26
Wood shingles, 5/8 .87 - - .47 .46 .36 .33 .26
Wood siding, 5/8" .80 .61 .58 .49 .48 .37 .34 .27
Plywood, .47 .76 .72 .58 .57 .42 .38 .30
Brick veneer, 4" .44 - - .60 .57 .43 .38 .30
Cut stone veneer, 4" .32 - - .64 .62 .45 .40 .31
Asb. cement siding .21 - - .69 .66 .48 .42 .32
Stucco. 1" .20 - - .69 .67 .48 .42 .32
Asphalt roll siding .15 - - .72 .69 .49 .43 .33
Met. curtain - flat - 1.18 1.10 .81 .77 .53 .46 .34
Met. siding - not flat† - 1.30 - .51* .49* .38* .34* .27*
*Air space assumed @ 20°F and 1/4" avg. (.73).†corrugations, etc. 10% greater area than flat.
Facing (4" unless otherwise specified)
MASONRY WALLS No. cut Face 8" Conc. Com. Cind.
Add Stone Brick Conc. Block Brick Block
Wall or BackingThk. Cav. R .00 .32 .44 .64 .71 .80 1.11
Common brick 4" .97 .80 - - .33 - .30 .29 .27
4" - .80 .61 .48 .46 .42 .41 .39 .35
8" - 1.60 .41 .35 .33 .31 .31 .30 .27
12" - 2.40 .31 .27 .26 .25 .25 .24 .22
Hollow 4" .97 1.11 - - .30 - .27 .27 .25
clay tile 4" - 1.11 .51 .42 .40 .37 .36 .35 .32
8" - 1.85 .37 .32 .31 .29 .28 .28 .26
12" - 2.50 .30 .27 .26 .24 24 .24 .22
Concrete block 4" .97 .71 - - .34 - .31 .30 .27
4" - .71 .64 .51 .48 .43 .42 .41 .36
8" - 1.11 .51 .42 .40 .37 .36 .35 .32
12" - 1.28 .47 .39 .38 .35 .34 .33 .30
Cinder block 4" .97 1.11 - - .30 - .27 .27 .25
4" - 1.11 .51 .42 .40 .37 .36 .35 .32
8" - 1.72 .39 .33 .32 .30 .30 .29 .26
12" - 1.89 .36 .32 .30 .29 .28 .27 .25
Lightweight 4" .97 1.50 - - .27 - .25 .24 .23
block 4" - 1.50 .43 .36 .35 32 .32 .31 .28
8"- 2.00 .35 .31 .30 .28 .27 .27 .25
12" - 2.27 .32 .28 .27 .26 .25 .25 .23
Poured 6" - .48 .75 .57 .53 - .47 .45 .39
concrete 8" - .64 .69 .52 .49 - .43 .42 .37
Concrete 10" - .80 61 - - - - - -
or stone 12" - .89 .55 - - - - - -
Limestone/ 16" - 1.28 .47 - - - - - -
sandstone 24" - 1.92 .36 - -- - - - -
Note: Based on 1/2-in. mortar (.10) between facing and backing, 15 mph outside (./7); still air
inside (. 68).
Adapted from the data of ASHRAE Guide and Data Book-Fundamentals, ASHRAE, New
York, 1967, pp. 435-438. Table 21.7 from pp. 435-440.

Table 2l.7 Transmission Coefficients U for Walls

In Btu/hr-ft2-°F
Overall coefficients given for INTERIOR FINISHES for various outside wall coefficients
0utside Type Lath and Plaster on Frame or Furring Wood Panels5/8" Plaster
Wall Gypsum Lath Metal Wood 1/2" Ins. on Frame on Masonry
Table 21.6 NP LP SP LP SP SP NP SP 3/4" 1/4" LP SP
U R .32 .64 .41 .47 .13 .40 1.43 1.52 .94 .31 .39 .11
.22 4.54 .21 .19 .20 .20 .21 .20 .17 .16 .18 .21 .20 .22
.23 4.35 .21 .20 .21 .21 .22 .21 .17 .17 .19 .21 .21 .22
.24 4.16 .22 .21 .22 .22 .23 .22 .18 .18 .20 .22 .22 .23
.25 4.00 .23 .22 .23 .22 .24 .23 .18 .18 .20 .23 .23 .24
.26 3.85 .24 .22 .23 .23 .25 .24 .19 .19 .21 .24 .24 .25
.27 3.70 .25 .23 .24 .24 .26 .24 .20 .19 .22 .25 .24 .26
.28 3.57 .26 .24 .25 .25 .27 .25 .20 .20 .22 .26 .25 .27
.29 3.45 .26 .24 .26 .26 .28 .26 .20 .20 .23 .27 .26 .28
.30 3.33 .27 .25 .27 .27 .29 .27 .21 .21 .23 .27 .27 .29
.31 3.23 .28 .26 .27 .27 .30 .27 .21 .21 .24 .28 .28 .30
.32 3.13 .29 .27 .28 .28 .31 .28 .22 .21 .25 .29 .28 .31
.33 3.03 .30 .27 .29 .29 .32 .29 .22 .22 .25 .30 .29 .32
.34 2.94 .31 .28 .30 .29 .33 .30 .23 .22 .26 .31 .30 .33
.35 2.86 .31 .29 .31 .30 .33 .31 .23 .23 .26 .32 .31 .34
.36 2.78 .32 .29 .31 .31 .34 .31 .24 .23 .27 .32 .32 .35
.37 2.70 .33 .30 .32 .32 .35 .32 .24 .24 .27 .33 .32 .36
.38 2.63 .34 .31 .33 .32 .36 .33 .25 .24 .28 .34 .33 .37
.39 2.56 .35 .31 .34 .33 .37 .34 .25 .25 .29 .35 .34 .37
.40 2.50 .35 .32 .34 .34 .38 .34 .25 .25 .29 .36 .35 .38
.41 2.44 .36 .32 .35 .34 .39 .35 .26 .25 .30 .36 .35 .39
.42 2.38 .37 .33 .36 .35 .40 .36 .26 .26 .30 .37 .36 .40
.43 2.32 .38 .34 .37 .36 .41 .37 .27 .26 .31 .38 .37 .41
.45 2.22 .39 .35 .38 .37 .42 .38 .27 .27 .32 .39 .38 .43
.46 2.17 .40 .36 .39 .38 .43 .39 .28 .27 .32 .40 .39 .44
.47 2.13 .41 .36 .39 .38 .44 .39 28 .27 .33 .41 .40 .45
.48 2.08 .42 .37 .40 .39 .45 .40 .28 .28 .33 .42 .40 .46
.49 2.04 .42 .37 .41 .40 .46 .41 .29 .28 .34 .43 .41 .47
.51 1.96 .44 .38 .42 .41 .48 .42 .29 .29 .34 .44 .42 .48
.52 1.92 .45 .39 . 43 .42 .49 .43 .30 .29 .35 .45 .43 .49
.53 1.89 .45 .39 .43 .42 .50 .44 .30 .29 .35 .45 .44 .50
.54 1.85 .46 .40 .44 .43 .51 .44 .30 .30 .36 .46 .44 .51
.55 1.82 .47 .41 .45 .44 .51 .45 .31 .30 .36 .47 .45 .52
.56 1.79 .47 .41 .45 .44 .52 .46 .31 .30 .37 .48 .46 .53
.57 1.75 .48 .42 .46 .45 .53 .47 .31 .31 .37 .49 .47 .54
.58 1.72 .49 .42 .47 .46 .54 .47 .32 .31 .38 .49 .47 .55
.60 1.67 .50 .43 .48 .47 .56 .48 .32 .31 .38 .50 .49 .56
.61 1.64 .51 .44 .49 .47 .57 .49 .33 .32 .39 .51 .49 .57
.62 1.61 .52 .45 .50 .48 .58 .50 .33 .32 .39 .52 .50 .58
.64 1.56 .53 .46 .51 .49 .59 .51 .33 .32 .40 .53 .51 .60
.66 1.52 .54 .47 .52 .50 .61 .52 .34 .33 .41 .55 .52 .62
.67 1.49 .55 .47 .53 .51 .61 .53 .34 .33 .41 .56 .53 .63
.69 1.45 .56 .48 .54 .52 .63 .54 .35 .34 .42 .57 .54 .64
.72 1.39 .58 .49 .56 .54 .66 .56 .35 .34 .43 .59 .56 67
.75 1.33 .60 .51 .57 .56 .68 .58 .36 .35 .44 .61 .58 .69
.77 1.30 .62 .51 .59 .56 .70 .59 .37 .35 .45 .62 .59 .71
.81 1.23 .64 .53 .61 .59 .74 .61 .38 .36 .46 .65 .62 .75
1.10 .91 .81 65 .76 .73 .96 .76 .43 .41 .54 .81 .77 .99
1.18 .85 .85 .67 .79 .76 1,02 .80 .44 .42 .56 .86 .80 1.04
1.30 .77 1.92 .71 .85 .51 1.11 .85 .45 44 .59 .93 .86 1.14
Code: NP=no plaster. LP=Lightweight plaster. SP=sand plaster.

Table 2l.8 Transmission Coefficients U for Insulation

In Btu/hr-ft2-°F
Roof Insulation - Nominal Thickness Batt or Fill -Act. Thick.
U 1/2" 1" 1-1/2" 2" 2-1/2" 3" 1/2" 1" 1-1/2" 2"
w/o Act. Thick. Adjusted to R as follows Fibrous Mat. R for k=.27
ins. 1.39 2.78 4.17 5.26 6.67 8.33 1.85 3.70 5.55 7.40
.08 .07 .07 .06 .06 .05 .05 .07 .06 .06 .05
.10 .09 .08 .07 .07 .06 .06 .08 .07 .06 .06
.12 .10 .09 .08 .07 .07 .06 .10 .08 .07 .06
.14 .12 .10 .09 .08 .07 .07 .11 .09 .08 .07
.16 .13 .11 .10 .09 .08 .07 .12 .10 .09 .07
.18 .14 .12 .10 .09 .08 .07 .14 .11 .09 .08
.20 .16 .13 .11 .10 .09 .08 .15 .12 .10 .08
.22 .17 .14 .12 .10 .09 .08 .16 .12 .10 .08
.24 .18 .14 .12 .11 .09 .08 .17 .13 .10 .09
.26 .19 .15 .12 .11 .10 .08 .18 .13 .11 .09
.28 .20 .16 .13 .11 .10 .08 .18 .14 .11 .09
.30 .21 .16 .13 .12 .10 .09 .19 .14 .11 .09
.32 .22 .17 .14 .12 .10 .09 .20 .15 .12 .10
.34 .23 .18 .14 .12 .10 .09 .21 .15 .12 .10
.36 .24 .18 .14 .12 .11 .09 .22 .15 .12 .10
.38 .25 .19 .15 .13 .11 .09 .22 .16 .12 .10
.40 .26 .19 .15 .13 .11 .09 .23 .16 .12 .10
.45 .28 .20 .16 .13 .11 .10 .25 .17 .13 .10
.50 .29 .21 .16 .14 .12 .10 .26 .18 .13 .11
.55 .31 .22 .17 .14 .12 .10 .27 .18 .14 .11
.60 .33 .22 .17 .14 .12 .10 .28 .19 .14 .11
.65 .34 .23 .18 .15 .12 .10 .29 .19 .14 .11
.70 .35 .24 .18 .15 .12 .10 .30 .20 .14 .11
.75 .37 .24 .18 .15 .13 .10 .31 .20 .15 .11
.80 .38 .25 .19 .15 .13 .10 .32 .20 .15 .12
.85 .39 .25 .19 .16 .13 .11 .33 .20 .15 .12
.90 .40 .26 .19 .16 .13 .11 .34 .21 .15 .12
1.00 .42 .26 .19 .16 .13 .11 .35 .21 .15 .12
1.10 .43 .27 .20 .16 .13 .11 .36 .22 .16 .12
York, 1967, pp. 450-451.

Table 2l.9 Transmission Coefficients U for Glass, etc.

In Btu/hr-ft2-°F
VERTICAL GLASS SHEETS
Number of Sheets One Two Two Two Three Three Three
Airspace, inches None 1/4 1/2 1 1/4 1/2 1
Outdoor exposure 1.13 0.61 0.55 0.53 0.41 0.36 0.34
Indoor exposure 0.50 0.46 0.45 0.38 0.33 0.32 0.75
HORIZONTAL GLASS SHEETS
Heat Flow Up Heat Flow Down
Number of Sheets One Two Two Two One Two Two Two
Air space, inches None 1/4 1/2 1 None 1/4 1/2 1
Outdoor exposure 1.40 0.70 0.66 0.63 - - - -
Indoor exposure 0.96 0.59 0.56 0.56 0.60 0.43 0.39 0.38
WALLS OF HOLLOW GLASS BLOCK
Outdoor Indoor
Description Exposure Partition
5-1/4 x 5-1/4 x 3-7/8 in. thick 0.60 0.46
7-3/4 x 7-3/4 x 3-7/8 in. thick 0.56 0.44
11-3/4 x 11-3/4 x 3-7/8 in. thick 0.52 0.40
with glass fiber dividing the cavity
7-3/4 x 7-3/4 x3-7/8 in. thick 0.48 0.38
11-3/4 x 11-3/4 x 3-7/8 in. thick 0.44 0.36
APPROXIMATE APPLICATION FACTORS FOR WINDOWS
(Multiply Flat Glass U Values by These Factors)
Type Windows With
of Single Glass Double Glass Storm Sash
Window % Glass Factor % Glass Factor % Glass Factor
Sheets 100 1.00 100 1.00 - -
Wood sash 80 0.90 80 0.95 80 0.90
Wood sash 60 0.80 60 0.85 60 0.80
Steel sash 80 1.00 80 1.20 80 1.00
Aluminum 80 1.10 80 1.30 80 1.10
SOLID WOOD DOORS
Nominal Thickness Actual Thickness U U
Inches Inches Exposed Door Glass Storm Door
1 25/32 0.64 0.37
1-1/4 1-1/16 0.55 0.34
1-1/2 1-5/16 0.49 0.32
1-3/4 1-3/8 0.48 0.31
2 1-5/8 0.43 0.28
2-1/2 2-1/8 0.36 0.26
3 2-5/8 0.31 0.23
York, 1967, p. 453.

