Unit 1 Tutorials: Computer Basics

INSIDE UNIT 1

Computers and Their Functions

Information Systems
History of Computers
The Primary Functions of a Computer
Types of Computers
Selecting a Computer

Computer Hardware and Software

Internal Computer Hardware

External Computer Hardware
Computer Software
The Relationship Between Hardware and Software
Computer Components and Roles

Data Storage and Memory

Data Storage
Unit Prefixes
Understanding Numbering Systems

Information Systems
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In today’s world, information systems have an enormous impact on business, education, government,
entertainment, and a myriad of other areas through which people seek to be productive. Regardless
of your expertise with information systems, it is probably safe to assume that you already have
experience with one of the core components of an information system: the computer. In this tutorial,
we will lay the groundwork for our examination of information systems by first looking at what an
information system is, as well as its requisite components.

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 Our discussion breaks down as follows:

1. What Is an Information System?

An information system is a combination of technology, people, and processes. This combination collects,
creates, distributes, and exploits useful information. Interestingly, when asked to define or describe an
information system, most people will start with the ubiquitous “computers” or “databases.” However, careful
inspection of our definition implies that information systems refer to both the components that make up an
information system and the role that those components play within an organization.

Information systems can be incredibly complex depending on both the size and scope of the organization
utilizing the system. In spite of varying levels of complexity, information systems consist of five components:
hardware, software, data, people (I.T. professionals, software developers, system administrators, analysts), and
process. The first three components fit under the category of technology and are what most people think of
when trying to define an information system. The last two — people and process — are what separate the idea
of information systems from the more technical fields, such as computer science. When thinking about
information systems, it is easy to get focused on the technology components and forget that we must look
beyond these tools to fully understand how they integrate into an organization. From the frontline help desk
workers to systems analysts and programmers, all the way up to the chief information officer, the people
involved with information systems are an essential element that must not be overlooked.

A process is a series of steps undertaken to achieve a desired outcome or goal. Information systems are
becoming more and more integrated with organizational processes, bringing more productivity and better
control to those processes. But, simply automating activities using technology is not enough. Using
technology to manage and improve processes is the ultimate goal. Businesses hoping to gain an advantage
over their competitors are highly focused on this component of information systems.

Data refers to information. The best way to think about data is as a collection of facts. For example, your street
address, the city you live in, and your phone number are all pieces of data. As technology has developed, the
role of the computer within an information system has increased due to its ability to take data and transform it
into meaningful information that organizations can use to make decisions.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Information System
A combination of technology, people, and processes that collects, creates, distributes, and exploits
useful information.

Data
Information, or a collection of facts.

2. What Is a Computer?
The computer lies at the core of modern information systems. If you have ever typed a paper, sent or received
an email message, browsed the Internet, or played a video game, then you have undoubtedly experienced
what a computer is capable of.

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A computer is an electronic device that uses a combination of hardware and software to manipulate data.
Hardware is the part of the information system that you can touch — the physical components of the
technology. Computers, keyboards, flash drives, iPads, and monitors are all examples of hardware. Computer
hardware is further classified based on its overall function within the system. A peripheral is a hardware
component that is not natively part of the system. For example, a printer is a physical component; however, it
is not a native part of the computer system and it must be purchased separately.

Software is the set of instructions that tells the hardware what to do. The primary distinction between
hardware and software is that software is not tangible — it cannot be touched. Examples of application
software are Microsoft Excel and Microsoft Word. Virtually all tasks completed with a computer will rely on
hardware and software. For example, you may be viewing this tutorial in a web browser (software) and using
your mouse (hardware) to navigate from page to page through this tutorial.

In addition to the components of hardware, software, and data, another component is communication. An
information system cannot exist without the ability to communicate. A computer network is a group of
computers connected for the purpose of communication — the sharing of data and resources. The Internet is
perhaps one of the most common examples of a computer network. In fact, the Internet is a global computer
network comprised of smaller networks (academic, professional, personal) that are connected to each other.

 DID YOU KNOW

The first personal computers were stand-alone machines that did not access networks such as the
Internet. However, in today’s hyper-connected world, it is extremely rare that a computer does not
connect to another device or to a network.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Computer
An electronic device that uses a combination of hardware and software to manipulate data.

Hardware
The part of the information system that you can touch; the physical components of the technology.

Peripheral
A hardware component that is not natively a part of the system.

Software
The set of instructions that tells the hardware what to do.

Computer Network
A group of computers connected for the purpose of communication-sharing of data and resources.

 SUMMARY

In this tutorial, you learned what an information system is, and why people and organizations utilize
them. We discussed the five key elements present in any information system: hardware, software,
networks, people, and data. Additionally, you were introduced to the idea of the computer as the
central component of an information system, due to its data manipulation capabilities.

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 3
Source: Derived from Chapter 1 of “Information Systems for Business and Beyond” by David T. Bourgeois.
Some sections removed for brevity.
https://www.saylor.org/site/textbooks/Information%20Systems%20for%20Business%20and%20Beyond/Text
book.html

 TERMS TO KNOW

Computer
An electronic device that use a combination of hardware and software to manipulate data.

