Corporate Finance – Unit 4

UNIT 4
Working Capital Management
Meaning and Concept of Working Capital
In accounting term working capital is defined as the difference between currentassets and
current liabilities. If we break down the components of working capital we will find working
capital as follows:

Working Capital = Current Assets – Current Liabilities

Current Assets: An asset is classified as current when:

- It is expected to be realised or intends to be sold or consumed in normal operating cycle

of the entity or within twelve months after the reporting period whichever is longer;
and
- The asset is held primarily for the purpose of trading in the ordinary course of
business.
For the purpose of working capital management, current assets of an entity
can begrouped into the following categories:
(a) Inventory (raw material, work in process and finished goods)
(b) Receivables (trade receivables and bills receivables)
(c) Cash or cash equivalents (including short-term marketable securities)
(d) Prepaid expenses
Other current assets may also include short term loans or advances, any otheraccrued
revenue etc.
Current Liabilities: A liability is classified as current when:

- It is expected to be settled in normal operating cycle of the entity or within twelve

months after the reporting period whichever is longer; and
- It is settled either by the use of current assets or by creation of new currentliability.
For the purpose of working capital management, current liabilities of an entity can be grouped
into the following categories:

(a) Payable (trade payables and bills payables)

(b) Outstanding payments (wages & salary, overheads & other expenses
etc.)

- Dr. Hardita Dhamelia

 Corporate Finance – Unit 4

Other current liabilities may also include short term borrowings, current portion of long-term
debts, short term provisions that are payable within twelve months suchas provision for
taxes etc.

Working Capital Management is process which is designed to ensure that an organization

operates efficiently by monitoring & utilizing its current assets and current liabilities to the best
effect. Primary objective is to enable a company maintaining sufficient cash flows in order to
meet its day to day operating expenses and its short-term obligations.
Importance of Adequate Working Capital
Management of working capital is an essential task of the finance manager. He has to ensure
that the amount of working capital available is neither too large nor too small for its
requirements.
A large amount of working capital would mean that the company has idle funds. Since funds
have a cost, the company has to pay huge amount as interest on such funds that are used to
invest in surplus working capital. Another way to look at it is that there is an opportunity cost
involved where the company could have investedthe surplus funds in long term investments
and earned some return on the same.
Various studies conducted by the Bureau of Public Enterprises have shown that one of the
reasons for the poor performance of public sector undertakings in our country has been the
large amount of funds locked up in working capital. This results in over capitalization. Over
capitalization implies that a company has too large funds for its requirements, resulting in a low
rate of return, a situation which implies a less than optimal use of resources.
On the other hand, if the firm has inadequate working capital, such firm runs therisk of
insolvency. Paucity of working capital may lead to a situation where the firm may not be able
to meet its liabilities. It may also mean that a company may notbe holding enough inventory
in order to meet the customers’ demand and hence would lose sales and eventually some
reputation as well.
An organization, therefore, has to be very careful in estimating its working capital requirements.
Maintaining adequate working capital is not just important in the short-term, sufficient liquidity
must be maintained in order to ensure the survival of the business in the long-term as well.
When businesses make investment decisions, they must not only consider the financial outlay
involved with acquiring the new machine or the new building, etc., but must also take account
of the additional current assets that are usually required with any expansion of activity. For
e.g.:
Increased production leads to holding of additional stocks of
raw materialsand work-in-progress.
An increased sale usually means that the level of debtors and
the finishedgoods inventory requirements will increase.
A general increase in the firm’s scale of operations tends to
imply a need forgreater levels of working capital.

- Dr. Hardita Dhamelia

 Corporate Finance – Unit 4

A question then arises what is an optimum amount of working capital for a firm? An
organization should neither have too high an amount of working capital nor should the same be
too low. It is the job of the finance manager to estimate the requirements of working capital
carefully and determine the optimum level of investment in working capital
Optimum Working Capital
If a company’s current assets do not exceed its current liabilities, then it may run into trouble
with creditors that want their money quickly. Not being able to meet Optimum Working
Capital
If a company’s current assets do not exceed its current liabilities, then it may runinto trouble
with creditors that want their money quickly. Not being able to meet its short-term
obligations, company shall eventually lose its reputation and notmany vendors would like to
do business with them.
Current ratio (current assets/current liabilities) (along with acid test ratio to supplement it) has
traditionally been considered the best indicator of the working capital situation.
It is understood that a current ratio of 2 (two) for a manufacturing firm implies that the firm has
an optimum amount of working capital. A higher ratio may indicate inefficient use of funds and
a lower ratio would mean liquidity issues as mentioned above. This is supplemented by Quick
Ratio or Acid Test Ratio (Quick assets/Current liabilities) which should be at least 1 (one)
which would imply that there is a comfortable liquidity position if liquid current assets are equal
to current liabilities (where quick assets / liquid current assets refer to current assets less
inventory & prepaid expenses).
Bankers, financial institutions, financial analysts, investors and other people interested in
financial statements have, for years, considered the current ratio at ‘two’ and the acid test ratio
at ‘one’ as indicators of a good working capital situation. As a thumb rule, this may be quite
adequate.
However, it should be remembered that optimum working capital can bedetermined only with
reference to the particular circumstances of a specific situation. Thus, in a company where
the inventories are easily saleable and the sundry debtors are as good as liquid cash, the current
ratio may be lower than 2 and yet firm may be sound or where the nature of finished goods
are perishable in nature like a restaurant, then also the organization cannot afford to hold large
amount of working capital. On the other hand, an organization dealing in products which take
a longer production time, may need a higher amount of working capital.
In nutshell, a firm should have adequate working capital to run its business operations. Both
excessive as well as inadequate working capital positions are dangerous.

- Dr. Hardita Dhamelia

 Corporate Finance – Unit 4

Determinants of Working Capital

Working capital management is concerned with:
- Maintaining adequate working capital (managing the level of individual current
assets and current liabilities and
- Financing of the working capital.
For the point a) above, a Finance Manager needs to plan and compute the working capital
requirement for its business. And once the requirement has been computed he needs to ensure
that it is financed properly. This whole exercise is known as Working Capital Management.
Sound financial and statistical techniques, supported by judgment should be usedto predict
the quantum of working capital required at different times.
Some of the factors which need to be considered while planning for working capital requirement
are:

- Cash: Identify the cash balance which allows for the business to meet day- to-day
expenses but reduces cash holding costs (example - loss of intereston long term
investment had the surplus cash invested therein)

- Inventory: Identify the level of inventory which allows for uninterrupted production
but reduces the investment in raw materials and hence increases cash flow. The
techniques like Just in Time (JIT) and Economic order quantity (EOQ) are used for
this

- Receivables: Identify the appropriate credit policy, i.e., credit terms which will
attract customers, such that any impact on cash flows and the cash conversion cycle
will be offset by increased revenue and hence Return on Capital (or vice versa). The
tools like Early Payment Discounts and allowances are used for this.