Table 2l.10 Transmission Coefficients U for Floors & Ceilings

In Btu/hr-ft2-°F
FRAME Sub-Flooring
CONSTRUCTION None 25/32 25/32 and Felt
Flooring
None None Cer 3/4" Ply.& Ins.&
Ceiling Tile Hard Tile Tile
Finish Backing R - .98 1.38 1.72 1.87 2.26
None None - - .45 .38 .34 .31 .28
None Gyp. bd., 3/8" .32 .65 .30 .27 .24 .23 .21
Plaster-lt. 1/2" Gyp. lath 3/8" .64 .54 .27 .24 .23 .21 .20
Plaster-sd. 1/2"Gyp. lath 3/8" .41 .61 .29 .26 .24 .22 .21
Plaster-lt. 3/4" Metal lath. .47 .59 .28 .26 .23 .22 .20
Plaster-sd. 3/4" Metal lath. .13 .74 .31 .28 .26 .24 .22
None Insul. bd. 1/2" 1.43 .38 .22 .20 .19 .18 .17
Plaster-sd. 1/2" lnsul. bd. 1/2" 1.52 36 .22 .20 .19 .18 .17
Plaster-sd. 1/2" Wood lath .40 .62 .29 .26 .24 .22 .21
Acous. tile 1/2"Gyp. bd. 3/8" 1.51 .37 .22 .20 .19 .18 .17
Acous. tile 1/2"Furring 1.19 .41 .24 .22 .20 .19 .18
Acous. tile 3/4"Gyp. bd. 3/8" 2.10 .30 .19 .18 .17 .16 .15
Acous. tile 3/4"Furring 1.78 .33 .21 .19 .18 .17 .16
None None - - .35 .31 .28 .26 .24
None Gyp. bd. 3/8" .32 .46 .23 .21 .20 .18 .17
Plaster-lt. 1/2" Gyp. lath 3/8" .64 .40 .21 .20 .18 .17 .16
Plaster-sd. 1/2" Gyp. lath 3/8" .41 .44 .22 .21 .19 .18 .17
None lnsul. bd. 1/2" 1.43 .31 .18 .17 .16 .15 .15
Plaster-sd. 1/2" lnsul. bd. 1/2" 1.52 .30 .18 .17 .16 .15 .14
Plaster-sd. 1/2" Wood lath .40 .45 .22 .21 .19 .18 .17
Acous. tile 1/2"Gyp. bd.3/8" 1.51 .30 .18 .17 .16 .15 .14
Acous. tile 3/4"Gyp. bd. 3/8" 2.10 .25 .16 .15 .15 .14 .13
Acous. tile 3/4"Furring 1.78 .28 .17 1.16 .15 .15 .14
Note: Based on still air on both sides (.61 up/ .92 down) air space if any 8 in.
(.85 up/ l.25 down).
York, 1967, p. 442.

Table 21.10 (Cont.)

Transmission Coeff icients U for Floors & Ceilings
In Btu/hr-ft2-°F
CONCRETE Thickness of Deck
DECK 4" 8" 4" 4" 4" 4"
CONSTRUCTION Flooring
13/16" Ply, Wood,
Deck Deck 1/8" Wood Felt, Felt,
Ceiling Only Only Tile Block Tile Hdwd.
Finish Backing R .32 .64 .37 1.06 1.21 2.04
None None - .65 .54 .63 .44 .41 .31
Plaster-lt. 3/8" None .08 .62 .52 .60 .42 .40 .30
Acous. tile 1/2"None 1.19 .37 .33 .36 .29 .28 .22
None Sus. gyp. 3/8" .32 .37 .33 .36 .29 .28 .23
Plaster-lt. 1/2" Sus. gyp. 3/8" .64 .33 .30 .33 .27 .26 .21
Plaster-sd. 1/2"Sus. gyp. 3/8" .41 .36 .32 .35 .28 .27 .22
Acous. tile 1/2"Sus. gyp. 3/8" 1.51 .26 .24 .25 .22 .21 .18
Acous. tile 1/2"Fur. or chan. 1.19 .28 .26 .28 .23 .22 .19
None None - .46 .40 .45 .34 .33 .26
Plaster-lt. 1/8" None .08 .45 .39 .44 .34 .32 .26
Acous. tile 1/2"None 1.19 .30 .27 .29 .24 .24 .20
None Sus. gyp. 3/8" .32 .27 .25 .26 .22 .22 .18
Plaster-lt. 1/2" Sus. gyp.3/8" .64 .25 .23 .24 .21 .20 .17
Plaster-sd. 1/2" Sus. gyp.3/8" .41 .26 .24 .26 .22 .21 .18
Acous. tile 3/4"Fur or chan. 1.78 .19 .18 .19 .17 .16 .14
Note: Based on still air both sides (.61 up/ l.92 down) air space if any 8"(.85
up/ 1.25 down).
York, 1967, pp. 443444.

Table 2l.11 Transmission Coefficients U for Partitions

In Btu/hr-ft2-°F
Surface Finish
One Side Both Sides
PARTITIONS NP SP LP NP SP LP
.00 .20/ .64/ .00 .20/ .64/ Plast.
R in. in. in. in. in. in. Thick.
Frame Construction
Gypsum board/lath 3/8" .32 .60 .56 .50 .34 .32 .28 1/2"
Wood lath 1/4" .30 - .57 - - .32 - 1/2"
Insulation board 1/2" 1.43 .36 .35 - .19 .19 - 1/2"
Metal lath - - - .67 .55 - .39 .31 3/4"
Plywood 1/4" .31 .60 - - .34 - - -
Plywood 1/8" .47 .55 - - .31 - - -
Plywood 1/2" .63 .50 - - .28 - - -
Wood panels 3/4" .94 .43 - - .24 - - -
Metal panels - - .74 - - .43 - - -
Masonry
Common brick 4" .80 .46 .44 .39 .46 .42 .34 5/8"
Concrete block 4" .71 .48 .46 .40 .48 .43 .35 5/8"
Concrete block 8" 1.11 .40 .39 .35 .40 .37 .31 5/8"
Concrete block 12" 1.28 .38 .36 .33 .38 .35 .29 5/8"
Cinder block 3" .86 .45 .43 .38 .45 .41 .33 5/8"
Cinder block 4" 1.11 .41 .39 .35 .41 .37 .31 5/8
Cinder block 8" 1.72 .32 .31 .29 .32 .30 .26 5/8"
Cinder block 12" 1.89 .31 .30 .27 .31 .29 .25 5/8"
Lightweight block 3" 1.27 .38 .36 .33 .38 .35 .30 5/8"
Hollow clay tile 3" .80 .46 .44 .39 .46 .42 .34 5/8"
Hollow clay tile 4" 1.11 .41 .39 .35 .41 .37 .31 5/8"
Hollow clay tile 6" 1.52 .35 .33 .31 .35 .32 .27 5/8"
Hollow clay tile 8" 1.85 .31 .30 .28 .31 .29 .25 5/8"
Hollow gypsum tile 3" 1.35 .37 .35 .32 .37 .34 .29 5/8"
Hollow gypsum tile 4" 1.67 .33 .32 .29 .33 .31 .26 5/8"
Note: Based on still air on both sides (.68).
NP = no plaster. SP = sound plaster. LP = light-weight plaster.
York, 1967, pp. 438 & 441.

Table 21.12
û
Transmission Rates QH for Concrete on or below Grade
BELOW GRADE (Based on U = 0.10, Temp. = 70°F Inside)

Ground Temp. Btu/hr per sq ft Floor Btu/hr per sq ft Wall
40°F 3.0 6.0
50°F 2.0 4.0
60°F 1.0 2.0
ON GRADE-UNHEATED FLOORS in Btu/hr per ft Exposed Edge

No Edge lnsul. 1" Edge lnsul.
Outdoor Design slab only
0 to -10°F 60 50
-10 to -20°F 65 55
-20 to -30°F 75 60
1" Edge lnsul. 2" Edge. lnsul.

Outdoor Design slab & footer slab only
0 to -10°F 45 40
-10 to -20°F 50 45
-20 to -30°F 55 50
ON GRADE-HEATED FLOORS in Btu/hr per ft Exposed Edge

1" × 18" 1" × 12" Vert. × 2" × 12" Vert. ×
Outdoor Design Vert. lnsul. 2" Horiz. lnsul. 12" Horiz. lnsul.
0 to -10°F 85 80 65
-10 to -20°F 95 90 75
-20 to -30°F 1 05 100 85
York, 1967, pp. 460-461.

Table 2l.13 ETDs for Sun Effect on Roofs in °F
ROOFS SUN TIME

A.M. P.M.
Construction Description 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12
Roofs-Exposed to Sun
Light 1" Wood 12 38 54 62 50 26 10 4 0
Med. lt 2" Concrete 6 30 48 58 50 32 14 6 2
Medium 2" Gypsum 0 20 40 52 54 42 20 10 6
Med. hvy 4" Concrete 0 20 38 50 52 40 22 12 6
Heavy 6" Concrete 5 6 22 36 44 44 33 19 13
Roofs-Water-Covered-Exposed to Sun
Light 1" Water 0 4 16 22 18 14 10 2 0
Heavy 1" Water -2 -2 -4 10 14 16 14 10 6
Any 6" Water -2 0 0 6 10 10 8 4 0
Roofs-Water-Sprayed-Exposed to Sun
Light Sprays 0 4 12 18 16 14 10 2 0
Heavy Sprays -2 -2 2 8 12 14 12 10 6
Roofs in Shade
Light Shade -4 0 6 12 14 12 8 2 0
Medium Shade -4 -2 2 8 12 12 10 6 2
Heavy Shade -2 -2 0 4 8 10 10 8 4
Basic Value Listed for: Corrections for Other Conditions:
1 .The construction listed and normal 1 .None for similar construction with
finish or without 2" insulation.
2. Dark-colored exterior. 2. 55%/80% difference in values
between sun and shade for light
and medium colors.
3. August 1 in 40° N. latitude. 3. None for hot months up to 50°
latitude.
4. 20° outdoor degree range daily. 4. Add/subtract 1° ETD for each 2°
(95° max. 75° min. 84° mean) less or greater than daily range.
5. 15° outdoor-indoor difference 5. Add/subtract 1° ETD for each 1°
95° outside – 80° room. greater or less than outside-inside
difference.
Adapted from the data of ASHRAE: Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning Guide. New
York, 1960, pp. 190-191.