Computer Network
A group of computers connected for the purpose of communication-sharing of data and resources.

Data
Information, or a collection of facts.

Hardware
The part of the information system that you can touch; the physical components of the technology.

Information System
A combination of technology, people, and processes that collect, create, distribute, and exploit useful
information.

Peripheral
A hardware component that is not natively a part of the system.

Software
The set of instructions that tells the hardware what to do.

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 4
History of Computers
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

In this tutorial, we will examine the history of computers, as well as the motivations behind their
invention and continued innovation, starting in the mainframe era and gradually progressing through
the development of the modern PC and the first computer network. We will take a look at the
evolution of the computer and how the computer forms the technological backbone of modern
information systems.

Our discussion breaks down as follows:

1. The Mainframe Era

The world’s first computers were not very personal. These first business computers were room-sized
monsters, with several refrigerator-sized machines linked together. Due to the enormity of these early
computers, they were dubbed “mainframe computers.” The period of time in which they were developed is
often referred to as “The Mainframe Era.” During the mainframe era, teams of engineers were required to
maintain and keep computers operational.

In most cases, only large businesses, universities, and government agencies could afford computers. The
primary work of these devices was to organize and store large volumes of data that were tedious to manage
by hand. In fact, from the late 1950s through the 1960s, computers were seen as a way to more efficiently
perform mathematical calculations. One of the first and most famous of these, the Electronic Numerical
Integrator Analyzer and Computer (ENIAC), was built for the sole purpose of ballistics calculations for the U.S.
military during World War II.

 DID YOU KNOW

The ENIAC could solve a missile-trajectory problem in 30 seconds that would otherwise take a team of
humans 12 hours to complete.
In the late 1960s, the Manufacturing Resources Planning (MRP) systems were introduced. This software,
running on a mainframe computer, gave companies the ability to manage the manufacturing process, making
it more efficient. From tracking inventory to creating bills of materials and scheduling production, the MRP
systems (and later the MRP II systems) gave more businesses a reason to want to integrate computing into
their processes. IBM became the dominant mainframe company. Continued improvement in software and the
availability of cheaper hardware eventually brought mainframe computers (and their little sibling, the
minicomputer) into most large businesses.

2. The Personal Computer (PC) Revolution

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The mainframe computers of the 1950s and 1960s made it clear to businesses and universities that
computers, while physically enormous, were also of enormous value and worth the investment put forth by
these organizations. As the mainframe computer continued to be adopted by organizations, new technologies
were making the idea of a smaller, more personal, computer a reality. The invention of the integrated circuit
marked the first major revolution in computing. The integrated circuit made it possible for all of a computer's
electrical components to reside on one silicon chip.

The invention of the microprocessor has been regarded as the most significant and everlasting of all modern
computing developments. Prior to the microprocessor, a computer would need one integrated circuit for each
of its functions; thus resulting in a still fairly large and slow machine. At the size of a thumbnail, a single
microprocessor could run a computer’s programs, remember information, and manage data with no assistance
from any other hardware component. This led the way for devices that were much smaller with much faster
computation speeds.

In 1975 the first microcomputer, the Altair 8800, was announced on the cover ofPopular Electronics. Its
immediate popularity sparked the imagination of entrepreneurs everywhere, and there were quickly dozens
of companies making these “personal computers.” Though at first just a niche product for computer
hobbyists, improvements in usability and the availability of practical software led to growing sales.

One of the more prominent of these early personal computer makers was a company known as Apple
Computer, headed by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak, with the hugely successful “Apple II.” Not wanting to be
left out of the revolution, in 1981 IBM (teaming with a little company called Microsoft for their operating-system
software) hurriedly released their own version of the personal computer, simply called the “PC.”

Businesses that had used IBM mainframes for years finally had the permission they needed to bring personal
computers into their companies, and the IBM PC took off. Due to the IBM PC’s open architecture, it was easy
for other companies to copy, or “clone” it. During the 1980s, many new computer companies sprang up,
offering less expensive versions of the PC. This would ultimately drive prices down and spur innovation.

Microsoft further developed its Windows operating system and made the PC even easier to use. Common
uses for the PC during this period included word processing, spreadsheets, and databases. Organizations
now had a way — through technology — to efficiently manage information. Still, these early PCs, for the most
part, stood alone as islands of innovation within the larger organization, as they had not yet been connected
to any sort of network.

 DID YOU KNOW

The IBM PC was named Time magazine’s “Man of the Year” for 1982.

3. Networks and the World Wide Web

During the mid-1980s, as computers became more commonplace, businesses began to see the need to
connect their computers together as a way to collaborate and share resources. This idea led to businesses
developing computer networks. A computer network is a group of computers connected for the sole purpose
of communication-sharing of data and resources. Initial networking architecture was referred to as client-
server, a computer system in which a centralized computer provides data to connected computers over a
network. Users would log into the centralized computer (the “server”) from their PC (the “client”) and join the
local area network (LAN), a computer network that links computers within a building.