- Short-term Financing Options: Inventory is ideally financed by credit granted by

the supplier. However, depending on the cash conversion cycle, it may be necessary
to utilize a bank loan (or overdraft), or to “convert debtors to cash” through
“factoring” in order to finance working capital requirements.

- Nature of Business: For e.g. in a business of restaurant, most of the sales arein Cash.
Therefore, need for working capital is very less. On the other hand, there would be a
higher inventory in case of a pharmacy or a bookstore.

- Market and Demand Conditions: For e.g. if an item’s demand far exceeds its
production, the working capital requirement would be less as investment in finished
goods inventory would be very less with continuous sales.

- Technology and Manufacturing Policies: For e.g. in some businesses the demand
for goods is seasonal, in that case a business may follow a policy for steady
production throughout the whole year or rather may choose a policy of production
only during the demand season.

- Dr. Hardita Dhamelia

 Corporate Finance – Unit 4

- Operating Efficiency: A company can reduce the working capital requirement by

eliminating waste, improving coordination, process improvements etc.

- Price Level Changes & Exchange Rate Fluctuations: For e.g. rising prices
necessitate the use of more funds for maintaining an existing level of activity.For the
same level of current assets, higher cash outlays are required. Therefore,the effect of
rising prices is that a higher amount of working capital is required. Another example
would be unfavorable exchange rate movement in case of imported raw materials
would warrant additional cost of same
Management of Working Capital
The importance of working capital for an entity can be compared to importance of life blood
for a living body or of a lubricant/ fuel for an engine. Working capital is required for smooth
functioning of the business of an entity as lack of this may interrupt the ordinary course of
activities. Hence, the working capital needs adequate attention and efficient management.
When we talk about the management, it involves 3 Es i.e. Economy, Efficiency and
Effectiveness and allthese three are required for the working capital management.
The scope of working capital management can be grouped into two broad areas:
i) Liquidity and Profitability (ii) Investment and Financing Decision.
Liquidity and Profitability
For uninterrupted and smooth functioning of the day to day business of an entity,it is
important to maintain liquidity of funds evenly. As we have already learnt in previous chapters
that each rupee of capital bears some cost. So, while maintaining liquidity the cost aspect needs
to be borne in mind. Also, a higher working capital may be intended to increase the revenue
& hence profitability, but at the sametime unnecessary tying up of funds in idle assets not
only reduces the liquidity but also reduces the opportunity to earn better return from a
productive asset. Hence,a trade-off is required between the liquidity and profitability which
increases the profitability without disturbing the day to day functioning. This requires 3Es as
discussed above i.e. economy in financing, efficiency in utilisation and effectiveness in
achieving the intended objectives
Investment and Financing
Working capital policy is a function of two decisions, first is investment in working capital and
the second is financing of the investment. Investment in working capitalis concerned with the
level of investment in the current assets. It gives the answerof ‘How much’ fund to be tied
in to achieve the organisation objectives (i.e. Effectiveness of fund). Financing decision
concerned with the arrangement of fundsto finance the working capital. It gives the answer
‘Where from’ fund to be sourcedat lowest cost as possible (i.e. Economy). Financing decision,
we will discuss this in later unit of this chapter.
Investment of working capital: How much to be invested in current assets as working
capital is a matter of policy decision by an entity. It has to be decided inthe light of
organisational objectives, trade policies and financial (cost-benefit) considerations.
There are not set or fixed rules for deciding the level of investment in working capital.

- Dr. Hardita Dhamelia

 Corporate Finance – Unit 4

Some organisations due to its peculiarity require more investment than others. For
example, an infrastructure development company requires more investment in its
working capital as there may be huge inventory in the form of work in process on the
other hand a company which is engaged in fast food business, comparatively requires
less investment as inventory is of perishable nature & most sales are cash sales. Hence,
level of investment depends on the various factors listed below:
- Nature of Industry: Construction companies, breweries etc. requires large investment
in working capital due long gestation period.
- Types of products: Consumer durable has large inventory as compared to perishable
products.
- Manufacturing Vs Trading Vs Service: A manufacturing entity has to maintain
three levels of inventory i.e. raw material, work-in-process and finished goods
whereas a trading and a service entity has to maintain inventory only in the form of
trading stock and consumables respectively.
- Volume of sales: Where the sales are high, there is a possibility of high receivables as
well.
- Credit policy: An entity whose credit policy is liberal has not only high level of
receivables but may require more capital to fund raw material purchasesas that
will depend on credit period allowed by suppliers.

Approaches of Working Capital Investment

Based on the organisational policy and risk-return trade off, working capital investment
decisions are categorised into three approaches i.e. aggressive, conservative and moderate.
Aggressive: Here investment in working capital is kept at minimal investmentin current
assets which means the entity does hold lower level of inventory, follow strict credit policy,
keeps less cash balance etc. The advantage of this approach is that lower level of fund is
tied in the working capital which results in lower financial costs but the flip side could be risk
of stock-outs & that the organisation could not grow which leads to lower utilisation of fixed
assets and long-term debts. In the long run firm may stay behind the competitors.
Conservative: In this approach, organisation choose to invest high capital in current assets.
Organisations use to keep inventory level higher, follows liberal credit policies, and cash
balance as high as to meet any current liabilities immediately. The advantages of this
approach are higher sales volume, increased demand due to liberal credit policy and increase
goodwill among the suppliers due to payment in short time. The disadvantages are increase
cost of capital, inventory obsolescence, higher risk of bad debts, shortage of liquidity in long
run due to longer operating cycles.

Moderate: This approach is in between the above two approaches. Under this approach a
balance between the risk and return is maintained to gain more by using the funds in very
efficient manner.

- Dr. Hardita Dhamelia

 Corporate Finance – Unit 4

A conservative policy implies greater liquidity and lower risk whereas an aggressive policy
indicates higher risk and poor liquidity. Moderate current assets policy will fall in the middle
of conservative and aggressive policies which most of the firms follow to strike an appropriate
balance as per the requirements of their trade or industry.
Estimating Working Capital Needs
Operating cycle is one of the most reliable methods of Computation of Working Capital.
However, other methods like ratio of sales and ratio of fixed investment may also be used to
determine the Working Capital requirements. These methods are briefly explained as follows:
- Current Assets Holding Period: To estimate working capital needs basedon the
average holding period of current assets and relating them to costs based on the
company’s experience in the previous year. This method is essentially based on the
Operating Cycle Concept.
- Ratio of Sales: To estimate working capital needs as a ratio of sales on the assumption
that current assets change with changes in sales.
- Ratio of Fixed Investments: To estimate Working Capital requirements as a
percentage of fixed investments.