Table 2l.14 ETDs for Sun Effect on Walls in °F
North SUN TIME

Latitude A.M. P.M.
Wall Facing 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12
Frame
NE 22 24 14 12 14 14 10 6 2
E 30 36 32 12 14 14 10 6 2
SE 13 26 28 24 16 14 10 6 2
S -4 4 22 30 26 16 10 6 2
SW -4 0 6 26 40 42 24 6 2
W –4 0 6 20 40 48 22 8 2
NW -4 0 6 12 24 40 34 6 2
N(Shade) -4 -2 4 10 14 12 8 4 0
4-in. Brick or Stone Veneer and Frame
NE -2 24 20 10 12 14 12 10 6
E 2 30 31 14 12 14 12 10 6
SE 2 20 28 26 18 14 12 10 6
S -4 -2 12 24 26 20 12 8 4
SW a 0 2 12 32 36 34 10 6
W 0 0 4 10 26 40 42 16 6
NW -4 -2 2 8 12 30 34 12 6
N(Shade) -4 1-2 10 6 110 12 12 8 4
8-in. Hollow Tile or 8-in. Cinder Block
NE 0 0 20 16 10 12 14 12 8
E 4 12 24 26 20 12 14 14 10
SE 2 2 16 20 20 14 14 12 8
S 0 0 2 12 24 26 20 12 8
SW 2 2 2 6 12 26 30 26 8
W 4 4 4 6 10 18 30 32 18
NW 0 0 2 4 8 12 22 30 10
N(Shade) I 0 1 6 110 10 10 6
8-in. Brick or 12-in. Hollow Tile or 12-in. Cinder Block
NE 2 2 10 16 14 10 I0 10 10
E 8 8 14 18 18 14 14 14 12
SE 8 6 6 14 18 16 12 12 12
s 4 4 4 4 10 16 16 12 10
SW 8 6 6 8 10 12 20 24 20

Table 2l.14 (Cont.) ETDs for Sun Effect on Walls in °F
North SUN TIME

Latitude A.M. P.M.
Wall Facing 8 10 12 2 4 6 8 10 12
8-in. Brick or 12-in. Hollow Tile or 12-in. Cinder Block
W 8 6 6 8 10 14 20 24 24
NW 2 2 2 4 6 8 10 16 18
N(Shade) 0 0 0 0 2 6 8 8 6
12-in. Brick
NE 8 8 8 8 10 12 12 10 10
E 12 12 12 10 12 14 14 14 14
SE 10 10 10 10 10 12 14 14 12
S 8 8 6 6 6 8 10 12 12
SW I0 10 10 10 10 10 10 12 14
W 12 12 12 10 10 10 10 12 16
NW 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 10 10
N(Shade) 4 2 2 2 2 2 12 4 6
8-in. Concrete or Stone or 6-in. or 8-in. Concrete Block
NE 4 4 16 14 in 12 12 10 8
E 6 14 24 24 18 14 14 12 10
SE 6 6 16 18 18 14 12 12 10
S 2 2 4 12 16 18 14 10 8
SW 6 4 6 8 14 22 24 22 10
W 6 6 6 8 12 20 28 26 14
NW 4 4 4 4 6 12 20 22 8
N(Shade) 0 0 10 2 14 6 8 6 4
12-in. Concrete or Stone
NE 6 6 6 14 14 10 10 12 10
E I0 8 10 18 18 16 12 14 14
SE 8 8 6 14 16 16 14 12 12
S 6 4 4 4 10 14 16 14 10
SW 8 8 6 6 8 I0 18 20 18
W 10 8 8 10 10 12 16 24 22
NW 6 6 6 6 6 8 10 18 20
N(Shade) 0 0 0 0 2 4 6 8 6
Refer to Table 21.13 for notes.
Adapted from the data of ASHRAE: Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning Guide, New
York, 1960, pp. 192-193.
© 1999 Hiwden Buffalo, Inc.

Table 2l.15 Heat Rates Qû H for Sun Effect on Glass

In Btu/hr–ft2
40°N. Latitude- August 1 -Clear Atmosphere
Sun Time N NE E SE S SW W NW Hor.
RADIATION-1/8" Common Window Glass
6AM 26 116 131 67 7 6 6 6 25
7 16 149 195 124 11 10 10 I0 77
8 14 129 205 156 18 12 12 12 137
9 15 79 180 162 42 14 14 14 188
10 16 31 127 148 69 16 16 16 229
11 17 18 58 113 90 23 17 17 252
Noon 17 17 19 64 98 64 19 17 259
1PM 17 18 58 113 90 23 17 17 252
2 16 31 127 148 69 16 16 16 229
3 15 79 180 162 42 14 14 14 188
4 14 129 205 156 18 12 12 12 137
5 16 149 195 124 11 10 10 10 77
6 26 116 131 67 7 6 6 6 25
7 3 7 f6 2 0 0 0 0 1
CONVECTION-80° Indoor-Common Window Glass (outside temp. in parentheses)
6AM (74) -5 -4 -4 -5 -5 -6 -6 -6 -5
7 (75) -5 -2 -2 -3 -5 -5 -5 -5 -3
8 (77) -3 0 1 0 -2 -3 -3 -3 0
9 (80) 0 2 4 3 1 0 0 0 3
10 (83) 3 4 6 6 5 3 3 3 8
11 (87) 8 8 10 11 10 9 8 8 13
Noon (90) 12 12 12 13 14 13 12 12 16
1PM (93) 15 15 15 16 17 17 17 15 20
2 (94) 16 16 16 16 18 19 19 17 21
3 (95) 17 17 17 17 19 21 21 19 21
4 (94) 16 16 16 16 17 20 20 19 19
5 (93) 15 15 15 15 15 18 19 18 17
6 (91) 13 13 13 13 13 14 15 15 13
7 (87) 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
ABSORPTION-1/4" Heat Absorbing Plate Glass
6AM 4 16 18 9 1 1 1 1 3
7 2 24 30 20 2 2 2 2 11
8 2 22 33 25 2 2 2 2 21
9 2 16 30 29 8 3 3 3 32
1 3 5 25 27 14 3 3 3 37
1 3 3 12 21 18 3 3 3 42
Noon 3 3 3 15 19 12 3 3 45
1PM 3 3 3 3 19 22 10 3 44
2 3 3 3 3 16 27 24 4 41
3 3 3 3 3 10 30 31 15 35
4 3 3 3 3 4 29 36 23 26
5 2 2 2 2 2 23 34 27 17
6 4 1 1 1 1 14 24 21 6
7 0 0 0 0 0 2 3 3 1
Italics indicate shaded glass.
York, 1960, pp. 196-198.

Table 2l.16 Corrections for Shading, Type of Glass, etc.
Glass Types and Combinations Radiation Convection Absorption

Single common window × l.00 × l.00 × .00
Single regular plate × .87 × .00 × .25
Single heat-absorbent plate × .46 × l.00 × l.00
Double common window × .85 × .60 × .10
Double regular plate × .66 × .60 × .55
Outside heat-absorb.-Inside Reg. Plate × .37 × .60 × .75
Hammered × .60-.80 × l.00 × .50
Hammered and etched on both sides × .50-.75 × l.00 × .65
Hammered heat-absorbent × .20-.25 × l.00 × l.l5
Hammered heat-absorb. etched 2 sides × .10-.20 × l.00 × l.40
Glass block × .25-.50 × .5-3.00 -
Shading (high no. in range for dark color, etc.)
Canvas awning-sides open × .25 - -
Canvas awning-sides closed × .35 - -
Roller shade-fully drawn × .41 -.81 - -
Roller shade-half drawn × .71-.91 - -
Venetian blind-45° slats × .45-.75 - -
Venetian awning-45° slats × .15 - -
Shade screen-40° solar altitude × .15-.20 - -
Temperature Deviation:
Room temperature-each degree below 80°F Add the following:
Outdoor temperature each degree
below 95°F Subtract the following:
Single flat or rolled figure glass 1.0 Btu/hr/ft2
Double flat or glass block 0.5 Btu/hr/ft2
York, 1960, pp. 199-205.

Table 21.17 Water-Vapor Permeances of Various Materials

In grains/hr-sq ft-in. Hg
Material Thickness Permeance
Air-still 1.0" 126.
Concrete (plain) 1.5" 1.8
Concrete (2 coats of asphalt) 1.5" 1.6
Felt-carpet 17 oz .056" 167.
30 lb building felt, one sheet .062" 1.8
Asphalt-saturated rag 15 lb .033-.038" 1.1-3.0
Tar-saturated rag 15 lb .030-.042" 5.7-38.6
Insulation:
Rack wool-loose 1.0" 25.6-230
Celotex vapor-seal sheathing .78" 2.0
Rock cork .523" 3.0
Pressed corkboard .905-.985" 2.3-2.7
Manufactured Boards:
Fibreboard (plain) 1.06" 18.7
(dipped asphalt on one surface) .633" 8.5
Masonite-Presdwood .13" 10.7
Masonite-Presdwood tempered .13" 4.8
Plasterboard. 37" 34.6
Plywood .25" 3.7-4.5
Paint (paint films only)
Aluminum (on celotex) 1 coat 9.0
Aluminum (on pine) 1 coat 3.5
Aluminum (on pine) 2 coats .5
Aluminum (on plaster) 2 coats 1.8
Aluminum (on plaster) 3 coats .9
Asphalt (on concrete) 2 coats 14.4
Enamel (on pine) 1 coat 4.5
2 coats 1.3
Flat white (on plywood) 2 coats 4.2
(on plaster) 2 coats 1.2-2.6
Paper
Asbestos-14 lb .28" 158.
Asphalt coated Kraft .01 3" .4-.7
Kraft-1 sheet .004" 79.
Kraft-light-waxed (2 lb) .003-.004" .1-1.2
Roofing-base sheet 39 lb .076" .3
cap sheet .080 .1
tar-saturated sheathing-11 lb .032-.040" 12.3-18.6
Plaster on metal lath 1/2" 16.
Plaster on wood lath 1/2" 6.7
Wood cedar (siding) - 1.8
pine .496" 1.7
spruce .480" 2.0
Water surface, free-standing - 609.

Even so, in order to pressurize a building, the outside-air supply must exceed
the exhaust rate. In either case then, there will be an outside-air load. Enough
heat must be supplied or extracted to bring this "ventilation air" to room
temperature. The amount of outside air mechanically supplied can be estab-
lished by design. The quantity of infiltration air can be computed from the
data in the chapter on ventilation. Although, for infiltration, the air is actually
heated or cooled to room temperature within the space, it is convenient to
consider the outdoor-air load separate from the room load in both cases. Once
the state and the rate of supply of outside air Qû o have been determined, the
sensible Qû So and latent Qû Lo loads due to them can be calculated in Btu/hr
from the following formulae:
Qû So = 1087 1 6
. Qû o t o − ti and (21.2)
1 6
Qû Lo = 4750 Qû o Wo − Wi , (21.3)
where t o and ti are outdoor and indoor dry-bulb temperatures in °F, respec-
tively, and Wo and Wi are the corresponding humidity ratios in lbm of water
vapor/lbm of dry air.
Moisture diffusion through walls, etc. usually causes a small latent-heat
load. The following formula can be used to calculate this diffusion load Qû Ld :
1
Qû Ld = 0.0155 AΩ pwo − pwi , 6 (21.4)
where the vapor pressures of the outdoor and indoor air pwo and pwi are in
inches of mercury and the permeance Ω of the specimen is in grains/ft2-hr-in.
Hg vapor-pressure difference. Refer to Table 21.17 for Ω values of various
materials.
Fan Systems
Many systems can be used to air condition a building. Various writers
assign them different names and classify them differently, depending upon
their individual interest. The method of classification outlined below high-
lights some of the main differences from a fan-application standpoint.
I - Individual Fan Systems for Single-Zone Applications

a.) Remote or unitary systems
b.) Split or combined heating systems
II - Central Fan Systems for Multiple-Zone Applications
a.) Year-'round, all-air systems
1.) Individual reheat systems
2.) Hot- and cold-deck systems
3.) Double-duct systems
4.) Primary- and secondary-air systems

b.) Year-'round, air-water systems

1.) Primary-air and induction or fan-coil systems
2.) Primary-air and heating/cooling panel systems.
(Each of the terms used in this outline is defined or discussed below.)
As indicated in the outline, an individual fan system is used in applica-
tions where the entire area served is controlled as a single zone. This is
perfectly satisfactory as long as the area has uniform load characteristics and
provided that the occupants are all satisfied with the same room conditions.
In fact, for precise humidity control, small, uniform load areas must be
established and individual systems provided. At the other extreme are appli-
cations where precision is not required even in temperature control and where
a single individual system will be satisfactory for a large area. Occasionally,
on evaluation, two or more complete systems will be better than one. The
cost of duct runs can sometimes be reduced enough to pay for the added
equipment cost, and not all the equipment need be duplicated since heating
and refrigeration can be piped from central plants to the fan-coil units.
Many distinctions can be made between remote fan systems and unitary
systems designed for the same functions. Although the basic apparatus of
either may be a completely integrated unit, a remote unit is usually larger and
designed for concealed use with ductwork; a room unit usually has a pleasing
enough appearance for unconcealed use.
A unit ventilator is an under-the-window type of device built in unitary
sizes suitable for schoolrooms, etc. The principal function of this type of
equipment is to ventilate the space and cool it with outside air. A ventilating
unit, however, can be remotely located, or it, too, can be installed in the space
served. Since the area served is usually large in either instance, ductwork
may be needed to properly distribute make-up air.
Although the major function of any ventilator is to bring in outside air,
provisions must also often be made for some heating. At the very least, the
outdoor air must be tempered to prevent freezing drafts, etc. When additional
radiators or convectors are used to provide all or part of the required space
heating, a split system is said to exist. A combined system is one where no
direct radiation is used and the air is heated sufficiently to offset transmission
losses as well as to temper it.
Roof ventilators are increasingly popular mostly because they utilize
otherwise wasted space. Make-up air and exhaust units are both available
with propeller-type fans. Centrifugal wheels are used in some exhaust units.
If warranted, provisions can be made for split or combined heating control
and recirculation of room air. Different wheel designs can be used for differ-
ent pressure requirements. Ducts, diffusers, or both may be attached. But,
weather protection is essential in all these designs.
Unit heaters and warm-air furnaces can be applied to both unitary and
remote systems whose principal functions are to offset heat losses. Either
may be gas-, oil-, or coal-fired. Heaters may use steam, hot water, or electri-
cal-resistance elements.