As a result of client-server networks, software companies began developing applications that allowed multiple

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users to access the same data at the same time. This evolved into software applications for communicating,
with the first really popular use of electronic mail (email) appearing at this time. Networking and data sharing
all stayed within the confines of each business. Computers were now seen as tools to collaborate internally,
within an organization. In fact, these networks of computers were becoming so powerful that they were
replacing many of the functions once performed by the larger mainframe computers, and at a fraction of the
cost.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Computer Network
A group of computers connected for the purpose of communication and the sharing of data and
resources.

Client-Server
Computer system in which a centralized computer provides data to connected computers over a
network.

Local Area Network (LAN)

Computer network that links computers within a building.

 SUMMARY

Today’s PC has gone through an intense period of evolution to arrive at the modern computers we
use today. Initially motivated by the need to perform calculations more efficiently, computers were
developed primarily for government and university organizations. From the mainframe units that
housed entire rooms to the standalone, unconnected “islands” of the early 80s, computers are now
able to multitask. They process data at incredibly high speeds, and are also connected through
computer networks.

Source: Derived from Chapters 1 and 2 of “Information Systems for Business and Beyond” by David T.
Bourgeois. Some sections removed for brevity.
https://www.saylor.org/site/textbooks/Information%20Systems%20for%20Business%20and%20Beyond/Text
book.html

 TERMS TO KNOW

Client-Server
Computer system in which a centralized server provides data to connected computers over a network.

Computer Network
A group of computers connected for the purpose of communication and the sharing of data and
resources.

Local Area Network (LAN)

Computer network that links computers within a building.

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 7
The Primary Functions of a Computer
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

Computers have had a huge impact on the manner in which society operates. Increased efficiency,
through automation and organization, only scratches the surface of what computing technology has
afforded humanity. In fact, technology has progressed so much that people not utilizing computing
technology in their businesses are at a disadvantage, as the computer today has an almost endless
array of applications and functions. With consideration to this seemingly limitless potential, at their
core, ALL computers perform the same basic functions on data: input, output, processing, and
storage. Here we will take a look at the basic functions of a computer.

Our discussion breaks down as follows:

1. Functions of a Computer
For the most part, all personal computers consist of the same basic components: a Central Processing Unit
(CPU), memory, circuit board, storage, and input/output devices. All computer applications make use of these
components in different ways and combinations. It also turns out that almost every digital device uses the
same set of components, so examining the personal computer will give us insight into the structure of a
variety of digital devices. Thinking about computers in terms of their basic components, and the functionality
associated with each component, reveals the primary functions of the computer in general. Remember that
the computer is simply an electronic device that manipulates data. There are four primary functions of a
computer — input, output, processing, and storage. These functions describe what is meant by the term
“manipulate” when used to describe what a computer is.

2. Input/Output
In order for a personal computer to be useful, it must have channels for receiving input from the user, and
channels for delivering output to the user. Input and output are artifacts through which computers
communicate and interact with their environments, be it a user, a system, or a hardware. Input refers to the
mode by which data is put into the computer. All personal computers need components that allow the user to
input data. Early computers used simply a keyboard to allow the user to enter data or select an item from a
menu to run a program. With the advent of the graphical user interface, the mouse became a standard
component of a computer. These two components are still the primary input devices to a personal computer,
though variations of each have been introduced. For example, many new devices now use a touch screen as
the primary way of entering data. Output devices are essential as well. Output refers to the mode by which
data is delivered. The most obvious output device is a display, visually representing the state of the computer.
Besides displays, other output devices include speakers for audio output and printers for printed output.

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  TERMS TO KNOW

Input
Mode by which data enters the computer.

Output
Mode by which data is delivered.

3. Data Processing
The majority of all computing devices have a similar architecture. The core of this architecture is the central
processing unit (CPU). The CPU can be thought of as the “brains” of the device. The CPU carries out the
commands sent to it by the software and returns results to be acted upon. The earliest CPUs were large circuit
boards with limited functionality. Today, a CPU is generally on one chip and can perform a large variety of
functions. The overall effectiveness of a CPU is determined by its speed. The speed or “clock time” of a CPU
is measured in hertz. A hertz is defined as one cycle per second. The CPU’s processing power is increasing at
an amazing rate. Besides a faster clock time, many CPU chips now contain multiple processors per chip,
working in parallel and balancing the load of instructions to be processed in a shorter time. These chips,
known as dual-core (two processors) or quad-core (four processors), increase the processing power of a
computer by providing the capability of multiple CPUs.

 DID YOU KNOW

In 1965 Gordon Moore, one of the founders of Intel, recognized that microprocessor transistor counts had
been doubling every year. His insight eventually evolved into Moore’s Law, which states that the number
of transistors on a chip will double every two years. This has been generalized into the concept that
computing power will double every two years for the same price point. Another way of looking at this is to
think that the price for the same computing power will be cut in half every two years. Though many have
predicted its demise, Moore’s Law has held true for over 40 years.