A number of factors will, however, be impacting the choice of method of estimating Working
Capital. Factors such as seasonal fluctuations, accurate sales forecast, investment cost and
variability in sales price would generally be considered. The production cycle and credit and
collection policies of the firm will have an impact on Working Capital requirements.
Therefore, they should be given due weightagein projecting Working Capital requirements.

Operating or Working Capital Cycle

A useful tool for managing working capital is the operating cycle.
The operating cycle analyses the accounts receivable, inventory and accounts payable cycles
in terms of number of days. For example:
Accounts receivables are analyzed by the average number of days it takes
to collect an account.
Inventory is analyzed by the average number of days it takes to turn over
the sale of a product (from the point it comes in the store to the point it is
converted to cash or an account receivable).
Accounts payables are analyzed by the average number of days it
takes topay a supplier invoice.

- Dr. Hardita Dhamelia

 Corporate Finance – Unit 4

Operating/Working Capital Cycle Definition

Working Capital cycle indicates the length of time between a company’s paying for materials,
entering into stock and receiving the cash from sales of finished goods.It can be determined
by adding the number of days required for each stage in the cycle. For example, a company
holds raw materials on an average for 60 days, itgets credit from the supplier for 15 days,
production process needs 15 days, finished goods are held for 30 days and 30 days credit is
extended to debtors. The total of all these, 120 days, i.e., 60 – 15 + 15 + 30 + 30 days is the
total working capital cycle.

Most businesses cannot finance the operating cycle (accounts receivable days + inventory days)
with accounts payable financing alone. Consequently, working capital financing is needed.
This shortfall is typically covered by the net profits generated internally or by externally
borrowed funds or by a combination of thetwo.
The faster a business expands the more cash it will need for working capital and investment.
The cheapest and best sources of cash exist as working capital right within the business. Good
management of working capital will generate cash which will help improve profits and reduce
risks. Bear in mind that the cost of providing credit to customers and holding stocks can
represent a substantial proportion of a firm’s total profits.
Each component of working capital (namely inventory, receivables and payables) has two
dimensions Time and Money. When it comes to managing working capital then time is money.
If you can get money to move faster around the cycle (e.g. collect amount due from debtors
more quickly) or reduce the amount of moneytied up (e.g. reduce inventory levels relative
to sales), the business will generate more cash or it will need to borrow less money to fund
working capital. Similarly,if you can negotiate improved terms with suppliers e.g. get longer
credit or an increased credit limit; you are effectively creating free finance to help fund future
sales.
If you……………… Then ………………….
Collect receivables (debtors) faster You release cash from the cycle
Collect receivables (debtors) slower Your receivables soak up cash.
Get better credit (in terms of duration or You increase your cash resources.
amount) from suppliers.
Shift inventory (stocks) faster You free up cash.
Move inventory (stocks) slower. You consume more cash.

The determination of operating capital cycle helps in the forecasting, controlling and
management of working capital. The length of operating cycle is the indicator of
performance of management. The net operating cycle represents the time interval for which
the firm has to negotiate for Working Capital from its lenders. It enables to determine
accurately the amount of working capital needed for thecontinuous operation of business
activities.

- Dr. Hardita Dhamelia

 Corporate Finance – Unit 4

The duration of working capital cycle may vary depending on the nature of the business.
In the form of an equation, the operating cycle process can be expressed as follows:
Operating Cycle = R + W + F + D – C
Where,
R = Raw material storage period
W = Work-in-progress inventory* holding periodF = Finished goods storage period
D = Receivables (Debtors) collection period.
C = Credit period allowed by suppliers (Creditors).

* work in progress inventory may also be termed as works cost

The various components of Operating Cycle may be calculated as shownbelow:

(1) Raw Material Averagestock ofrawmaterial


Storage Period Average Costof Raw Material Consumptionper day

(2) Work-in-Progress Average Work - in- progress inventory

=
inventory holding AverageCostof Production per day
period
(3) Finished Goods Averagestock of finishedgoods
=
storage period Average Costof GoodsSoldper day

(4) Receivables AverageReceivables

=
(Debtors) collection Average Credit Salesper day
period
(5) Credit period AveragePayables
=
allowed by suppliers Average CreditPurchasesper day
(Creditors)

- Dr. Hardita Dhamelia

 Corporate Finance – Unit 4

Estimation of amount of Different Components of Current Assets and

Current Liabilities
The various constituents of current assets and current liabilities have a direct bearing on
the computation of working capital and the operating cycle. The holding period of various
constituents of Current Assets and Current Liabilities cycle may either contract or expand
the net operating cycle period.
Shorter the operating cycle period, lower will be the requirement of working capital and
vice-versa.
Estimation of Current Assets
The estimates of various components of gross working capital or current assets may be
made as follows:
Raw Materials Inventory: The funds to be invested in raw materials inventory may be
estimated on the basis of production budget, the estimated cost per unit and average holding
period of raw material inventory by using the following formula:

Work-in-Progress Inventory: The funds to be invested in work-in-progress can be

estimated by the following formula:
Estimated Production (units)
x Estimated WIP cost per unit x Average WIP holding period
12months / 365days *

Finished Goods: The funds to be invested in finished goods inventory canbe estimated
with the help of following formula:
Estimated Production(units)
x Estimated cost of production per unit x Average finished goods storage period
12months / 365days *

Receivables (Debtors): Funds to be invested in trade receivables (debtors) may be

estimated with the help of following formula

Estimated credit sales (units)

x Estimated cost of sales per unit x Average receivable collection period
12months / 365days *

- Dr. Hardita Dhamelia

 Corporate Finance – Unit 4

Cash and Cash equivalents: Minimum desired Cash and Bank balance to be maintained
by the firm has to be added in the current assets for the computationof working capital.