Although not specifically defined as such, a unit heater is commonly

thought of as a propeller-fan/coil combination, or at least as a relatively
compact centrifugal-fan/coil package without fresh-air connections. Heating
units are often just ventilating units with the fresh-air provisions omitted. In
many applications of both heaters and furnaces, no particular ventilation is
provided, other than that from windows and from infiltration.
Horizontal-type unit heaters are usually suspended at a height of 7 or 8
feet and placed so as to provide a warm blanket over cold walls minimizing
the chilling effects of radiation and infiltration. Depending upon the outlet
velocity, the influence of an ordinary unit can be felt for 50 to 100 feet. Most
heaters are equipped with louvers on the outlet so that the blast direction can
be controlled. Downward blast is necessary whenever the unit must be
mounted at a high level. Vertical-type units are available in various designs.
Warm-air heating of residential and commercial buildings, if recently
installed, can usually be described as perimeter heating. With such systems,
the air is always introduced upward into the room, at or near the floor, usually
under the windows. The purpose is to blanket the cold walls and windows
with warm air. In basementless structures, the ductwork under (or imbedded
in) the floor warms it. Loop systems have a continuous peripheral loop.
Radial systems have a more extensive system of radial feeder ducts. Most
systems use a network of small ducts and force the air through with a fan;
however, some gravity-system design data is still published.
The same distinctions apply between unitary and remote air conditioners.
Most room units are self-contained, whereas remote units more often have
separate refrigeration. Self-contained units may be more economical where
cooling only a small part of a structure is desired or where direct radiation is
used for heating, etc. The advantages and convenience of central refrigeration
and heating are greater in larger jobs.
A central fan system is usually the most economical means of air condi-
tioning any space with two or more different load-producing areas. Most
multiple-zone applications do not need precise humidity control as long as
individual temperatures can be closely maintained. There are many ways of
providing the required temperature control. Central fan systems may deliver
all, or part of, the required heat-transfer capacity to the spaces via the air. The
remainder, if any, is usually carried by a stream of water. Either the air or the
water can be throttled for control purposes. Until recently, volume control of
the air delivered to a space was rarely recommended because of the possible
resultant drafts and distribution problems, poor ventilation, or changing noise
characteristics. Many of these problems have now been solved.
A year-'round system must be able to nullify either net gains or net losses
as needed, often both simultaneously. Only cooling may be required in the
hottest weather, but in varying amounts depending on changes in occupancy,
cloud cover, etc. At other times, various amounts of heating may be needed
to condition one room and cooling may be needed to condition another. So,
any system for multiple-zone applications requires two heat-transfer media at
some point in that system.

In all systems (but some more than others), the heating capacity will at
times be nullified by the cooling capacity. Although this appears uneconom-
ical, it is the price that must be paid for individual room control. When
comparing two systems on this basis, the difference in operating cost should
be evaluated against the difference in control reliability.
With two media, the flow of one or both can be manipulated at the com-
mand of the individual-space thermostats for temperature control. The
various systems differ in which medium is used and which one is throttled.
Both media may have a cooling potential when outdoor temperatures are
above the room-design temperature. If only one can be throttled, the cooling
capacity of the other should not exceed the heat gain due to transmission or
else overcooling will result when there are no other gains. The heating and
cooling potentials available at any outdoor-air temperature must be as large as
the greatest possible load in order to prevent any possible underconditioning.
Overconditioning can be prevented by compensating for any excess cooling
with excess heating, and vice versa. For economy, such excesses should be
avoided. The temperature of either the fixed-quantity (primary) medium or
the throttled (secondary) medium can be scheduled or reset according to the
outdoor temperature. This, in effect, matches its capacity to heat or cool to
the loss or gain due to transmission and also produces economical operation.
A primary-air system is usually designed to operate in such a way that the
primary air nullifies the variable transmission loss or gain. All other space
loads are gains, the total value of which is potentially the same regardless of
season or outdoor-air temperature. The secondary medium must, therefore, be
capable of nullifying any gain up to this total value at any time. When
primary air is the only air supplied to the space, it must contain enough
outdoor air to satisfy the ventilation requirements. If it is necessary, or
desirable, to limit the room device to sensible cooling only, then all the latent
heat must be removed from the primary air. A primary-air quantity of about
25% of the amount normally used in an all-air system will usually satisfy the
ventilation requirements and suffice for all the latent-heat removal. Primary-
air systems using under-the-window units of either the induction or fan-coil
type are often employed to satisfy the exterior zones of large buildings. These
zones, usually limited to the outer 20 ft or so, are subject to virtually uniform
transmission effects around the entire periphery. The interior zone will have a
cooling load all year 'round. Primary-air systems using heating/cooling panels
to nullify the remainder of the load are attractive simply because of the radiant
compensation possible with such devices. Acoustical treatment and luminar-
ies are often economically combined with the heat-transfer panels in the
ceiling. The amount of primary-air needed for acceptable room-air motion
may be higher than for under-the-window unit systems. Both are air-water
systems as indicated in the outline.

All-air systems may use the primary-air principle. If, in such cases, a
constant temperature stream of secondary air is used, it must, of course, be
throttled to satisfy individual spaces at anything but peak load. This is a
disadvantage for the reasons previously outlined. However, when a large
interior zone exists, such as in block-type buildings, interior-zone air can be
used for the secondary stream. This minimizes some of the inherent problems
of volume control. There are also several other all-air systems, in each of
which the supply air is completely conditioned before it is introduced into the
space. In an individual reheat system, the supply air is conditioned enough to
satisfy any space with maximum cooling load (minimum heating load).
Individual room control is achieved by reheating to the desired temperature.
Some of the cooling capacity must be nullified at design conditions unless all
zones have the same load, which is unlikely. The refrigeration plant must,
therefore, be sized to a larger capacity for a reheat system than for any other,
since this excessive cooling is required at design conditions. This is necessary
because the second medium must always have negative cooling capacity in
reheat systems, whereas in other systems, the second medium can be switched
to positive cooling capacity when needed. The all-air alternative to either
reheat or variable volume is temperature control produced by mixing two
streams of air in such a way as to furnish a constant volume at the desired
temperature. Both streams can be supplied at a temperature suitable for the
worst condition of the moment. That is, the coldest stream of air, if it alone is
used, need only be cold enough to condition the room with the maximum load
for the outside-air temperature prevailing. The warmest stream need not be
any warmer than necessary to offset the transmission loss. The two streams of
air can be mixed at the discharge of the hot-and-cold-deck apparatus or at the
individual room or space. In the first case, individual ducts are needed to
serve the individual spaces, and for this reason, the equipment is usually
located near the spaces to be served. This means that such systems must serve
only relatively small areas. In the second case, a common double-duct system
serves the various spaces. This is a more economical arrangement than the
first for systems with large distances between the equipment and the occupied
spaces.
Atmospheric cooling can be utilized to economize during certain weather.
If unlimited amounts of outdoor air could be supplied to a space, refrigeration
would not be needed for outdoor temperatures below the room temperature.
Unfortunately, it is not always possible to use outdoor air this way. This air's
capacity to cool depends on its amount as well as on its temperature, and
some systems cannot be designed to use a very large amount. This is true of
primary-air systems, which handle only a small quantity of air.
Figures 21.1 to 21.7 illustrate many of the important considerations in
multiple-zone air-conditioning design.

Figure 21.1 is drawn for a typical building with several zones. It shows
what might be called the minimum and maximum loads (per 1000 cfm) that
the air-conditioning system must be capable of satisfying at each outside-air
temperature. It also shows the cooling capacity of various amounts of outside
air at each outside temperature. Similar charts can be made for any building
by following the procedure outlined below:
1.) Calculate the effective transmission load at the summer design
temperature. This is the actual transmission load if ventilation air is
preconditioned before it is pumped into the space. If any outside air is
pumped directly into the space, the corresponding ventilation load should be
added to the transmission load.
2.) Calculate the maximum sensible cooling load at the design
temperature. This will include loads due to occupancy, lighting, and sun
effect as well as the effective transmission load.
3.) Calculate the supply-air quantity. In an all-air system, this is the actual
flow rate of the supply fan (or fans). In an air-water system, however, it is a
hypothetical flow rate. Multiply the primary-air rate by the ratio of the
maximum sensible cooling load to be absorbed by both the air and the water
to the maximum sensible cooling load to be absorbed by the air alone.
4.) Divide both the maximum sensible cooling load and the transmission
load by the supply-air quantity.
5.) Plot the minimum load line. This is an approximately straight line
passing through zero at an outdoor temperature equal to room design. It must
also pass through the transmission load at the summer design temperature.
(Figure 21.1 is based on an effective transmission load of 4000 Btu/1000 cfm
at 95°F.)
6.) Plot the maximum load line. This is an approximately straight line
passing through the maximum sensible cooling load at the summer design
temperature. It will roughly parallel the minimum load line. (Figure 21.1 is
based on a maximum load of 22000 Btu/1000 cfm at 95°F. This corresponds
to a 20°F differential in an all-air system. If a higher differential were used,
the general conclusion drawn from Figures 21.2 to 21.7 would not be greatly
changed.)
7.) Determine the amount of outside air that could be used for atmospheric
cooling. This may range from 100% of the supply-air quantity for an all-air
system to about 25% for an air-water system.
8.) Plot the atmospheric cooling lines for both the most outside air
available and the least needed for ventilation. These are straight lines passing
through zero at an outside air temperature corresponding to room design.
(Several lines are shown in Figure 21.1. The 100% line shows the maximum
atmospheric cooling that can be achieved in an all-air system.)

Figure 21.1 Net Space Loads vs. Outdoor Temperature

Figure 2l.2 Operation of an Individual Reheat System

Figure 21.3 Operation of a Double-Duct System

Figure 2l.4 Operation of a Primary-Air/Secondary-Air System

Figure 21.5 Operation of a Primary-Air/Secondary-Water System

Figure 21.6 Operation of a Primary-Air/Radiant-Panel System

Figure 21.7 Operation of a Variable-Volume System

Figures 21.2 through 21.7 show various systems, as indicated in the titles.
They illustrate many points about the methods of operation and the limitations
of the various systems. But, the method of control is the chief distinguishing
feature and, so, is named at the top of each chart. Capacities are given per
1000 cfm of supply air as defined before.
The two heavy lines define the system's heating and cooling limitations at
any outside air temperature. The shaded area represents all the possible
heating or cooling requirements at any outside air temperature. If the upper
capacity line lies below the upper load limit, overheating will result in any
space whose load falls in the crosshatched area. Similarly, if the lower
capacity line lies above the lower load limit, overcooling will result in any
space whose load falls in the crosshatched area.
The temperatures of each medium should be scheduled or reset according
to outside temperature, as shown at various points along the capacity lines.
Various changeover temperatures are given in the charts. A complete
changeover may be required, as in the air-water systems where the cold
medium is changed to the hot, and vice versa. Or, the refrigeration plant may
be shut down in favor of atmospheric cooling or heating and vice versa
Air-conditioning systems can also be described as either high- or low-
velocity systems. An arbitrary dividing line near 2200 feet per minute has
often been used. The distinction could also be made on the basis of the
acoustical treatment each system requires for satisfactory operation. Except
for the critical areas, only a short run of duct need be lined with acoustical
material to adequately control the sound in a low-velocity system. But, high-
velocity systems require sound absorbers in the duct system as well as acous-
tical treatment of the terminal device. This extra control is necessitated by the
increased sound output of the fan (resulting from greater pressure require-
ments) and by the increased, regenerated duct noises. High-velocity ductwork
must withstand higher pressures and, so, requires better fitting and sealing, but
the total weight of the material is usually less than that for a low-velocity
system. However, the main advantage is the smaller building space needed.
Often of paramount importance in existing construction is the minimum
reduction in usable space, and in new construction, the maximum reduction in
story height. High-velocity should then be considered: it has proven eco-
nomical in many double-duct and primary-air systems.