 TERM TO KNOW

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The "brains" of the device; it performs computations and logic operations sent to it by application
software, and returns results to be acted upon.

4. Data Storage
A computer without an adequate amount of memory would only be able to perform limited instructions with
data being output immediately. For example, a calculator provides users with fixed mathematical operations
that are stored in memory. When a user performs any of the fixed operations on two or more operands, the
calculator immediately displays the answer as an output on its screen. This is fine in situations where it is
known beforehand that only mathematical computation is required; however, people who utilize PCs need a
device that is more versatile. Remember that the CPU is what processes data by carrying out instructions.
Modern computers place fast small storage options close in proximity to the CPU and slower larger storage
options further away from the CPU.

When a computer starts up, it begins to load information from the hard disk into its working memory. A hard
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disk is where data is stored when the computer is turned off and where it is retrieved from when the computer
is turned on. Why is it called a hard disk? A hard disk consists of a stack of disks inside a hard metal case. This
working memory, called random-access memory (RAM), can transfer data much faster than the hard disk. Any
program that you are running on the computer is loaded into RAM for processing.

In order for a computer to work effectively, a minimal amount of RAM must be installed. In most cases, adding
more RAM will allow the computer to run faster. Another characteristic of RAM is that it is volatile. This means
that it can store data as long as it is receiving power; when the computer is turned off, any data stored in RAM
is lost. Even so, the computer also needs a place to store data for the longer term. Most of today’s personal
computers use a hard disk for long-term data storage. Unlike RAM, the computer’s hard disk is not volatile.
This means that data stored on a hard disk can be stored even when the computer is turned off.

A relatively new component becoming more common in some personal computers is the solid-state drive
(SSD). The SSD performs the same function as a hard disk: long-term storage. Instead of spinning disks, the
SSD uses flash memory, which is much faster. Besides fixed storage components, removable storage media
are also used in most personal computers. Removable media allows you to take your data with you. And just
as with all other digital technologies, these media have gotten smaller and more powerful as the years have
gone by. Early computers used floppy disks, which could be inserted into a disk drive in the computer. Around
the turn of the century, a new portable storage technology was being developed: the USB flash drive. This
device attaches to the universal serial bus (USB) connector, which became standard on all personal computers
beginning in the late 1990s.

 DID YOU KNOW

Although the terms have become interchangeable, “memory” is used to refer to the fast storage options
closer to the CPU (for example RAM) and “storage” is used to refer to the slower storage options further
away from the CPU (for example a hard drive).

 TERMS TO KNOW

Random-Access Memory (RAM)

The working memory of a computer that transfers data from the hard disk upon starting the device.

Volatile
Computer storage that only holds data while power remains on.

Solid-State Drive (SSD)

Form of data storage that uses flash memory; all data is stored on a microchip.

 SUMMARY

In this tutorial, we reviewed the primary functions of the computer such as input, output, storage, and
processing. These functions are what the phrase “manipulate data” refer to when describing a
computer. The primary functions of a computer can also be used to describe the functionality of
various computer components. For example, a keyboard can be described as an input device.

Source: Derived from Chapter 1 from “Information Systems for Business and Beyond” by David T. Bourgeois.
Some sections removed for brevity.
https://www.saylor.org/site/textbooks/Information%20Systems%20for%20Business%20and%20Beyond/Text

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 10
book.html

 TERMS TO KNOW

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The "brains" of the device; it performs computations and logic operations sent to it by application
software, and returns results to be acted upon.

Input
Mode by which data enters the computer.

Output
Mode by which data is delivered.

Random-Access Memory (RAM)

The working memory of a computer that transfers data from the hard disk upon starting the device.

Solid-State Drive (SSD)

Form of data storage that uses flash memory; all data is stored on a microchip.

Volatile
Computer storage that only holds data while power remains on.

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 11
Types of Computers
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

A personal computer is designed to be a general-purpose device. That is, it can be used to solve
many different types of problems. As the technologies of the personal computer have become more
commonplace, many of the components have been integrated into other devices that previously
were purely mechanical. We have also seen an evolution in what defines a computer. Ever since the
invention of the personal computer, users have clamored for a way to carry them around. Here we will
examine several types of devices that represent the latest trends in personal computing.

Our discussion breaks down as follows:

1. Portable Computers
As computing technology evolved, so did the needs of businesses making use of computers. One of the major
concerns for businesses in the late 1970s and early 1980s had to do with how portable a computer system
could be. Information is critical to decision-making in business; therefore, companies need computers to be
readily accessible to their employees at all times, during the workday, and in a wide array of locations (home,
remote offices, while in transit). In 1983, Compaq Computer Corporation developed the first commercially-
successful portable personal computer. By today’s standards, the Compaq PC was not very portable: weighing
in at 28 pounds, the computer was designed like a suitcase, to be lugged around and then laid on its side to
be used. Besides portability, Compaq was successful because it was fully compatible with the software being
run by the IBM PC, which was the standard for business.