Estimation of Current Liabilities

Current liabilities are deducted from the current assets to get working capital. Hence, the
amount of working capital is lowered to the extent of current liabilities (other than bank
credit) arising in the normal course of business. The important current liabilities like trade
payables, wages and overheads can be estimated as follows:
Trade Payables: Trade payable can be estimated on the basis of material purchase budget
Estimated credit purchase
× Credit period allowed by suppliers
12months / 365days *
and

Direct Wages: It is estimated with the help of direct wages budget by usingfollowing
formula:
Estimated labour hours × wages rate per hour
× Average time lag in payment of wages
12months / 365days *

Overheads (other than depreciation and amortization): It may beestimated with the
help of following formula:
Estimated Overheads
× Average time lag in payment of overheads
12months / 360 days *
Estimation of Working Capital requirements
Amount Amount Amount
(`) (`) (`)
I. Current Assets:
Inventories:
-Raw Materials ---
-Work-in-process ---
-Finished goods --- ---
Receivables:
- Dr. Hardita Dhamelia
 Corporate Finance – Unit 4

-Trade debtors ---

-Bills --- ---
Minimum Cash Balance ---
Gross Working Capital --- ---
II. Current Liabilities:
Trade Payables ---
Bills Payables ---
Wages Payables ---
Payables for overheads --- ---
III. Excess of Current Assets over ---
Current Liabilities [I – II]

IV. Safety Margin ---

V. Net Working Capital [III + IV] ---

Examples
1) From the following information of XYZ Ltd., you are required to CALCULATE:
(a) Net operating cycle period.
(b) Number of operating cycles in a year.

(Rs)
(i) Raw material inventory consumed during the year 6,00,000
(ii) Average stock of raw material 50,000
(iii) Work-in-progress inventory 5,00,000
(iv) Average work-in-progress inventory 30,000
(v) Cost of goods sold during the year 8,00,000
(vi) Average finished goods stock held 40,000
(vii) Average collection period from debtors 45 days
(viii) Average credit period availed 30 days
(ix) No. of days in a year 360days
361

- Dr. Hardita Dhamelia

 Corporate Finance – Unit 4

2) On 1st January, the Managing Director of Naureen Ltd. wishes to know the
amount of working capital that will be required during the year. From the following
information, PREPARE the working capital requirements forecast.
Production during the previous year was 60,000 units. It is planned that this level of activity
would be maintained during the present year.

The expected ratios of the cost to selling prices are Raw materials 60%, Direct wages 10%
and Overheads 20%.

Raw materials are expected to remain in store for an average of 2 months before issue to
production.

Each unit is expected to be in process for one month, the raw materials being fed into the
pipeline immediately and the labour and overhead costs accruing evenly during the month.

Finished goods will stay in the warehouse awaiting dispatch to customers for approximately
3 months.

Credit allowed by creditors is 2 months from the date of delivery of raw material.Credit
allowed to debtors is 3 months from the date of dispatch.
Selling price is Rs. 5 per unit.
There is a regular production and sales cycle.

Wages and overheads are paid on the 1st of each month for the previous month.The
company normally keeps cash in hand to the extent of Rs. 20,000.

- Dr. Hardita Dhamelia

 Corporate Finance – Unit 4

CASH MANAGEMENT
Management of Cash
Management of cash is an important function of the finance manager. It is
concerned with the managing of:
(i) Cash flows into and out of the firm;
(ii) Cash flows within the firm; and
(iii)Cash balances held by the firm at a point of time by financing deficit or
investing surplus cash.
The main objectives of cash management for a business are:-
Provide adequate cash to each of its units as per requirements;
No funds are blocked in idle cash; and
The surplus cash (if any) should be invested in order to maximize returns forthe
business.
A cash management scheme therefore, is a delicate balance between the twinobjectives of
liquidity and costs.
The Need for Cash
The following are three basic considerations in determining the amount of cash orliquidity
as have been outlined by Lord Keynes, a British Economist:
Transaction need: Cash facilitates the meeting of the day-to-day expenses and
other debt payments. Normally, inflows of cash from operations should be
sufficient for this purpose. But sometimes this inflow may be temporarily blocked.
In such cases, it is only the reserve cash balance that can enable the firm to make
its payments in time.
Speculative needs: Cash may be held in order to take advantage of profitable
opportunities that may present themselves and which may be lost for want of
ready cash/settlement.
Precautionary needs: Cash may be held to act as for providing safety against
unexpected events. Safety as is explained by the saying that a man has only three
friends an old wife, an old dog and money at bank.

- Dr. Hardita Dhamelia

 Corporate Finance – Unit 4

Cash Planning
Cash Planning is a technique to plan and control the use of cash. This protects the financial
conditions of the firm by developing a projected cash statement from a forecast of
expected cash inflows and outflows for a given period. This may be done periodically
either on daily, weekly or monthly basis. The period and frequency of cash planning
generally depends upon the size of the firm and philosophy of the management. As firms
grows and business operations become complex, cash planning becomes inevitable for
continuing success.
Cash Budget
Cash Budget is the most significant device to plan for and control cash receipts and payments.
This represents cash requirements of business during the budget period.
The various purposes of cash budgets are:-
Coordinate the timings of cash needs. It identifies the period(s) when there might
either be a shortage of cash or an abnormally large cash requirement;
It also helps to pinpoint period(s) when there is likely to be excess cash;
It enables firm which has sufficient cash to take advantage like cash discounts on
its accounts payable; and
Lastly it helps to plan/arrange adequately needed funds (avoiding excess/shortage
of cash) on favorable terms.
On the basis of cash budget, the firm can decide to invest surplus cash in marketable
securities and earn profits. On the contrary, any shortages can also be managed by making
overdraft or credit arrangements with banks.
Main Components of Cash Budget
Preparation of cash budget involves the following steps:-

(a) Selection of the period of time to be covered by the budget. It also defines the
planning horizon.
(b) Selection of factors that have a bearing on cash flows. The factors that generate
cash flows are generally divided into following two categories:-
(i) Operating (cash flows generated by operations of the firm); and
(ii) Financial (cash flows generated by financial activities of the firm).