Operation of Fan Systems

As shown before, a system's heating or cooling capacity must exactly
match the load at any instant in order to prevent overheating and overcooling.
Because of the continual variations that occur in most load-producing factors,
automatic controls are the only means of producing satisfactory results. The
capacity to heat, humidify, etc. can be matched to the part-load requirements
by reducing the energy supplied to perform that function. Usually, a sort of
chain reaction is involved. For instance, an increase in outdoor temperature
will produce, in turn: a reduction in transmission loss, a slight rise in space
temperature, the measurement of that rise by a thermostat, a signal to a valve,
a reduction in steam consumption, and, ultimately, a decrease in the firing rate
of the boiler. The flow of the heat-transfer medium can actually be reduced,
as in the closing of a throttling valve, or a portion can be bypassed and then
remixed with the main stream, as in a mixing valve. In either case, the
transfer rate of sensible or latent heat will be changed. There are many
arrangements of coils, dampers, valves, etc. and many methods of detecting
the need for a change in capacity. Examining even a few combinations
reveals many important aspects of control.
Some of the essential, or at least desirable, features for satisfactory control
of conditions in a space can be summarized generally before we investigate
specific systems:
1.) Changes in the net flow of supply air should be limited for reasons
already mentioned.
2.) A wall thermostat is preferable to other types of control, although it is
often desirable to supplement such space controllers with outdoor or medium
controllers, or both.
3.) Large controller differentials must often be tolerated to limit short-
cycling and hunting.
4.) Oversizing of coils, valves, etc. should be avoided since this reduces
the range of effective valve positions, etc.
5.) Commercially available dampers are not 100% airtight in their closed
positions, so it is advisable to add a shutoff valve to any damper-controlled
coils.
6.) If individual humidity control is wanted, individual equipment is
needed for each zone. However, individual temperature control is usually
enough for most comfort work, provided that humidity is roughly maintained.
7.) In order to minimize uncontrolled humidity effects, it is preferable to
bypass return air rather than mixed air and mixed air rather than outdoor air.
Double-Duct System
The system diagrammed in Figure 21.8 operates as follows:

Figure 2l.8 Double-Duct System
1.) Freeze-up protection. Minimum outdoor-air, maximum out-door-air,

and exhaust-air dampers close when the supply fan is turned off. A properly
sized, non-freeze type of preheat coil should be used. A safety freeze-up
protector (not shown) can also be used to deactivate the fans should some
accident occur.
2.) Ventilation control. Minimum outdoor-air dampers are wide-open
whenever the supply fan is on.
3.) Atmospheric-cooling control. Maximum outdoor-air dampers are
modulated by a mixed-air controller T-1 to provide the schedule of tempera-
tures established by the outdoor compensator T-2.
4.) Preheat control. The mixed-air controller T-3 modulates the valve on
the preheat coil to maintain the schedule of temperatures established by the
outdoor compensator T-4.
5.) Humidification control. The humidistat H-1, located in a representa-
tive space, activates the humidifier as needed to maintain the setting.
6.) Dehumidification control. No separate dehumidification control is
shown. For this system, only the air passing through the cooling coil is
dehumidified and that only incidentally to cooling.
7.) Heating control. The discharge controller T-9 modulates the valve on
the heating coil to maintain the schedule of temperatures established by the
8.) Cooling control. The discharge controller T-6 modulates the, valve on
the cooling coil to maintain the schedule of temperatures established by the

9.) Individual room-temperature control. Room thermostats T-8, etc.

modulate the zone dampers or mixing device to maintain individual room
settings.
10.) Changeover control. In this system, no provisions are shown for
automatically starting the refrigeration plant, etc. This system can be de-
scribed as either a hot-and-cold-deck system or a double-duct system. Both
are year-'round, all-air systems suitable for multi-zone applications. Individ-
ual temperature control is provided by mixing two streams of air. Hot-and-
cold-deck zone dampers are arranged so that, when one closes, the other
opens. High-velocity, double-duct systems use various devices to provide
similar mixing and often total volume regulation and sound attenuation, too.
Many variations of this system are possible, including the addition of a
precooling coil to better control dehumidification of the outdoor air and the
use of separate fans for each stream of air.
The parallel-path arrangement with double ducts or even hot- and cold-
deck equipment provides two streams of air but not necessarily a constant-
volume total flow rate. Even if the drops in pressure across the hot and cold
decks are equalized and there is no other parallel resistance, a difference in
total flow will still develop with any change in damper position. For instance,
if the air encounters a resistance of 1/2-in. wg when it all passes through
either a hot or cold deck, then there will be only 1/8-in. wg resistance if half
the air goes through each. In most hot-and-cold-deck applications, there is
enough resistance through the ducts and other equipment so that a 3/8-in. wg
differential will not produce an unbearable flow situation. This also depends
on the steepness of the fan's pressure characteristic.
Figure 21.9 Static- and Velocity-Pressure Balancing

With a high-velocity, double-duct system, however, the problem is

magnified since the main trunks may be sized for 4-in. wg loss with 100%
flow. If each main handles only a 50% flow, the resistance drops to 1 in. wg.
With a single fan supplying both, the total flow could conceivably change a
tremendous amount. Often, the flow needs of one group of rooms will
counterbalance those of another group. A more positive way of reducing the
fluctuations is to measure any velocity change in, for example, the hot duct
and then to reduce the temperature of that air to compensate. Figure 21.9
shows a modification based on this principle.
Besides equalizing the fan's total flow, using the above modification also
tends to reduce the pressure difference that must be accommodated by the
terminal device itself. This difference can be further reduced by modulating
an additional pair of dampers with individual static-pressure controllers. This,
too, is shown in Figure 21.9. Nevertheless, the possibility of some static-
pressure imbalance between the hot and cold ducts persists at some terminal-
device locations. Many designs are used to make the terminal devices them-
selves capable of discharging a constant volume of air. The alternative is to
use cold-duct temperatures lower than design and hot-duct temperatures
higher than design. The various patented devices are all controlled by a space
thermostat that modulates one of the valves to produce a change in discharge
temperature. If that valve is on the hot duct, the cold-duct valve is controlled
independently to maintain constant flow. The pressure drop across an orifice,
etc. can be used as a measure of the flow rate. Figure 21.10 diagrams a
blender valve that incorporates these principles.
Figure 2l.10 Double-Duct Mixing Device

Figure 2l.11 lndividual Reheat System
Reheat System
1.) Freeze-up protection. Outdoor-air and exhaust-air dampers close when
the supply fan is turned off. Preheat coils are full of steam whenever freezing
air can enter them. (The coils must be properly sized to prevent overheating.)
2.) Ventilation control. The system shown uses only outside air, so no
control is needed.
3.) Atmospheric-cooling control. No control other than preheat is needed.
4.) Preheat control. The preheat controller T-2 modulates the steam valve
on preheat coil No. 2 to maintain a constant 65°F leaving-air temperature.
The preheat coil should be chosen for a temperature rise of no more than
30°F. The outdoor controller T-1 should be set so as to put full steam on
preheat coil No. 1 at 35°F.
5.) Humidification control. The winter dew-point controller T-3 modu-
lates the steam valve on the spray-water heater to maintain its set point.
6.) Dehumidification control. The summer dew-point controller T-4
modulates the three-way valve to provide a mixture of chilled and bypass
water to maintain its set point,
7.) Heating control. Discharge controller T-5 modulates the valve on the
heating coil to maintain the schedule of temperatures established by the
8.) Cooling control. No control other than that for dehumidification is
needed.

9.) Individual room-temperature control. The room thermostats T-8, etc.

modulate the valves on the reheat coils to maintain space temperature.
10.) Changeover control. When refrigeration becomes available, it is
necessary to deactivate T-3 and to activate T-4. Automatic control for this or
for starting the refrigeration machinery, etc. is not shown.
This system can be described as an air-washer system with dew-point
control of humidity. It is a year-'round, all-air system that provides individual
temperature control by using reheat coils.
The 100% outdoor-air system diagrammed is typical of systems installed
in the operating suites of some larger hospitals.
A sprayed-coil dehumidifier can be substituted for the air washer and an
additional preheat coil inserted upstream instead of the water heater. Unless
100% outdoor air is required, the return air can be utilized for preheat instead
of using multiple preheat coils as shown. In single-zone applications, return
air can be used to supply the necessary reheat capacity.
Primary-Air/Secondary-Water System
the supply fan is turned off. The outdoor controller T-1 puts full steam on the
preheat coil when the temperature drops to the set point.
2.) Ventilation control. All the primary air comes from outdoors for the
system as shown. The flow rate should be chosen to equal or exceed the
ventilation requirements.
3.) Atmospheric-cooling control. Only the primary-air quantity can be
utilized for atmospheric cooling. To take advantage of even this amount, the
primary air must be made the cold medium and the secondary water the warm
medium at changeover.
4.) Preheat control. The winter dew-point controller T-2 modulates the
face and bypass dampers on the preheat coil to maintain the dew-point setting.
5.) Humidification control. Controlling preheat in effect controls the dew
point and, therefore, humidification. The outdoor wet-bulb controller T-3 will
shut off the pump when the wet-bulb temperature exceeds the set point, in
order to prevent overhumidification.
6.) Dehumidification control. The summer dew-point controller T-4
modulates the three-way valve on the chilled-water coil to maintain its setting.
7.) Heating control. The discharge controller T-5 modulates the valve on
the heating coil to maintain the schedule of temperatures established by the
8.) Cooling control. The only other control beyond that for de-
humidification is that, when the valve is wide open on the cooling coil, the
sprays are turned on to give maximum sensible cooling. Then T-4 must
override T-3.

Figure 2l.12 Primary-Air/Secondary-Water System
9.) Individual room-temperature control. The room thermostats T-8

modulate the valves on individual room-unit coils to maintain room settings.
10.) Changeover control. As described, outdoor controllers T-3 and T-6
limit the authority of other controllers according to season. The sum-
mer/winter controller T-7 changes the water from hot to cold and reverses the
action of the room thermostats T-8, etc. at their set points
This system can be described as a sprayed-coil system with dew-point
control of humidity. It is a year-'round, air-water system suitable for multi-
zone applications. Individual temperature control is provided by throttling the
secondary water in the room units.
Many variations are possible, including the addition of return-air connec-
tions and the substitution of an air washer or a non-sprayed coil with a sepa-
rate humidifier for the sprayed-coil unit.
Return-Air Bypass System

the supply fan is turned off or when the temperature at the safety low-limit
controller T-1 is below its set point.
2.) Ventilation control. The minimum outdoor-air-damper opening is
established by positioning the manual switch S-1.
3.) Atmospheric-cooling control. The outdoor-air damper is modulated by
the winter controller T-2 according to its schedule of temperatures. The
summer controller T-3 overrides T-2 to return the damper to the minimum
position when the temperature is above its set point.

Figure 2l.13 Return-Air Bypass System
4.) Preheat control. Preheat is provided by the return air.

5.) Humidification control. The humidistat H-1 activates the humidifier as
needed to maintain its setting.
6.) Dehumidification control. No separate dehumidification control is
shown for this system.
7.) Heating control. The heating-coil valve is modulated by the outdoor-
air controller T-4 according to its schedule. The end switch S-2 on the face
and bypass dampers closes the valve whenever the face damper is closed.
8.) Cooling control. The valve on the cooling coil is wide-open whenever
the temperature at the outdoor controller T-5 is above its set point.
9.) Space-temperature control. The space thermostat T-6 modulates the
face and bypass dampers to maintain its setting.
10.) Changeover control. The summer/winter controller T-7 reverses the
action of the face and bypass dampers and opens the valve on the cooling coil
at its set point.
This system can be described as a return-air bypass system. It is a year-
'round, all-air system suitable only for single-zone control. Many modifica-
tions are possible, including the substitution of mixed air or outdoor air for
return air in the bypass. When radiation is available, this system can also be
modified to provide winter ventilation only.

In the four systems diagrammed, various techniques were used to provide

control for each function. See Table 21.18.
Another air-conditioning system function that has not yet been discussed
but which may influence the design is that of night set-back and morning
warm-up control. Besides lowering the thermostatic settings by means of a
timer or other device, the fan speed can also be reduced (or stopped) if there is
enough natural convection surface in the space (the outdoor-air dampers
closed, etc.). For quick warm-up, high temperatures and only recirculated air
may be used.
These are by no means all the possible techniques or combinations that
can be employed; the descriptions have been limited primarily to air-handling
equipment. The automatic controls used with the refrigeration machines,
boilers, etc. must be coordinated with those used in the air-handling equip-
ment.
Table 2l.18 Control Techniques for Air-Conditioning Functions
Function Technique or Equipment, Etc.

Freeze-up protection Non-freeze coils, full steam on coils, multiple
preheat coils, or low limit and safety controls.
Ventilation control 100% outdoor air, minimum position control of
outdoor-air dampers, or minimum and maxi-
mum outdoor-air damper control.
Atmospheric cooling Mixed-air control with outdoor compensation,or
outdoor-air control.
Preheat Multiple preheat coils, face and bypass damper
control on preheat coils, or return-air control.
Humidification control Dew-point control or space-humidistat control
of air washer, sprayed coil, water spray, steam
injection, or pan and coil.
Dehumidification control Incidental to cooling only, dew-point control, or
space-humidistat control.
Heating control Discharge control with outdoor compensation,
or outdoor-air control.
Cooling control Wild coil, discharge control with outdoor
compensation, or dew-point control.
Individual room- Throttling reheat coils, mixing two streams of
temperature control air, modulating water in room units, or return-
air bypass control.
Changeover control Outdoor-air control.

Equipment Selection
When selecting equipment for an air-conditioning system, each piece must
be coordinated with every other. Various functional elements and controls are
so interrelated that the system's performance may fall to the level of the
poorest item, even if all the others are of top quality and have been properly
selected.
The functions of circulating, heating, cooling, humidifying, dehumidify-
ing, and purifying the air supplied to a conditioned space can each be per-
formed by many equipment designs. The control of conditions within the
space may be subject to the limits imposed by the size or design of the indi-
vidual functional element, by the size or design of the heating and refrigera-
tion plant that may serve that element, or by the operating characteristics of
the control system.
Oversizing can often cause just as serious functional problems as under-
sizing. And obviously, oversize equipment will cost more.
Unless natural heating and cooling media are available, heating and
refrigerating equipment must be used. Refrigeration machines operate on the
vapor-compression or absorption principle. Also, the reverse-cycle compres-
sion system, or "heat pump," is being used increasingly, but fuel combustion
is still the common source of heat. Condensing or evaporating media have
attractive unit heat capacities, yet water, because of its low cost and ease of
handling, is often used to transport the heating or cooling potential from the
generating plant to the supply-air coils.
Individual functional elements such as fans, coils, filters, etc. are usually
available as factory-made units in standard sizes, so selection amounts to
choosing a unit with a capacity that closely matches the job requirements.
When several possibilities exist, the choice should be based on an evaluation
of first and operating costs. Such-factory-made components can be incorpo-
rated into the duct system during field erection, or a factory-assembled unit
can be used. The choice usually depends on the comparative cost of field and
factory labor. In the U.S. market, factory-assembled units may be advanta-
geous for air capacities of 50000 cfm or even higher. Fan-coil units do not
usually exceed 50000 cfm, but sprayed-coil dehumidifiers (complete with
dampers and filters, etc.) are often prefabricated for very high capacities.
Besides some pertinent details on fans, the following paragraphs also discuss
humidifiers, air washers, coils, dehydrators, and controls.
Although ducts, terminal devices, odor controllers, and filters are no less a
part of any complete air-conditioning system, they are not discussed here in
detail. For such discussions, see the chapters on fluid flow, transmission and
distribution, ventilation, and air cleaning, respectively.