In the years that followed, portable computing continued to improve, giving us laptop and notebook
computers. The “luggable” computer has given way to a much lighter clamshell computer that weighs from
four to six pounds and runs on batteries. In fact, the most recent advances in technology give us a new class
of laptop that is quickly becoming the standard: these laptops are extremely light and portable and use less
power than their larger counterparts. The MacBook Air is a good example of this: it weighs less than three
pounds and is only 0.68 inches thick!

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 A modern laptop

Finally, as more and more organizations and individuals are moving much of their computing to the Internet,
laptops are being developed that use cloud computing (“the cloud”) for all of their data and application
storage. These laptops are also extremely light because they have no need of a hard disk at all! A good
example of this type of laptop (sometimes called a netbook) is Samsung’s Chromebook.

 TERM TO KNOW

Cloud Computing
Storing and processing data over the Internet rather than on personal computer hardware.

2. Smartphones
The first modern-day mobile phone was invented in 1973. Resembling a brick and weighing in at two pounds,

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it was priced out of reach for most consumers at nearly four thousand dollars. Since then, mobile phones have
become smaller and less expensive. Today, mobile phones are a modern convenience available to all levels
of society. As mobile phones evolved, they became more like small computers. These smartphones have
many of the same characteristics as a personal computer, such as an operating system and memory. The first
smartphone was the IBM Simon, introduced in 1994.

In January 2007, Apple introduced the iPhone. Its ease of use and intuitive interface made it an immediate
success and solidified the future of smartphones. Running on an operating system called iOS, the iPhone was
really a small computer with a touchscreen interface. In 2008, the first Android phone was released, with
similar functionality.

 TERM TO KNOW

Smartphone
A mobile phone that incorporates the same functionality as a computer.

3. Tablet Computers
A tablet computer is one that uses a touchscreen as its primary input and is small enough and light enough to
be carried around easily. Tablet computers generally have no keyboard and are self-contained inside a
rectangular case. The first tablet computers appeared in the early 2000s and used an attached pen as a
writing device for input. These tablets ranged in size from small personal digital assistants (PDAs), which were
handheld, to full-sized, 14-inch devices. The primary advantage of a tablet computer lies in its ease of use. The
touchscreen provides a simple yet efficient way for users to interact with and manipulate a tablet computer. In
most instances, there is no need for training or advanced computer knowledge to use a tablet PC. Most early
tablets used a version of an existing computer operating system, such as Windows or Linux.

These early tablet devices were, for the most part, commercial failures. Then, in January 2010, Apple
introduced the iPad, which ushered in a new era of tablet computing. Instead of a pen, the iPad used the
finger as the primary input device. Instead of using the operating system of their desktop and laptop
computers, Apple chose to use iOS, the operating system of the iPhone. Because the iPad had a user
interface that was the same as the iPhone, consumers felt comfortable and sales took off. The iPad has set
the standard for tablet computing. After the success of the iPad, computer manufacturers began to develop
new tablets that utilize operating systems that were designed for mobile devices, such as Android.

 DID YOU KNOW

Mobile computing is having a huge impact on the business world today. The use of smartphones and
tablet computers is rising at double-digit rates each year. The Gartner Group, in a report issued in April
2013, estimated that over 1.7 million mobile phones will ship in the US in 2013, compared to just over
340,000 personal computers. Over half of these mobile phones are smartphones. Almost 200,000 tablet
computers were predicted to ship in 2013. According to the report, PC shipments will continue to decline
as phone and tablet shipments continue to increase.

 TERM TO KNOW

Tablet Computer
A computer that uses a touchscreen as its primary input.

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4. Integrated Computing
Along with advances in computers themselves, computing technology is being integrated into many everyday
products. From automobiles to refrigerators to airplanes, computing technology is enhancing what these
devices can do and is adding capabilities that would have been considered science fiction just a few years
ago. Here are three of the latest ways that computing technologies are being integrated into everyday
products:

The Smart House: “Smart houses” connect home appliances and other devices to mobile phones or
tablets, allowing homeowners to control these devices even when they are not home. A home security
system is a common application of smart house technology. If you leave on vacation in a hurry and forget
to activate your home’s alarm system, you can turn it on from your smartphone while on the way to the
airport. Other applications include turning on and off kitchen appliances, viewing in-home surveillance
footage, or even opening and closing windows and shades.
The Self-Driving Car: A growing trend in the auto industry is the idea of the self-driving car, or a car that
can automatically perform functions that could previously only be done manually by the driver. A self-
driving car is typically installed with cameras or sensors around the car that allow it to “see” objects that
might be dangerous, such as an oncoming vehicle. This allows the car to automatically maneuver to avoid
collisions. Companies are also working on auto-pilot functions that allow the car to automatically adjust its
speed based on traffic conditions, and to park itself without any input from the driver.
The Smart Watch: Smartwatches merge the design and functionality of a wristwatch with that of a mobile
device. Simple smartwatches are able to display the weather or run calendar applications. More
sophisticated smart watches integrate text and email applications, driving directions, health and fitness
applications, and much more.