- Dr. Hardita Dhamelia

 Corporate Finance – Unit 4

Methods of Cash Flow Budgeting

A cash budget can be prepared in the following ways:
1. Receipts and Payments Method: In this method all the expected receiptsand
payments for budget period are considered. All the cash inflow and outflow of all
functional budgets including capital expenditure budgets are considered. Accruals
and adjustments in accounts will not affect the cash flow budget. Anticipated
cash inflow is added to the opening balance of cash and all cash payments are
deducted from this to arrive at the closing balance of cash. This method is
commonly used in business organizations.
2. Adjusted Income Method: In this method the annual cash flows are calculated
by adjusting the sales revenue and cost figures for delays in receipts and payments
(change in debtors and creditors) and eliminating non-cash items such as
depreciation.
3. Adjusted Balance Sheet Method: In this method, the budgeted balance sheet is
predicted by expressing each type of asset (except cash & bank) and short-term
liabilities as percentage of the expected sales. The profit is also calculated as a
percentage of sales, so that the increase in owner’s equity canbe forecasted. Known
adjustments, may be made to long-term liabilities and the balance sheet will then
show if additional finance is needed (if budgeted assets exceed budgeted liabilities)
or if there will be a positive cash balance(if budgeted liabilities exceed budgeted
assets).
It is important to note that the capital budget will also be considered in the preparation of
cash flow budget because the annual budget may disclose a need for new capital
investments and also, the costs and revenues of any new projectscoming on stream will
need to be incorporated in the short-term budgets.
The Cash Budget can be prepared for short period or for long period.
Cash budget for short period
Preparation of cash budget month by month would require the following estimates:
(a) As regards receipts:
1. Receipts from debtors;
2. Cash Sales; and
3. Any other source of receipts of cash (say, dividend from a subsidiary
company)
- Dr. Hardita Dhamelia
 Corporate Finance – Unit 4

(b) As regards payments:

1. Payments to be made for purchases;
2. Payments to be made for expenses;
3. Payments that are made periodically but not every month;
(i) Debenture interest;
(ii) Income tax paid in advance;
(iii) Sales tax or GST etc.
4. Special payments to be made in a particular month, for example, dividends to
shareholders, redemption of debentures, repayments of loan, payment of
assets acquired, etc.
Format of Cash Budget
__________Co. Ltd.
Cash Budget
Period______________
Month 1 Month 2 Month 3 Month 12
Receipts:
1. Opening balance
2. Collection from
debtors
3. Cash sales
4. Loans from banks
5. Share capital
6. Miscellaneous
receipts
7. Other items
Total
Payments:
1. Payments to creditors
2. Wages
3. Overheads
(a)
(b)
(c)
4. Interest
5. Dividend
6. Corporate tax
7. Capital expenditure
8. Other items

- Dr. Hardita Dhamelia

 Corporate Finance – Unit 4

Total
Closing balance
[Surplus (+)/Shortfall (-)]

Determining the Optimum Cash Balance

A firm should maintain optimum cash balance to cater to the day-to-day operations. It
may also carry additional cash as a buffer or safety stock. The amount of cash balance
will depend on the risk-return trade off. The firm should maintain an optimum level i.e.
just enough, i.e. neither too much (to avoid any opportunity cost) nor too little cash balance
(to settle day to day payments). This, however, poses a question.
Cash Management Models
In recent years several types of mathematical models have been developed which helps to
determine the optimum cash balance to be carried by a business organization.
The purpose of all these models is to ensure that cash does not remain idle unnecessarily
and at the same time the firm is not confronted with a situation of cash shortage.
All these models can be put in two categories:
Inventory type models; and stochastic models.
Inventory type models have been constructed to aid the finance manager to determine
optimum cash balance of his firm. William J. Baumol’s economic order quantity model
applies equally to cash management problems under conditions of certainty or where the
cash flows are predictable.
However, in a situation where the EOQ Model is not applicable, stochastic modelof
cash management helps in determining the optimum level of cash balance. It happens when
the demand for cash is stochastic and not known in advance.
William J. Baumol’s Economic Order Quantity Model, (1952)
According to this model, optimum cash level is that level of cash where the carrying costs
and transactions costs are the minimum.
The carrying costs refer to the cost of holding cash, namely, the opportunity costor
interest foregone on marketable securities. The transaction costs refer to the cost involved
in getting the marketable securities converted into cash. This happens when the firm
falls short of cash and has to sell the securities resulting in clerical, brokerage, registration
and other costs.

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The optimum cash balance according to this model will be that point where thesetwo
costs are minimum. The formula for determining optimum cash balance is:

2UP
C
S

Where, C = Optimum cash balance

U = Annual (or monthly) cash disbursement
P = Fixed cost per transaction.
S = Opportunity cost of one rupee p.a. (or p.m.)This
can be explained with the following diagram:

The model is based on the following assumptions:

(i) Cash needs of the firm are known with certainty.
(ii) The cash is used uniformly over a period of time and it is also known with
certainty.
(iii) The holding cost is known and it is constant.
(iv) The transaction cost also remains constant.

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Miller-Orr Cash Management Model (1966)

According to this model the net cash flow is completely stochastic.

When changes in cash balance occur randomly the application of control theory serves a
useful purpose. The Miller-Orr model is one of such control limit models.
This model is designed to determine the time and size of transfers between an investment
account and cash account. In this model control limits are set for cash balances. These limits
limits may consist of h as upper limit, z as the return point; and zero as the lower limit.
When the cash balance reaches the upper limit, the transfer of cash equal toh –
z is invested in marketable securities account.
When it touches the lower limit, a transfer from marketable securities account to
cash account is made.
During the period when cash balance stays between (h, z) and (z, 0) i.e. highand
low limits no transactions between cash and marketable securities account is made.
The high and low limits of cash balance are set up on the basis of fixed costassociated with
the securities transactions, the opportunity cost of holding cashand the degree of likely
fluctuations in cash balances. These limits satisfy thedemands for cash at the lowest
possible total costs. The following diagram illustrates the Miller-Orr model.

The MO Model is more realistic since it allows variations in cash balance within
lower and upper limits. The finance manager can set the limits according to the firm’s
liquidity requirements i.e., maintaining minimum and maximum cash balance

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Examples

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Corporate Finance – Unit 4

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 Corporate Finance – Unit 4

4) PREPARE monthly cash budget for six months beginning from April 2021
on the basisof the following information:
(i) Estimated monthly sales are as follows:

Rs. Rs.
January 1,00,000 June 80,000
February 1,20,000 July 1,00,000
March 1,40,000 August 80,000
April 80,000 September 60,000
May 60,000 October 1,00,000
ii) Wages and salaries are estimated to be payable as follows:-

Rs. Rs.
April 9,000 July 10,000
May 8,000 August 9,000
June 10,000 September 9,000
iii) Of the sales, 80% is on credit and 20% for cash. 75% of the credit sales are
collected within one month after sale and the balance in two months after sale.
There are no bad debt losses.
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iv) Purchases amount to 80% of sales and are made on credit and paid for in the
month preceding the sales.
v) The firm has 10% debentures of Rs.1, 20,000. Interest on these has to be paid
quarterly in January, April and so on.
vi) The firm is to make an advance payment of tax of Rs.5,000 in July, 2021.
vii) The firm had a cash balance of Rs. 20,000 on April 1, 2021, which is the minimum
desired level of cash balance. Any cash surplus/deficit above/below this
level is made up by temporary investments/liquidation of temporary
investments or temporary borrowings at the end of each month (interest on
these to be ignored).
5) From the following information relating to a departmental store, you are required
to PREPARE for the three months ending 31st March, 2021:
(a) Month-wise cash budget on receipts and payments basis; and
(b) Statement of Sources and uses of funds for the three months period.
It is anticipated that the working capital & other account balances at 1st January,
2021 will be as follows:

Rs. in ‘000
Cash in hand and at bank 545
Short term investments 300
Debtors 2,570
Stock 1,300
Trade creditors 2,110
Other creditors 200
Dividends payable 485
Tax due 320
Plant 800
Budgeted Profit Statement: Rs. in ‘000
January February March
Sales 2,100 1,800 1,700
Cost of sales 1,635 1,405 1,330
Gross Profit 465 395 370
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Administrative, Selling and

Distribution Expenses 315 270 255
Net Profit before tax 150 125 115

Budgeted balances Rs. in ‘000

atthe end
ofeach months
31st Jan. 28th Feb. 31st March
Short term 700 --- 200
investments
Debtors 2,600 2,500 2,350
Stock 1,200 1,100 1,000
Trade creditors 2,000 1,950 1,900

Other creditors 200 200 200

Dividendspayable 485 -- --

Tax due 320 320 320

Plant (depreciation 800 1,600 1,550
ignored)

Depreciation amount to Rs.60,000 is included in the budgeted expenditure for each

month.

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 Corporate Finance – Unit 4

Receivables Management
Meaning and Objective
Management of receivables refers to planning and controlling of 'debt' owed to the firm
from customer on account of credit sales. It is also known as trade credit management.
The basic objective of management of receivables (debtors) is to optimise the return on
investment on these assets.
When large amounts are tied up in receivables, there are chances of bad debts and there will
be cost of collection of debts. On the contrary, if the investment in receivables is low, the
sales may be restricted, since the competitors may offer more liberal terms. Therefore,
management of receivables is an important issue and requires proper policies and their
implementation.
Aspects of Management of Debtors
Credit Policy: A balanced credit policy should be determined for effective management of
receivables. Decision of Credit standards, Credit terms and collection efforts is included in
Credit policy. It involves a trade-off between the profits on additional sales that arise due
to credit being extended on the one hand and the cost of carrying those debtors and bad
debt losses on the other. This seeks to decide credit period, cash discount and other relevant
matters. The credit period is generally stated in terms of net days. For example, if the
firm’s credit terms are “net 50”. It is expected that customers will repay credit obligations
not later than 50 days.

Further, the cash discount policy of the firm specifies:

(a) The rate of cash discount.
(b) The cash discount period; and
(c) The net credit period
For example, the credit terms may be expressed as “3/15 net 60”. This means that a 3%
discount will be granted if the customer pays within 15 days; if he does not avail the offer
he must make payment within 60 days.
Credit Analysis: This requires the finance manager to determine as to how risky it is to
advance credit to a particular party. This involves due diligenceor reputation check of
the customers with respect to their credit worthiness.

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Control of Receivable: This requires finance manager to follow up debtors and decide
about a suitable credit collection policy. It involves both laying down of credit policies and
execution of such policies.

There is always cost of maintaining receivables which comprises of following costs:

(i) The company requires additional funds as resources are blocked in receivables
which involves a cost in the form of interest (loan funds) or opportunity cost
(own funds)
(ii) Administrative costs which include record keeping, investigation of credit
worthiness etc.
(iii) Collection costs.
(iv) Defaulting costs.
Factors Determining Credit Policy
The credit policy is an important factor determining both the quantity and thequality of
accounts receivables. Various factors determine the size of the investment a company
makes in accounts receivables. They are, for instance:
(i) The effect of credit on the volume of sales;
(ii) Credit terms;
(iii) Cash discount;
(iv) Policies and practices of the firm for selecting credit customers;
(v) Paying practices and habits of the customers;
(vi) The firm’s policy and practice of collection; and
The degree of operating efficiency in the billing, record keeping and adjustment function,
other costs such as interest, collection costs and bad debts etc., would also have an impact
on the size of the investment in receivables. The rising trend in these costs would depress
the size of investment in receivables.
The firm may follow a lenient or a stringent credit policy. The firm which follows a lenient
credit policy sells on credit to customers on very liberal terms and standards. On the contrary
a firm following a stringent credit policy sells on credit on a highly selective basis only to
those customers who have proper credit worthiness and who are financially sound.
Any increase in accounts receivables that is, additional extension of trade credit not only
results in higher sales but also requires additional financing to support the increased
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investment in accounts receivables. The costs of credit investigations and collection

efforts and the chances of bad debts are also increased. On the contrary, a decrease in
accounts receivable due to a stringent credit policy may beas a result of reduced sales
with competitors offering better credit terms

Factors Under the control of Finance Manager

The finance manager has operating responsibility for the management of theinvestment in
receivables. His involvement includes:-
(a) Supervising the administration of credit;
(b) Contribute to top management decisions relating to the best credit policiesof the
firm;
(c) Deciding the criteria for selection of credit applications; and
(d) Speed up the conversion of receivables into cash by aggressive collectionpolicy.
In summary the finance manager has to strike a balance between the cost of increased
investment in receivables and profits from the higher levels of sales.
Approaches to Evaluate the Credit Policies
There are basically two methods of evaluating the credit policies to be adopted by a
Company – Total Approach and Incremental Approach. The formats for the two approaches
are given as under:
Statement showing the Evaluation of Credit Policies (based on Total Approach)
Particulars Present Proposed Proposed Proposed
Policy Policy I Policy II Policy III
` ` ` `
A. Expected Profit:
(a) Credit Sales ………. …………. ……….. ……….
(b) Total Cost other than Bad
Debts
(i)Variable Costs ……… ………… ………. ……….
(ii) Fixed Costs ……… ………… ………. ……….
……… ………. ………. ……..
(c) Bad Debts ……… ………… ……… ……….
(d) Cash discount

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(e) Expected Net Profit before.…….. ……….. ……… ……….

Tax (a-b-c-d)
(f) Less: Tax ……... ……….. ………. ………
(g) Expected Profit after Tax ..……. ……… ……… ………
B. Opportunity Cost of..…… ……… ………. ………
Investments in Receivables
locked up in CollectionPeriod

Net Benefits (A – B) ……… ……… ……… ……….