Fans
The energy for moving air through an air-conditioning system may be
provided by one or more fans. If only one fan is used, it is called the supply
fan. Such a fan may furnish the energy for exhaust air, return air, or both, or a
separate exhaust fan, a separate return-air fan, or both, may be used.
In a 100% outside-air system, the supply fan SF must pull the outside air
OA into the system, push or pull it through the conditioning equipment, push
the conditioned air CA into the space, and, finally, push the exhaust air EA
out of the space. Figure 21.14a illustrates such a system and the correspond-
ing pressure graphs. If the exhaust-air openings are at all restricted, pressure
must be built up in the space in order to force the exhaust air outdoors. A
separate exhaust fan EF can be used to overcome this difficulty, as shown in
Figure 21.14b.
A single fan or fan unit can be used in a return-air system, as illustrated in
Figure 21.14c. With regard to restricted exhaust openings, the same situation
exists as for Figure 21.14a. Also, the return-air portion of the ductwork must
be designed so that the losses equal those of the outside-air and exhaust-air
portions. A separate return-air fan RF can be used to overcome these diffi-
culties, as shown in Figure 21.14d.
In all the systems diagrammed in Figure 21.14, the capacity of the supply
fan Qû SF can be considered equal to the required rate of supply of conditioned
air Qû CA and can be calculated from
Qû SR
Qû SF = Qû CA =
1087
. 1
t CA − t RA
.
6 (21.5)
The supply rate depends on the sensible room load Qû SR in Btu/hr, the dry-
bulb temperatures in °F of the supply air tCA , and the room or return air t RA .
The capacity of the exhaust fan Qû EF in Figure 21.14b or of the return-air
fan Qû RF in Figure 21.14d must equal that of the supply fan Qû SF , plus or minus
any leakage Qû l , to or from the space due to infiltration or exfiltration:
Qû EF = Qû RF = Qû SF ± Qû l . (21.6)
The return fan capacity is also the sum of the return airflow Qû R and the
exhaust airflow Qû E :
Qû RF = Qû R + Qû E . (21.7)

Figure 21.14 Supply-, Exhaust-, and Return-Air Fan Systems

In all the systems diagrammed in Figure 21.14, the fans should be selected
to develop a total pressure corresponding to the differences in total pressure
across them, as shown in the various diagrams. The fan total pressure for the
supply fan pFTS is equal to the sum of the total pressure losses p LO _ C from the
outside-air opening to the conditioned space plus the space pressure pTC :
pFTS = p LO _ C + pTC . (21.8)
The pressure required of the exhaust fan pFTE equals the sum of the losses
from the space to the exhaust-air opening p LC _ E minus the space pressure
pTC :
pFTE = p LC _ E − pTC . (21.9)
The pressure required of the return-air fan pFTR also equals the losses
from the space to the exhaust-air opening pLC _ E minus the space pressure
pTC when the exhaust path resistance controls:
pFTR = p LC _ E − pTC . (21.10)
When the return path resistance controls, the pressure required of the return
fan equals the sum of the losses from the space through the return line and
back to the space pLC _ C minus the supply-fan pressure plus the space
pressure:
pFTR = pLC _ C − pFTS + pTC . (21.11)
The losses through the two paths must be equal. If the exhaust path has less
resistance, then the exhaust damper must be closed in order to achieve the
desired balance of exhaust and return.
The supply fan can be placed ahead of the conditioning coils in a blow-
through arrangement, or in the draw-through arrangement shown. Although
the density may vary, the difference in fan requirements or performance is
usually negligible in an air-conditioning system.
All types of fans have been used in air-conditioning systems. Their
advantages and disadvantages are discussed in the chapter on fan selection;
some other important aspects follow here. For instance, the larger the job, the
more important efficiency becomes. Stability and good paralleling
characteristics are often essential. Belt drives are usually preferred to direct-
connected motors. Flexible connections to ductwork, and even to the power
source, should be provided, especially if resilient mountings are used. Quiet
operation requires that vibration transmission through structural members be
minimized by all these means.

Air-borne noises are somewhat attenuated by ductwork. Very little

additional treatment is required for the non-critical areas of low-velocity
systems However, critical areas always do require some sort of treatment to
reduce noise to an acceptible level. And high-velocity systems require
extensive treatment: the amount depends on the level of fan noise, the natural
attenuation of the ductwork, etc.
Humidifiers
Moisture can be injected directly into the air as steam. This is usually
accomplished in the supply unit or ductwork, although direct injection into
room air is sometimes used industrially. Some sensible heating of the air will
result since the steam temperature will be higher than the air temperature.
The exact amount of sensible heat for any moisture addition can be calculated
by using an enthalpy/humidity analysis. However, sufficiently accurate
results are usually obtained by assuming a constant dry-bulb process.
Water can be evaporated into the air directly from pans by supplying the
necessary heat with submerged coils. Here, too, some sensible heating will
occur since the water temperature must be higher than the air temperature. A
generally safe assumption is that the sensible heating equals one-half the
latent heating, or one-third of the total heat.
Water can be sprayed, in limited quantities, directly into the air stream.
This process can be considered adiabatic, regardless of the water temperature,
if complete evaporation takes place. Consequently, sensible cooling will
accompany the humidification, and a constant wet-bulb process can, therefore,
be assumed.
The pressure drop caused by any of these devices is negligible. Air
washers and sprayed coils can also be used as humidifiers. These will be
discussed in the next section.
Air Washers
When large amounts of finely divided water are sprayed into air, the
relation of the initial air state and the spray-water temperature determines
whether heating, cooling, humidifying, or dehumidifying results. The process
can be considered adiabatic if the water is recirculated and equilibrium
obtained. If it is, the water assumes the wet-bulb temperature, which remains
constant, and humidity is increased as dry-bulb is reduced. If heat is added to
the spray water, humidification may be accompanied by an increase or
decrease in dry-bulb depending upon the mean effective water temperature. If
the water is cooled before spraying, the air will be cooled, but whether
humidification or dehumidification results depends on whether the air is
cooled below the dew point or not.

The contact-mixture analogy originally proposed by Carrier1 can be used

to explain the performance of air washers and sprayed or non-sprayed coils.
This theory assumes that, for both heat and vapor transfer, the air particles can
be divided into two groups: one which contacts a hypothetical surface and the
other which bypasses that surface. It is further assumed that the state of the
contacted particles is that of saturated air at the temperature of the surface and
that the end state of the air is a mixture of the bypassed portion at entering
conditions and the contacted portion at the conditions described.
The ratio of noncontacted particles to total particles is often called the
equivalent bypass factor B . The hypothetical surface temperature is often
referred to as the apparatus dew point t ADP . From the assumptions of the
theory,
t L − t ADP WL − WADP hL − hADP

B= = = , (21.12)
t E − t ADP WE − WADP hE − hADP
where t is the dry-bulb temperature, W is the humidity ratio and h is the

enthalpy. The subscripts L and E designate leaving and entering, respec-
tively. If B = B1 for one unit, then B = B1 , for n units in parallel and
B = B1 for n units in series.
n
In a recirculated-spray air washer, the spray water assumes the wet-bulb

temperature of the air. Under equilibrium conditions, the wet-bulb and water
temperatures are constant throughout the washer. The apparatus dew point or
water temperature is easily measured and the bypass factor easily determined
from the entering and leaving temperature relationships. The values of B so
determined are also valid when the sprays are heated or cooled.
The humidifying efficiency or cooling effect η of a recirculated-spray air
washer is defined as the ratio of dry-bulb reduction t E − t L to wet-bulb
depression t E − t ′ . This is equal to one minus the bypass factor:
tE − tL t − t′
η= = 1− L = 1 − B. (21.13)
tE − t ′ tE − t ′
The performance of any recirculated-spray air washer can be predicted

from the operating characteristics, if such characteristics are related to either
η or B . Table 21.19 gives η and B for several Buffalo Forge Company
designs at certain specified conditions. Figure 21.15 shows the relation of η
or B to face velocity and water pressure for one particular design.
Regardless of whether the spray water is recirculated, heated, or cooled,
there must be a heat balance. Assuming no loss to the surroundings,
1
W. H. Carrier, "The Contact-Mixture Analogy Applied to Heat Transfer with Mixtures of Air
and Water Vapor," Trans. ASME, vol. 59, 1937, pp. 49-53.

Table 21.19
Bypass Factors for Air Washers with Recirculated Sprays
Buffalo Washer Length Face Water Hum. By Pass

Type Spray Pattern Velocity Pressure Eff. Factor
A one bank with air 83" 500 fpm 20 psi .70 .30
B one bank with air 95" 500 fpm 20 psi .70 .30
B two banks, both with air 95" 500 fpm 20 psi .90 .10
B two banks opposed 95" 500 fpm 20 psi .95 .05
C one bank with air 56" 500 fpm 20 psi .65 .35
H two banks opposed 122" 500 fpm 35 psi .97 .03
Figure 2l.15 Humidifying Efficiencies of Air Washers
1 6 1 6 1 61 6
mû a hL − hE = mû W tWE − tWL + mû a WL − WE tWE − 32 , (21.14)
where mû a and mû W are the mass flow rates of air and water, respectively. The
water temperatures are designated tWE for entering and tWL for leaving, and
other symbols are as previously defined. This formula simply verifies the
constant wet-bulb/constant water-temperature relationship for recirculated-
spray air washers. However, for hot or chilled water, it also gives the equilib-
rium requirements.
Although the heat balance will give the water-side requirements for any
air-side requirements, and vice versa, it is also necessary to relate perform-
ance characteristics to operating characteristics.

The bypass-factor/apparatus dew-point relationship is usually applicable,

but, the humidifying efficiency concept is not, simply because the wet-bulb
does not remain constant when the water is either heated or chilled. The
apparatus dew-point will fall somewhere between the entering and leaving
water temperatures and will approach the leaving temperature for low bypass
factors. Although the bypass factor for any design can be defined for any
combination of face velocity VF and water pressure pW , a trial value would
have to be assumed for the ADP and checked throughout for assumed values
of the operating variables VF and pW . To eliminate the necessity for such a
laborious procedure, AMCA, in its Bulletin 107, has related both design and
operating variables to a "performance factor." Parts of this bulletin are given
in Figure 21.16. Its data was issued for dehumidifying air washers with a
12°F-maximum water-temperature range.
The entering and leaving conditions are related to the performance factor
P by
1t ′ − t 6 − 1t ′ − t 6 .
P=
1t ′ − t 6
E WE L WL
(21.15)
E WE
The operating and design variables are related to the performance factor by
P = Pbase × FV × FW × Fp × FL × FH . (21.16)
The factors Pbase , FV , FW , etc. can be determined from Figure 21.16. The
entering and leaving conditions can be established in relation to one another
by using a heat balance. The corresponding performance factor can then be
calculated from the appropriate temperatures by using Equation 21.15.
Finally, the operating variables can be manipulated to give an equal value
according to the Equation 21.16. This method does not provide for a leaving
dry-bulb determination, but once the entering and leaving wet-bulbs are
known, the apparatus dew-point can be calculated as the temperature corre-
sponding to
hL − BhE
hADP = . (21.17)
1− B
If an exact value of B is not known, a close approximation can be obtained

by, instead, using one minus the performance factor. Given the apparatus
dew-point t ADP , the entering dry-bulb t E , and the by-pass factor B , the
leaving dry-bulb t L can then be determined from
1 6
t L = Bt E + 1 − B t ADP . (21.18)

Figure 2l.16 Performance Factors for Air Washers

Heat exchangers for spray water are usually placed outside the washer.
Shell-and-tube heat exchangers are used for chilling with various refrigerants
or for heating with steam or hot water. An open type of heater known as an
ejector can also be used: steam at approximately 5 psig is injected directly
into the water on the suction side of the pump.
Humidifying with heated sprays can eliminate the need for preheat coils.
Instead of preheating to the desired wet-bulb and then cooling along that wet-
bulb line with recirculated sprays, the same leaving conditions can be ob-
tained directly, provided, of course, that the air is tempered to prevent freez-
ing. Reheating may be required in both cases for temperature control.
Unless the water has been heated a great deal, the dry-bulb temperature of
the air is always lowered in an air washer. On low wet-bulb occasions, this
evaporative cooling can be utilized instead of refrigeration. But, whenever
dehumidification is required, the water must be chilled.
Air washers should always be equipped with screens and strainers to
prevent fouling the pump, the piping, and the nozzles. Provisions must also
be made to maintain the proper level in the tank, including makeup, overflow,
and quick-fill connections. Humidifiers require makeup; dehumidifiers
require overflow. Consequently, there are usually differences in the design.
Eliminators, which are a series of corrugated plates, prevent entrained mois-
ture from passing beyond the washer. The number of bends and lips, the
angle, and the spacing, all influence the eliminator performance. Limiting
face velocities depend on position (whether the eliminators are mounted for a
vertical or a horizontal flow) and on height, if horizontal. Bent-plate elimi-
nator designs prevent carryover up to about 650 fpm face velocity. The most
economical face velocity, especially when dehumidifying, is approximately
500 fpm. Inlet baffles may sometimes be required to prevent loss of water out
of the inlet due to turbulence or to the spray action itself. Also offered are
special flooded eliminators, which provide scrubbing action with only limited
humidification. Such an arrangement is usually operated continuously but
independently of the atomizing sprays, which can be turned off in humid
weather. Eliminator resistance varies with the face velocity and the design.
Most effective bent-plate eliminators have a resistance of about 0.2 in. wg, or
more, at 500 face velocity. Inlet baffles with slightly less than 0.1 in. wg
resistance perform satisfactorily. A spray may assist or resist the flow of air,
depending on its direction. The kinetic energy in the usual atomized spray
amounts to about 0.1 in. wg for a 3-gpm-per-square-foot water loading at 500
face velocity.
High-velocity eliminators have been developed, which make it possible to
operate air washers at up to 1500-2000 fpm face velocity without carryover.
A discussion of air-conditioning coils follows, but it should be mentioned
here that many of the advantages of both air washers and coils can be
achieved by combining the two. Coils prevent contamination or loss of the
heating or cooling medium. Sprays provide a means of humidifying, evapo-
ratively cooling, and washing the air. And sprayed-coil units accomplish all
these results using less space than needed by an air washer but more than
needed for a non-sprayed coil.