 SUMMARY

We have reviewed some variations on the personal computer, such as the tablet computer and the
smartphone. These technologies have improved quickly over the years, making today’s computing
devices much more powerful than devices from just a few years ago. Many devices today use cloud
computing for data and application storage via the Internet. Finally, we discussed some examples of
how computing technology integrates with other products, such as home applications and even cars.

Source: Derived from Chapter 2 of “Information Systems for Business and Beyond” by David T. Bourgeois.
Some sections removed for brevity.
https://www.saylor.org/site/textbooks/Information%20Systems%20for%20Business%20and%20Beyond/Text
book.html

 TERMS TO KNOW

Cloud Computing
Storing and processing data over the Internet rather than on personal computer hardware.

Smartphone

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 A mobile phone that incorporates the same functionality as a computer.

Tablet Computer
A computer that uses a touch screen as its primary input.

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 16
Selecting a Computer
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

At some point, it may be your responsibility to make a computer purchase decision. You may be in a
managerial role at your job and realize that your company needs new computers, or you will need to
have a computer for personal use at home. Maybe you already own a decent computer but are now
thinking about learning how to develop 3D models for electronic games. With there now being a
multitude of computer types on the market, with each one designed to meet a specific user need,
selecting the most appropriate computer can be a daunting task. For example, if you are interested in
developing 3D models for games, then you will need a very specific system configuration requiring a
fast processor (at least 3 gHZ), around 500GB of storage, a high-level video card with rendering
capability (ideally with its own processor), and as much RAM as you can afford (no less than 8GB). As
a computer literate person, it is important that you can very quickly assess a given situation and then
make a determination as to how, or even if, a computer can solve the problems presented by said
situation. Furthermore, it is equally as important that you have the knowledge to assess a given
computer hardware and software for its potential long-term effectiveness. In this tutorial, we will
explore some of the major factors involved with selecting computers and their related equipment.

Our discussion breaks down as follows:

1. Factors Affecting Computer Performance and

Cost
The overall performance speed of a computer is determined by many elements, some related to hardware
and some related to software. In hardware, speed is improved by giving the electrons shorter distances to
traverse to complete a circuit. Since the first CPU was created in the early 1970s, engineers have constantly
worked to figure out how to shrink these circuits and put more and more circuits onto the same chip. And this
work has paid off — the speed of computing devices has been continuously improving ever since. The
hardware components that most contribute to the overall performance speed of a personal computer are the
CPU, the motherboard, RAM, and the hard disk (even more so if you need a high-performance computer). In
most cases, these items can be replaced with newer, faster components. In the case of RAM, simply adding
more RAM can also speed up the computer.

 DID YOU KNOW

Not all desktop PCs have the same size and shape. Most system units are towers, sitting upright on their
shortest side with drive bays perpendicular to the tower’s longest side. The original desktop featured the
system unit resting flat on its longest side with drive bays parallel to its longest side.

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 17
  DID YOU KNOW

The first tablet computers used an attached pen as a writing device for input.

2. Recipe for Buying a Computer

With respect to your computing needs, it may be the case that one type of computer may serve you better
than another. As you are planning to purchase a computer, it is important to consider its portability, screen
size, processing speed, and data input.

2a. Portability
Portability refers to how easily a type of computer can be transported. If you need to have a computer at
home and at work or if you travel often, then a small, portable computer would be suitable for purchase. If you
find yourself in this situation, a desktop computer is not going to meet your needs. Instead, you will probably
want to purchase a netbook or laptop as these machines will give you comparable processing speed as well
as portability. Depending on your processing needs, a tablet PC may also be well suited to your situation.

 TERM TO KNOW

Portability
How easily a computer can be transported.
2b. Screen Size
If you will be working with video/photo data or you plan on looking at the screen for long periods of time, then
screen size should be an important consideration. A desktop computer provides room for a screen as large as
you would like but remember that a desktop computer is not portable. A tablet PC is portable, but provides a
very small screen size and generally is not a good computer choice for editing video, photos, or for working in
situations in which you will be viewing the screen for extended periods of time.

 TERM TO KNOW

Screen Size
The length of the monitor, typically the diagonal measured in inches.
2c. Processing Speed
A computer’s processing is one of the factors that has a direct impact on the speed with which the system
performs. Processing speed refers to the amount of clock cycles a processor can perform in a second. The
greater your computer’s processing speed, the more instructions can be processed per second. If you run
graphics-intensive or data-intensive programs, produce multimedia content, or use your computer for gaming,
you will need a large processing capability. The data that you are going to primarily work with is also of great
consideration when buying a computer. If you plan on working with multimedia content, you will want a
computer with a large screen, graphics accelerators, HDMI inputs, thunderbolt inputs, etc.