Advise: The Policy……. should be adopted since the net benefits under this policyare
higher as compared to other policies.
Here
(i) Total Fixed Cost = [Average Cost per unit – Variable Cost per unit] × No. of
units sold on credit under Present Policy
(ii) Opportunity Cost = Total Cost of Credit Sales
Collection Period (Days) Required Rate of Return
× ×
365 or 360 100
Statement showing the Evaluation of Credit Policies (based on Incremental
Approach)

Particulars Present Proposed Proposed Proposed

Policy Policy I Policy II Policy III
days days days days
` ` ` `
A. Incremental Expected Profit:
Credit Sales ………. …………. …… ……
….. ….
(a) Incremental Credit Sales ………. …………. …… ……
….. ….
(b) Less: Incremental Costs of
Credit Sales
(i) Variable Costs ………. …………. …… ……
….. ….
(ii) Fixed Costs ………. …………. …… ……
….. ….
(c) Incremental Bad Debt Losses ………. …………. …… ……

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….. ….
(d) Incremental Cash Discount ………. …………. …… ……
….. ….
(e) Incremental Expected Profit(a-………. …………. …… ……
b-c-d) ….. ….
(f) Less: Tax ………. …………. …… ……
….. ….
(g) Incremental Expected Profit………. …………. …… ……
after Tax ….. ….
………. …………. …… ……
….. ….
B. Required Return on
Incremental Investments:
(a) Cost of Credit Sales ………. …………. …… ……
….. ….
(b) Collection Period (in days) ………. …………. …… ……
….. ….
(c) Investment in Receivable (a ×………. …………. …… ……
b/365 or 360) ….. ….
(d) Incremental Investment in ………. …………. …… ……
Receivables ….. ….
(e) Required Rate of Return (in %) ………. …………. …… ……
….. ….
(f) Required Return onIncremental………. …………. …… ……
Investments (d × e) ….. ….

Incremental Net Benefits (A – B) ………. …………. …… ……

….. ….
Advise: The Policy ……should be adopted since net benefits under this policy are
higher as compared to other policies.

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Examples
1) A trader whose current sales are in the region of Rs.6 lakhs per annum and an average
collection period of 30 days wants to pursue a more liberal policy to improve sales.
A study made by a management consultant reveals the following information:-

Credit Policy Increase in Increase in sales Present default

collection period anticipated
A 10 days Rs. 30,000 1.5%
B 20 days Rs 48,000 2%
C 30 days Rs 75,000 3%
D 45 days Rs 90,000 4%
The selling price per unit is Rs. 3. Average cost per unit is Rs.2.25 and variable costs per
unit are Rs.2. The current bad debt loss is 1%. Required return on additional investment
is 20%. Assume a 360 days year.
ANALYSE which of the above policies would you recommend for adoption?

2) XYZ Corporation is considering relaxing its present credit policy and is in the process
of evaluating two proposed policies. Currently, the firm has annual credit sales of
Rs. 50 lakhs and accounts receivable turnover ratio of 4 times a year. The current level
of loss due to bad debts is Rs.1,50,000. The firm is required to give a return of 25% on
the investment in new accounts receivables. The company’s variable costs are 70%
of the selling price. Given the following information, IDENTIFY which is the better
option?
Present Policy Policy
Policy Option I Option II
Annual credit sales 50,00,000 60,00,000 67,50,000
Accounts receivable turnover ratio 4 times 3 times 2.4 times
Bad debt losses 1,50,000 3,00,000 4,50,000

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3) A company is presently having credit sales of ₹ 12 lakh. The existing credit terms are
1/10, net 45 days and average collection period is 30 days. The current bad debts
loss is 1.5%. In order to accelerate the collection process further as also to increase
sales, the company is contemplating liberalization of its existing credit terms to 2/10,
net 45 days. It is expected that sales are likely to increase by 1/3 of existing sales,
bad debts increase to 2% of sales and average collection period to decline to 20 days.
The contribution to sales ratio of the company is 22% and opportunity cost of
investment in receivables is 15 percent (pre-tax). 50 per cent and 80 percent of
customers in terms of sales revenue are expected to avail cash discount under existing
and liberalization scheme respectively. The tax rate is 30%. ADVISE, should the
company change its credit terms? (Assume 360 days in a year).

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FINANCING OF WORKING CAPITAL

Introduction
After determining the amount of working capital required, the next step to be taken by the
finance manager is to arrange the funds.
As discussed earlier, it is advisable that the finance manager bifurcate the working capital
requirements between the permanent working capital and temporary working capital.
The permanent working capital is always needed irrespective of sales fluctuation; hence it
should be financed by the long-term sources such as debt and equity. On the contrary the
temporary working capital may be financed by the short-term sources of finance.
Broadly speaking, the working capital finance may be classified between the two
categories:
(i) Spontaneous sources; and
(ii) Negotiable sources.
Spontaneous Sources: Spontaneous sources of finance are those which naturally arise in
the course of business operations. Trade credit, credit from employees, credit from suppliers
of services, etc. are some of the examples which may bequoted in this respect.
Negotiated Sources: On the other hand, the negotiated sources, as the nameimplies, are
those which have to be specifically negotiated with lenders say, commercial banks,
financial institutions, general public etc.
The finance manager has to be very careful while selecting a particular source, or a
combination thereof for financing of working capital. Generally, the following parameters
will guide his decisions in this respect:
(i) Cost factor
(ii) Impact on credit rating
(iii) Feasibility
(iv) Reliability
(v) Restrictions
(vi) Hedging approach or matching approach i.e., Financing of assets with thesame
maturity as of assets.

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Sources of Finance
Spontaneous Sources of Finance
Trade Credit: As outlined above trade credit is a spontaneous source of finance which is
normally extended to the purchaser organization by the sellers or services providers. This
source of financing working capital is more important sinceit contributes to about one-
third of the total short-term requirements. The dependence on this source is higher due to
lesser cost of finance as compared with other sources. Trade credit is guaranteed when a
company acquires supplies, merchandise or materials and does not pay immediately. If a
buyer is able to getthe credit without completing much formality, it is termed as ‘open
account trade credit.’

Bills Payable: On the other hand, in the case of “Bills Payable” the purchaser will have to
give a written promise to pay the amount of the bill/invoice either on demand or at a fixed
future date to the seller or the bearer of the note.

Due to its simplicity, easy availability and lesser explicit cost, the dependence onthis
source is much more in all small or big organizations. Especially, for small enterprises this
form of credit is more helpful to small and medium enterprises. The amount of such
financing depends on the volume of purchases and the payment timing.
Accrued Expenses: Another spontaneous source of short-term financing is the accrued
expenses or the outstanding expenses liabilities. The accrued expenses refer to the services
availed by the firm, but the payment for which has yet to be made. It is a built in and an
automatic source of finance as most of the serviceslike wages, salaries, taxes, duties etc.,
are paid at the end of the period. The accrued expenses represent an interest free source of
finance. There is no explicit or implicit cost associated with the accrued expenses and the
firm can ensure liquidity by accruing these expenses.