Coils
Because the greatest resistance to heat transfer occurs in the air film, coils
are designed with a larger surface area on the air side than on the medium
side. The heating or cooling medium is delivered to the inside of the tubes,
and the outside of the tubes has extended fins over which the air is passed.
Copper tubes with either copper or aluminum fins are usually used. However,
other materials may be needed for special applications. Ammonia attacks
copper, and, so, steel is specified for this refrigerant. The bond between the
fin and the tube is most important, so various designs differ chiefly in the way
this bond is produced. Copper fins are recommended whenever coils are to be
sprayed. Solder coating of all-copper coils provides a metallic as well as a
mechanical bond between the fin and the tube. Different fin spacings can also
be offered. Air-conditioning coils can be designated according to the kind of
duty expected of them, the medium for which they were designed, or some
distinguishing constructional feature.
Heating coils can be expected to: (1) temper the incoming air so that its
temperature is above freezing, (2) preheat the tempered air to facilitate
humidification, or (3) reheat the humidified air for temperature control.
Tempering coils are not needed when return air is used, since there is enough
heat to prevent freezing. Preheat coils can be used in a dual role including the
tempering duty. Reheating may be required after dehumidification as well as
humidification. A heating system can use a single reheat coil to raise the
temperature part way and booster coils in each space to control the final
temperature. Cooling coils may be needed to dehumidify as well as to cool.
To prevent freezing, (1) tempering coils should always have full steam
pressure, and, so, should not be oversized and throttled; and (2) preheat coils
that must be throttled for control purposes should be of a nonfreeze design if
freezing air can possibly get to the coil. Even if these provisions are made,
devices to sense the temperature over the whole face of the coil and to close
the outside-air damper, should freezing conditions be approached, are consid-
ered very wise investments by many. A nonfreeze type of coil is constructed
with a distributing device inside the tubes to, theoretically, keep every posi-
tion of the tubes supplied with live steam. Usually, such a scheme protects
well, but malfunctioning of the traps or plugging of the distributors could
create a danger of freezing the condensate and subsequent damage. Unused
chilled-water coils can be protected in winter by draining them completely or
by adding a suitable anti-freeze solution. Drained coils should be thoroughly
blown out to remove trapped water. For hot-water coils with anti-freeze, a
corrosion inhibitor is necessary. More inhibitor will be needed after high-
temperature use. Anti-freeze solution has different properties than water.
These differences will affect the coil and pump performance and, therefore,
the operating costs.

Air-conditioning coils are built with individual tubes arranged in one or

more rows. The number of tubes in a row varies with the individual design
and size. The number of rows depends mainly upon duty requirements.
Return bends can be used to connect any two tubes in a row or in two
different rows. The extreme circuiting arrangements are: (1) when all the
fluid passes through each tube in turn, and (2) when the fluid passing through
any one tube does not pass through any other. For the same amount of
working fluid and surface, the pressure drop in the first case is many, many
times that of the second. The number of circuits equals the number of tubes in
the latter case and is unity for the former. Between these extremes, many
multiple-circuit combinations are possible. Coils are made with the number
of circuits equal to one-half, one, two, or three times the number of tubes in a
row (across the face). The air always makes only one pass through the coils.
In the usual air-conditioning applications, the working fluid may make one or
more passes across the path of the air. In the extremes, coils are either a
single-circuit, multiple-pass or a single-pass, multiple-circuit arrangement.
The terms parallel flow, counterflow, and crossflow are also used to
describe coils. All designs, as applied, have an element of cross-flow, but this
term is most appropriate for a multi-circuit, single-pass coil. Any multiple-
row, multipass coil can be arranged for either parallel or counterflow. If both
the air and the working fluid enter at the same side, the arrangement is called
parallel flow. Counterflow occurs, for practical purposes, whenever the air
and the working fluids enter at opposite ends. If the working fluid remains at
constant temperature throughout, no practical difference exists between
parallel and counterflow.
Steam coils are built with one or two rows of tubes. Standard coils can be
single- or multipass for either number of rows. Nonfreeze, coils, however,
cannot be described accurately as either single- or double-pass. The steam-
distributing tube, which is centered inside the finned tube, delivers steam to
holes along its length. Condensate can be returned in either direction, al-
though the usual arrangement has both connections on the same end. Unless
the tubes are pitched in their own casing, the coil will have to be pitched
properly to provide for condensate drainage. Proper trapping and other
pertinent features are also essential, and the manufacturer's recommendations
should be followed. Most commercial coils have adequate provisions for
expansion and contraction, but strains due to piping should be prevented.
The steam-distributing feature of nonfreeze coils also better protects
against temperature stratification in long tube lengths. Supply from both ends
or from vertical-tube arrangements, where coils would otherwise be long and
narrow, may also afford better distribution. However, the piping arrangement
may not be as desirable in these cases as in the first.

Sizing steam coils exactly is often essential to prevent overheating.

Different combinations of fin or tube spacing are offered to provide economi-
cal selections.
Water coils are usually built in an even number of rows, although the last
row may be unfinned, serving only to place a return connection at the same
end as the supply. Multiple circuits must be used to limit pressure losses.
Various multipass circuits can be provided for either horizontal or vertical
airflow. The tubes must be horizontal, and the return bends oriented for
proper drainage. Proper orientation means different designs for different air
directions. A removable header cover (or covers) may be provided to facili-
tate tube cleaning and positive drainage. Either hot or chilled water can be
used. When brines are to be used, they must be conditioned, or special
materials must be used in constructing the coils.
Direct-expansion coils are also built with multiple circuits to limit pres-
sure drops. Multiple passes are used to simplify distribution and to place
returns at the same end or side as the supply. The refrigerant must be distrib-
uted uniformly to each circuit for efficient utilization of the surface. It is
important that no liquid be returned, so coil selections are usually based on
some definite amount of superheating of the vapor. Superheating requires
much more surface than an equal amount of evaporation. If each circuit
receives just the right amount of refrigerant, then superheating can be held to
a minimum without floodback. Various distributor designs are used on direct-
expansion coils. The manifold or row type of distributor uses a liquid level or
hydrostatic head to achieve uniform distribution. This system requires
accurate mounting and a refrigerant feed that will not disturb the level.
Pressure-type distributors utilize the increase in velocity through an orifice
and the subsequent impingement to achieve uniform distribution. Compared
with the others, a somewhat greater pressure drop is encountered with this
type. The drop is not detrimental, however, since a pressure reduction is
needed anyway to obtain low temperatures. The refrigerant, the load, and the
suction temperature should all be specified so that the orifice can be sized
properly.
For every type of coil, several sizes are usually offered as commercial
standards. The basic convection heat-transfer equation governs the choice of
proper coil. From
Qû H = UA∆t m , (21.19)
the load Qû H that can be handled by a coil with a surface A depends on the
effective temperature head ∆t m that exists between the air and the working
fluid and on the transmission characteristic U .

Usually, the entering conditions for both the air and the heat-transfer
medium can be established by referring to the design conditions. The leaving
conditions and amounts of each are related to the load Qû H by
Qû H = mû ∆h, (21.20)
where the mass flow rate mû and the enthalpy difference ∆h are in any
consistent units. This expression yields
Qû S = 1087 1 6
. Qû t L − t E for air, (21.21)
Qû H = 4.45Qû ( hL − hE ) for air, (21.22)
1 6
Qû H = 500Qû tWL − tWE for water, and (21.23)
Qû H = mh
û lw for steam or volatile refrigerants. (21.24)
The conversion factors 1.087 and 4.45 are based on Qû in cfm; the 500 is
based on Qû in gpm. Temperatures t are in °F, enthalpies h in Btu/lbm, and
heat rates Qû H in Btu/hr. In any case, by assuming a value for either the
amount or the temperature/enthalpy difference, the remaining unknowns can
be determined.
Once the limiting temperature conditions have been established, the
effective temperature head can then be calculated for any flow pattern. Coil
test-data evaluations are based on the log mean-temperature difference, even
though this expression is strictly correct only for constant U , true parallel, or
true counterflow operations. An explanation of ∆t m (including a formula and
chart) is given in the fluid-flow chapter. In any case, the inside and outside
film coefficients must be based on empirical data. The various fluid
properties and velocities would have to be determined, as well as the physical
data of the surface itself. The usual rating tables and charts simplify this by
eliminating many intermediate steps.
Most surfaces used in air-conditioning can be selected for air-face
velocities ranging from 300 to 800 fpm with economical results. Because of
shallower depth, heating coils are usually selected at even higher velocities.
The economic evaluation consists of finding the selection for which both the
first cost and the present value of operating costs are minimal. Obviously,
higher velocities reduce the surface requirements but increase the pressure
drop.
© 1999 Howde Buffalo, Inc.

Similarly, the coil depth influences both refrigeration and coil costs.
Cooling-coil velocities may be limited to 500 fpm or less unless provisions
can be made to safely collect blown-off water drops downstream. Extended
pans, low-velocity plenums, and eliminators can be used for this. Since coils
are not usually built to individual specifications but, rather, are available with
specific-face areas, the usual selection procedure involves estimating the face
area by using an assumed face velocity and the equation of continuity:
Qû
AF = . (21.25)
VF
Heating- and cooling-coil requirements differ in several major ways.

Dehumidification results whenever the surface temperature is below the dew-
point. Whereas with sensible heating or cooling all the heat must be trans-
mitted through the air film, the tube metal, and the inside film, only the tube
metal and inside film resist the flow of latent heat when condensation takes
place on the surface. If, however, condensation occurs in the air stream as
fog, then the total heat must pass through the air film. Fogging occurs only
when saturated air is further cooled. Cooling-fluid temperatures are usually
limited to those that will not cause icing of the coils. Otherwise, both heat
transfer and airflow are reduced, which is intolerable. If dehumidification is
desired, the coolant must be cold enough to produce a surface temperature
below the dew-point. For a volatile refrigerant, only one refrigerant condition
will theoretically produce the required sensible-to-total-heat ratio for a
particular coil. The apparatus dew-point can be considered the hypothetical
surface temperature needed to produce the desired leaving condition if the
path of the process is considered a straight line through that temperature on
the saturation curve. Since the surface temperature changes as the air pro-
ceeds through the coil, the actual process is not a straight line but a pursuit
curve of the instantaneous surface temperature at any point. When used with
a bypass factor, the apparatus dew-point is a valuable tool. The bypass factor
expresses the fraction of the air that can be considered to pass through a coil
unaffected if the remainder is considered perfectly or totally conditioned.
The apparatus dew-point, bypass-factor method of rating direct-expansion
coils in effect balances the refrigerant and the air-side transmission. One such
method uses two sets of factors that we might call L and M . If we assume a
coil (face area and depth), the refrigerant temperature needed for any load and
any flow rate can then be determined. To illustrate,
1 6
Qû H = L hLE − hADP Qû and (21.26)

Qû H = M (t ADP − t R ) AF , (21.27)
where t R is the refrigerant temperature and other symbols are as previously

defined.
The first expression can be solved for hADP by using the appropriate L
value for any particular depth of coil as listed in Table 21.20. 'I'he second
expression can then be solved for the refrigerant temperature using the
corresponding apparatus dew-point t ADP and M from Table 21.20.
Table 2l.20 Performance of Direct-Expansion Coils
L and M Factors-Series 80
Rows 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
M factor 420 840 1260 1680 2100 2520 2940 3360
L factor 1.48 2.45 3.07 3.47 3.78 4.05 4.19 4.28
Minimum Suction Temperatures to Prevent Frost-°F

Leaving Face Velocity-fpm F & BP
Wet-Bulb 300 400 500 Dampers
45 32 32 32 32
50 32 32 32 32
55 32 31 30 32
60 27 26 25 32
Maximum Load per Distributor-Tons

Tube Face 12 15 18 21 24
Pressure Distributor 24 30 36 42 48
Adapted from the data of Aerofin Corporation: "Direct Expansion Cooling Surface," Aerofin
Corp. Bulletin D-66, Lynchburg, Va., 1966.
Although it is not immediately obvious that the bypass factor is involved

when using L and M factors, examining the definition will show that this is so.
A graphical solution for the leaving dry-bulb can be obtained on a
psychrometric chart by drawing a straight line between the entering state and
the apparatus dew-point (plotted on the saturation curve). The leaving dry-
bulb can be read at the intersection of this line and the leaving wet-bulb line.
This analysis leads to the major limitation of any device in which sensible
and latent heat are removed simultaneously: some sensible-to-total-heat ratios
are impossible to satisfy this way. These can be discovered graphically on the
psychrometric chart.