 TERM TO KNOW

Processing Speed
Amount of clock cycles a processor can perform in a second, measured in hertz.

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 18
  SUMMARY

Computers are available in many different types. Understanding what each type of computer offers, in
terms of portability, processing speed, data input, and screen size, can provide clues into its overall
effectiveness within a given situation. It is important that you carefully assess your computing needs
before purchasing a computer, in order to insure that what you buy will work best for the situation
you plan on using it in.

Source: Derived from Chapter 2 of “Information Systems for Business and Beyond” by David T. Bourgeois.
Some sections removed for brevity.
https://www.saylor.org/site/textbooks/Information%20Systems%20for%20Business%20and%20Beyond/Text
book.html

 TERMS TO KNOW

Portability
How easily a computer can be transported.

Processing Speed
Amount of clock cycles a processor can perform in a second, measured in hertz.

Screen Size
The length of the monitor, typically the diagonal measured in inches.

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 19
Internal Computer Hardware
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

The physical parts of computing devices — those that you can actually touch — are referred to as
hardware. Devices contain hardware that exist both inside and outside of the device itself. In this
tutorial, we will take a look at computer hardware inside the computer, and learn a little bit about how
they work.

Our discussion breaks down as follows:

1. The CPU
Most computing devices have a similar architecture. The core of this architecture is the central processing
unit (CPU). The CPU can be thought of as the “brains” of the device. The CPU carries out the commands sent
to it by the software, and returns results to be acted upon.

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 20
 An Intel CPU

The earliest CPUs were large circuit boards with limited functionality. Today, a CPU is generally on one chip
and can perform a large variety of functions. There are two primary manufacturers of CPUs for personal
computers: Intel and Advanced Micro Devices (AMD).

 DID YOU KNOW

The speed (“clock time”) of a CPU is measured in hertz. A hertz is defined as one cycle per second. The
CPU’s processing power is increasing at an amazing rate. Besides a faster clock time, many CPU chips
now contain multiple processors per chip. These chips, known as dual-core (two processors) or quad-core
(four processors), increase the processing power of a computer by providing the capability of multiple
CPUs.

 TERM TO KNOW

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The "brains" of the device; it performs computations and logic operations sent to it by application
software, and returns results to be acted upon.

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 21
2. Motherboard
The motherboard is the main circuit board on the computer. The CPU, RAM, hard disk, integrated graphics
card, and sound card (if not embedded into the motherboard), among other things, all connect into the
motherboard. Motherboards come in different shapes and sizes, depending upon how compact or
expandable the computer is designed to be. Most modern motherboards have many integrated components,
such as video and sound processing, which used to require separate components.

Motherboard

The motherboard provides much of the bus of the computer (the term bus refers to the electrical connection
between different computer components). The bus is an important determiner of the computer’s speed: the
combination of how fast the bus can transfer data and the number of data bits that can be moved at one time
determine the speed.

 TERM TO KNOW

Motherboard
The main circuit board on the computer, to which the CPU, memory, and storage connect.

3. Memory
When a computer starts up, it begins to load information from the hard disk into its working memory. This
working memory, called random-access memory (RAM), can transfer data much faster than the hard disk. Any

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 22
program that you are running on the computer is loaded into RAM for processing. In order for a computer to
work effectively, some minimal amount of RAM must be installed. In most cases, adding more RAM will allow
the computer to run faster. RAM can store data as long as it is receiving power; when the computer is turned
off, any data stored in RAM is lost.

Read-only memory (ROM) is a form of memory in which the data stored on it can only be read. Typically, the
data stored on ROM is meant to only be read. The boot sequence of personal computers requires ROM to
initialize the operating system.

Memory DIMM

 TERMS TO KNOW

Random-Access Memory (RAM)

The working memory of a computer that transfers data from the hard disk upon starting the device.

Read-Only Memory (ROM)

A form of memory in which the data stored can only be read; it cannot be changed.

4. Hard Disk
While the RAM is used as working memory, the computer also needs a place to store data for the longer term.
Most of today’s personal computers use a hard disk for long-term data storage. A hard disk is where data is
stored when the computer is turned off, and where it is retrieved from when the computer is turned on. Why is
it called a hard disk? A hard disk consists of a stack of disks inside a hard metal case. A floppy disk was a
removable disk that, in some cases at least, was flexible, or “floppy.”

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 23
 Hard disk

 WATCH

Check out the components of a hard drive in the video below.

 TERM TO KNOW

Hard Disk
The location for long-term data storage when the computer is turned off, and where data is retrieved
from when the computer is turned on.

 SUMMARY

Computing devices consist of physical components you can touch, known as hardware. In this tutorial,
we reviewed important hardware components that exist inside a computer as well as their function,
including the CPU, motherboard, RAM, ROM, and hard disk.