Inter-corporate Loans and Deposits

Sometimes, organizations having surplus funds invest for short-term period with other
organizations. The rate of interest will be higher than the bank rate of interest and depends
on the financial soundness of the borrower company. This source of finance reduces
dependence on bank financing.

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Commercial Papers
Commercial Paper (CP) is an unsecured promissory note issued by a firm to raise funds for
a short period. This is an instrument that enables highly rated corporate borrowers for short-
term borrowings and provides an additional financial instrument to investors with a freely
negotiable interest rate. The maturity period ranges from minimum 7 days to less than 1 year
from the date of issue. CP can be issued in denomination of ` 5 lakhs or multiples thereof.
Advantages of CP: From the point of the issuing company, CP provides the following
benefits:
(a) CP is sold on an unsecured basis and does not contain any restrictiveconditions.
(b) Maturing CP can be repaid by selling new CP and thus can provide acontinuous
source of funds.
(c) Maturity of CP can be tailored to suit the requirement of the issuing firm.
(d) CP can be issued as a source of fund even when money market is tight.
(e) Generally, the cost of CP to the issuing firm is lower than the cost ofcommercial
bank loans.
However, CP as a source of financing has its own limitations:
(i) Only highly credit rating firms can use it. New and moderately rated firm
generally are not in a position to issue CP.
(ii) CP can neither be redeemed before maturity nor can be extended beyond
maturity.
Funds Generated from Operations
Funds generated from operations, during an accounting period, increase working capital
by an equivalent amount. The two main components of funds generated from operations
are profit and depreciation. Working capital will increase by the extent of funds generated
from operations.
Public Deposits
Deposits from the public are one of the important sources of finance particularlyfor
well-established big companies with huge capital base for short and medium- term
Bills Discounting
Bill discounting is recognized as an important short-term Financial Instrument andit is
widely used method of short-term financing. In a process of bill discounting, the supplier
of goods draws a bill of exchange with direction to the buyer to pay a certain amount of
money after a certain period, and gets its acceptance from the buyer or drawee of the bill.
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Bill Rediscounting Scheme

The Bill rediscounting Scheme was introduced by Reserve Bank of India with effect from
1st November, 1970 in order to extend the use of the bill of exchange as an instrument for
providing credit and the creation of a bill market in India with a facility for the
rediscounting of eligible bills by banks. Under the bills rediscounting scheme, all licensed
scheduled banks are eligible to offer bills of exchange to the Reserve Bank for rediscount.
Factoring
Students may refer to the unit on Receivable Management wherein the concept of factoring
has been discussed. Factoring is a method of financing whereby a firm sells its trade
debts at a discount to a financial institution. In other words, factoringis a continuous
arrangement between a financial institution, (namely the factor) anda firm (namely the
client) which sells goods and services to trade customers on credit. As per this
arrangement, the factor purchases the client’s trade debts including accounts receivables
either with or without recourse to the client, andthus, exercises control over the credit
extended to the customers and administers the sales ledger of his client. To put it in a
layman’s language, a factor is an agent who collects the dues of his client for a certain
fee.
The differences between Factoring and Bills discounting are as follows:
(i) Factoring is called as ‘Invoice factoring’ whereas bills discounting is known as
“Invoice discounting”.
(ii) In factoring the parties are known as client, factor and debtor whereas in bills
discounting they are known as Drawer, Drawee and Payee
(iii) Factoring is a sort of management of book debts whereas bills discounting isa sort
of borrowing from commercial banks.
(iv) For factoring there is no specific Act; whereas in the case of bills discounting, the
Negotiable Instrument Act is applicable.

Working Capital Finance from Banks

Banks in India today constitute the major suppliers of working capital credit to any business
activity. Recently, some term lending financial institutions have also announced schemes for
working capital financing. The two committees viz., Tandon Committee and Chore
Committee have evolved definite guidelines and parameters in working capital financing,
which have laid the foundations for development and innovation in the area.

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Instructions on Working Capital Finance by Banks

Assessment of Working Capital
- Reserve Bank of India has withdrawn the prescription, in regard to assessment of
working capital needs, based on the concept of Maximum Permissible Bank Finance
(MPBF), in April 1997. Banks are now free to evolve, with the approval of their
Boards, methods for assessing the working capital requirements of borrowers, within
the prudential guidelines and exposure norms prescribed. Banks, however, have to
take into account Reserve Bank’s instructions relating to directed credit (such as
priority sector, export, etc.), and prohibition of credit (such as bridge finance,
rediscounting of bills earlier discounted byNBFCs) while formulating their lending
policies.
- With the above liberalizations, all the instructions relating to MPBF issued by RBI
from time to time stand withdrawn. Further, various instructions/guidelines issued
to banks with objective of ensuring lending discipline in appraisal, sanction,
monitoring and utilization of bank finance cease to be mandatory. However, banks
have the option of incorporating such of the instructions/guidelines as are
considered necessary in their lending policies/procedures.
Forms of Bank Credit
The bank credit will generally be in the following forms:
 Cash Credit: This facility will be given by the banker to the customers by giving
certain amount of credit facility on continuous basis. The borrower will not be
allowed to exceed the limits sanctioned by the bank.
 Bank Overdraft: It is a short-term borrowing facility made available to the
companies in case of urgent need of funds. The banks will impose limits on the
amount they can lend. When the borrowed funds are no longer required they can
quickly and easily be repaid. The banks issue overdrafts with a right to call them in
at short notice.
 Bills Discounting: The Company which sells goods on credit will normally draw a
bill on the buyer who will accept it and sends it to the seller of goods. The seller, in
turn discounts the bill with his banker. The banker will generally earmark the
discounting bill limit.
 Bills Acceptance: To obtain finance under this type of arrangement a company
draws a bill of exchange on bank. The bank accepts the bill thereby promising to pay
out the amount of the bill at some specified future date.
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 Line of Credit: Line of Credit is a commitment by a bank to lend a certain amount

of funds on demand specifying the maximum amount.
 Letter of Credit: It is an arrangement by which the issuing bank on the instructions
of a customer or on its own behalf undertakes to pay or accept or negotiate or
authorizes another bank to do so against stipulated documents subject to
compliance with specified terms and conditions.
 Bank Guarantees: Bank guarantee is one of the facilities that the commercial banks
extend on behalf of their clients in favour of third parties who will be the
beneficiaries of the guarantee

- Dr. Hardita Dhamelia