If the entering and leaving conditions are-connected by a straight line and

if that line does not intersect the saturation curve, then the sensible-to-total-
heat ratio cannot be satisfied directly. The remedy then is to cool to the
required dew-point and reheat as needed. The alternatives are to allow room
conditions different from those specified, to reduce the fresh-air load, or both.
Sometimes, room conditions can be specified with a dry-bulb low enough to
offset the increase in space humidity and, thereby, maintain nearly the same
effective temperature.
A graphical method that uses an alignment chart in place of the L for-
mula and the psychrometric charts is illustrated in Figure. 21.17. The re-
quired apparatus dew-point can be obtained directly from the entering and
leaving wet-bulbs and the bypass factor for any coil. The leaving dry-bulb
can then be determined from the apparatus dew-point and the entering dry-
bulb. Since this completely defines the air-side performance, it is then
necessary to provide only the indicated apparatus dew-point by properly
selecting a refrigerant temperature. For direct-expansion coils, the M factor
expression can be used to solve for the appropriate t R .
The apparatus-dew-point/bypass-factor method can also be applied to
chilled-water coils. The air-side determinations are identical to those for
direct-expansion coils. But, the refrigerant-side determinations are more
complicated, since the refrigerant is not at constant temperature. Evaluating
water-side performance involves water temperature and velocity and, there-
fore, water quantities and circuiting. Individual charts can be drawn for each
particular coil, as exemplified by Figure 21.18.
A more general solution with fewer charts involves, in effect, evaluating
the overall coefficient U . This can be expressed in terms of rows and face
area rather than in actual surface area. The symbol K is used instead of U
when units of Btu/hr-row-ft2 FA-°F MED are used. Figure 21.17 can be used
to determine the apparatus dew-point and bypass factor for any set of entering
and leaving requirements. The many theoretical possibilities for coil selection
will thereby be reduced to one or two practical cases. The air-side perform-
ance will be fixed so that it will be necessary only to manipulate the water-
side variables. The entering water temperature can be fixed, to a limited
extent, by its relationship to apparatus dew-point. The Aerofin Corporation
suggests that the apparatus dew-point will fall between the entering water
temperature and the leaving wet-bulb (.5 times the difference for Series 80
and .7 times the difference for Series 140). The rise in water temperature is
usually limited, by coil-cost and pressure-drop considerations, to somewhere
between 8 and 12 degrees. As pointed out by McFarlan1 and Morabito2,
.
1
A. I. McFarlan, "Improved Zoning Betters Department Store Air Conditioning," ASHRAE
Journal, December 1959, pp. 37-40,
2
B. P. Morabito, "How Higher Cooling Coil Differentials Effect System Economies",
ASHRAE Journal, August 1960, pp. 60-65.

Figure 2l.17 Air-Side Performance of Dehumidifying Coils

Adapted from the data of B. P. Morabito and W. Conroy: "Here's a New, Quick Way to Select
Chilled Water Coils," Heating, Piping and Air Conditioning, January, 1959, pp. 156-160.
(Original copyright 1958, Carrier Corporation.)

Figure 2l.18 Water-Side Performance of a Water Coil
overall system economies may dictate using higher cooling-coil differentials.

By establishing the entering water temperature and the water temperature rise,
the leaving water temperature MED and gpm can be determined directly.
Water velocities for various circuits or circuiting arrangements of the coil
chosen can be figured and equivalent U or K values calculated. The cir-
cuiting chosen should be that which matches the required surface to the
surface available. The chart in Figure 21.19 shows K values of various air
and water velocities for one type of water coil. The K value determined from
this chart can be used to establish the number of rows needed for a particular
job, but only if the limitations (as demonstrated by apparatus dew-point and
bypass factor) are first evaluated in some way.
The same K factor chart can be used for hot-water coils. Since it is based
on approximately 50°F water and since the difference in properties of higher-
temperature water can affect results, a correction-factor chart is given in
Figure 21.20. Because heating involves only sensible change, the apparatus
dew-point method does not apply. Water temperatures and amounts should be
established in relation to the heating plant and to the number of rows found
necessary. Steam-coil ratings are perhaps the simplest to use. They are usu-
ally presented for each type of surface in terms of temperature rise versus face
velocity for one combination of entering-air temperature and steam pressure.
By assuming a constant U (which is reasonable), the temperature rise for any
other entering air and steam condition is proportional to the ratio of the
difference between entering steam and air temperatures and the corresponding
difference on which the chart is based. These ratios are usually tabulated as in
Figure 21.21. The temperature-rise data for various types of surface are also
given in Figure 21.21 for 0°F entering air and 5 psig steam.

Figure 2l.19 Performance of Water Coils
Adapted from the data of Aerofin Corporation: "Water Coils for Cooling," Aerofin Corp.
Bulletin C-58, Lynchburg, Va., 1958.
Figure 21.20 Hot-Water Corrections

Figure 2l.21 Performance of Steam Coils
Adapted from the data of Aerofin Corporation: "Steam Heating Coils," Aerofin Corp. Bulletin
B-58, Lynchburg, Va., 1958.

Dehydration Equipment
Water vapor can be extracted by either absorbent or adsorbent processes.
In both, the heat released by condensing vapor raises the temperature of the
air. Adsorbents, such as silica gel or activated alumina, are solid substances
with submicroscopic pores capable of dehydrating air on physical contact.
Absorbents are hygroscopic solutions such as lithium chloride and calcium
chloride. The hygroscopic depression of either is the difference between its
temperature and the saturation temperature corresponding to its water-vapor
pressure. Adsorbers convert the latent heat into sensible heat, and about 20%
more sensible heating results from releasing the heat of wetting and the heat
of reactivation. The path of the process in an absorber without external heat
transfer more nearly follows a wet-bulb line. The effectiveness of each
process is reduced as the desiccant water content increases. Reactivating solid
beds necessitates intermittent operation, unless parallel units are installed.
Continuous operation of spray units is feasible, however, if the solution is
circulated through a regenerator. The solution can be cooled in varying
degrees and sprayed over different kinds of surface to produce various leaving
air conditions. However, surface cooling and dehumidification are more
economical. Whenever reheat must be used or when the cost of electrical
power is high and the cost of gas or steam low, dehydration and sensible
cooling may be advantageous.
Controls
The capacity of any piece of equipment discussed so far can be altered by
some sort of throttling action. When conditions change, it is essential for
comfort, etc. that the capacity of each element be matched to the new re-
quirements. This can be done by manipulating a damper or valve. Automatic
means are usually preferred to manual operation for reasons of accuracy,
economy, and safety. If control is to be automatic, the damper or valve must
be equipped with a motor or other actuator. This, in turn, responds to a signal
from a controller that measures the need for a change. Thermostats, humi-
distats, and pressurestats can be used to sense changing conditions. The
controller/actuator system can be designed to produce two-position, mul-
tiposition, floating, or modulating action. On/off control and step control both
produce changes limited to definite increments. But, floating control and
proportioning control can produce damper or valve settings anywhere be-
tween the minimum and the maximum.
Condensation
In many ways, the water vapor in the air must be considered a part of the
mixture. However, in certain situations, this water vapor may act independ-
ently of the air. The migration of moisture through porous materials depends
1 6
only on the area A , the vapor pressure difference pwi − pwo , between inside
and outside, and the permeance Ω of the material. Equation 21.4 can be
rewritten:

1
mû = AΩ pwi − pwo , 6 (21.28)
where the rate of moisture migration mû is expressed in any units consistent

with those for Ω , A , and pw . Moisture will condense on any surface with a
temperature lower than the dew-point of the air to which it is exposed.
Condensation will also occur within a porous medium if the temperature and
vapor-pressure gradients are not compatible with continuity of vapor flow.
Surface condensation can be prevented by adding insulation to maintain
the surface temperature above the dew-point. For windows that are
nonporous, double or triple glazing will usually give adequate protection.
But, leaks, especially around the inside pane, must be prevented. Figure
21.22 gives the maximum indoor relative humidities that can be tolerated at
any outdoor temperature without producing condensation on windows (of
various types) at 50, 60, 70 or 80°F indoor temperatures.
Insulating can cause condensation to occur within a wall unless a vapor
barrier is used on the warm side. Various papers, foils, and even paints will
provide protection (but only if properly applied) so that there will be no
alternative paths for the vapor to follow. Physical damage may result if
moisture formed within a wall finds a path to the inside surface of that wall.
Also, moisture may reduce the wall's insulating value.
However, condensation within walls does not always produce damaging
results. Wood sheathing is very absorbent. An annual cycle of wetting in
winter and drying in summer can occur without exceeding the material's
capacity to hold the moisture it receives. Sometimes, venting the outside part
of a wall, so as to provide a path for outside air, will control condensation.
However, the loss of heat may be significant. Normally, this method should
be used together with a vapor seal.
Vapor-pressure difference, the principal driving force behind moisture
migration, can be reduced by lowering the humidity. This is done by venti-
lating the space. When a vapor barrier is used, ventilation is needed to
prevent excessively high humidities. Normal infiltration is usually adequate
in winter.
Condensation will also occur on cold pipes and equipment unless they are
insulated. Vapor seals must be used to prevent the insulation from becoming
saturated, especially when no drying-out period is expected. As usual, the
seal should be on the warm side.
Surface Temperature
The temperature of a surface may be important, as we have seen, in the
problems of condensation and comfort. The same amount of heat must be
transmitted through the surface film as through the entire wall. Using the
subscripts i , o , and w for inside, outside, and wall, respectively,
1 6 1 6
UA ti − t o = hA ti − t w or (21.29)

Figure 21.22 Condensation on Glass
t w = ti −
U
h
1
ti − t o . 6 (21.30)
The surface film coefficient h for still air is 1.65 Btu/hr-ft2-°F.
Insulation
In order to determine the amount of insulation necessary to maintain a
certain wall temperature. Equations 21.29 and 5.33 can be used if rewritten:
U′ =
1
h ti − t w 6
and (21.31)
ti − t o
x=
1
k U −U ′
.
6 (21.32)
UU ′
To prevent condensation, substitute the dew-point temperature for t w , and

calculate the required overall coefficient U ′ with insulation. Then, substitute
this value and the overall coefficient U without insulation, together with the
thermal conductivity k of the proposed insulation, in Equation 21.32 to find
the required thickness x .

Winter and Summer Air Conditioning: Design Principles

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Winter and Summer Air Conditioning: Design Principles

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Winter and Summer Air Conditioning: Design Principles

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter 21

Winter and Summer

The purpose of any air-conditioning system is to control the conditions

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

Several criteria are used to establish zones of substantially uniform air-

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

Table 21.1 Indoor Design Conditions

Conditions ET,°F DB,°F RH,% AV, fpm

© 1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

Table 2l.2 Winter and Summer Design Temperatures in °F

Station Winter3 Summer4

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

Table 2l.2 Winter and Summer Design Temperatures in °F

Station Winter3 Summer4

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

Table 2l.2 Winter and Summer Design Temperatures in °F

Station Winter3 Summer4

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

Table 2l.2 Winter and Summer Design Temperatures in °F

Station Winter3 Summer4

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

Table 2l.2 Winter and Summer Design Temperatures in °F

Station Winter3 Summer4

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

Table 2l.2 Winter and Summer Design Temperatures in °F

Station Winter3 Summer4

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

Table 2l.2 Winter and Summer Design Temperatures in °F

Station Winter3 Summer4

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

Table 2l.2 Winter and Summer Design Temperatures in °F

Station Winter3 Summer4

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

Table 2l.2 Winter and Summer Design Temperatures in °F

Station Winter3 Summer4

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

Table 2l.2 Winter and Summer Design Temperatures in °F

Station Winter3 Summer4

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

Table 2l.2 Winter and Summer Design Temperatures in °F

Station Winter3 Summer4

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

Table 2l.2 Winter and Summer Design Temperatures in °F

Station Winter3 Summer4

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

Table 2l.2 Winter and Summer Design Temperatures in °F

Station Winter3 Summer4

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

Table 2l.2 Winter and Summer Design Temperatures in °F

Station Winter3 Summer4

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

Table 2l.2 Winter and Summer Design Temperatures in °F

Station Winter3 Summer4

‹#1999 Howden Buffalo, Inc.

Table 2l.2 Winter and Summer Design Temperatures in °F

Station Winter3 Summer4