Source: DERIVED FROM CHAPTER 2 OF “INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR BUSINESS AND BEYOND” BY
DAVID T. BOURGEOIS. SOME SECTIONS REMOVED FOR BREVITY.
HTTPS://WWW.SAYLOR.ORG/SITE/TEXTBOOKS/INFORMATION%20SYSTEMS%20FOR%20BUSINESS%20A
ND%20BEYOND/TEXTBOOK; IMAGE OF INTEL CPU, CREATIVE COMMONS,
HTTPS://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/CENTRAL_PROCESSING_UNIT#/MEDIA/FILE:INTEL_80486DX2_TOP.JP
G

 TERMS TO KNOW

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The "brains" of the device; it performs computations and logic operations sent to it by application
software, and returns results to be acted upon.

Hard Disk

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 24
 The location for long-term data storage when the computer is turned off, and where data is retrieved
when the computer is turned on.

Motherboard
The main circuit board on the computer, to which the CPU, memory, and storage connect.

Random-Access Memory (RAM)

The working memory of a computer that transfers data from the hard disk upon starting the device.

Read-Only Memory (ROM)

A form of memory in which the data stored can only be read; it cannot be changed.

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 25
External Computer Hardware
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

When you are working with a computer, whether you are at home, school or work, you should be able
to identify all of its key external components. It is also important that you have an understanding of
what each external component’s function is. In this tutorial we will cover the components commonly
found on the outside of a computer system.

Our discussion breaks down as follows:

1. Outside of the PC (System Unit)

Although there are many different types of computers available, on a typical computer you will always find
several components. The common exterior components are: buttons, CD/DVD-ROM drive, vents, ports, and
status lights.

Buttons: Every computer, regardless of type, will have some way in which to turn the system on. The
power button on a computer is what turns it on. Depending on the computer type, you may also see
buttons that adjust sound and screen settings, as well as a button to restart the computer. You may also
see a button allowing a user to eject a disk.
CD/DVD-ROM Drive: Many computers will have a minimum of one CD/DVD-ROM drive that can be used
to insert, remove, or write (burn) CDs or DVDs. Some netbooks, such as Apple’s Macbook Air, do not
provide users with an installed CD/DVD drive.

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 26
 CD/DVD-ROM Drive

Vents: As a computer is being used, it is generating heat. To dissipate the heat generated, most
computers will contain a fan and at least one externally located vent that cools down the electronic
components of the computer.
Ports: Computers provide ports for users to plug in cables and peripheral devices. The types of ports
available depend on the age and type of the computer. Most ports are located on the back or front of a
desktop PC, and on the side of a notebook PC. Typical ports include USB (keyboard, mouse, external
drive), serial port, HDMI (monitor), modem or phone port, LAN or network port, and LPT port (printer).

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 27
 USB port

Status Lights: Many computers will provide a status light(s) to let the user know that the computer is
powered on. Some computers will provide indicator lights to let a user know that information is being
written to a disk or incoming audio is clipping.

 WATCH

Check out the video to learn more about these components.

 TERMS TO KNOW

CD/DVD-ROM Drive
Drive bay used to insert CDs and DVDs.

Vent
Provides external area for internally generated heat to be dissipated.

Ports
Areas into which device cables can be connected to the system unit.

Status Lights
Provide user with feedback as to the current operation of the system.

2. Peripheral Devices
A peripheral device is a system-related device that is not a native part of the computer system. Peripheral
devices are typically connected to the system via a port. Peripherals can be categorized as input, output, or
storage devices. Depending on the type of computer, some common peripheral devices are keyboards,
pointing devices, scanners, digital cameras, monitors, and printers.

Keyboard: All personal computers need components that allow the user to input data.Keyboards help

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 28
 the user enter text or numbers as input for documents or files. Keyboards are available in different sizes.
Some keyboards are designed for ergonomics while others are designed to be small.
Pointing Device: A pointing device is an input device that moves an on-screen pointer and gives users
the ability to click to initialize applications or open files. The most common type of pointing device is a
mouse. Users move the mouse across a flat surface and press a button to click. Another type of pointing
device is a touchpad. A touchpad is a touch-sensitive pad that is built into a notebook computer and is
designed to behave like a mouse.
Scanner: Scanners allow users to input documents into a computer, either as images or as text. Most
scanners have flat surfaces on which users place documents to be scanned. However, some scanners
feed documents one page at a time. Most scanners utilize the USB interface.

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 29
 Document scanner

Digital Camera: A digital camera is a device that captures a picture and converts it into digital
information. Most digital cameras provide a local storage option until the picture can be transferred to a
computer. Typically, a digital camera connects to a computer using the USB interface.
Monitor: A monitor is a device used to display video, images, or text. With a laptop computer, the monitor
is built-in. With a desktop computer, the monitor comes as a separate component connected to the
system unit via cable (typically VGA). Most monitors are used only for output, but some, such as
touchscreen monitors, can be used for both input and output.

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 30
 Printer: A printer is an output device that generates a hard copy of work created on a computer. All
printers do the same basic thing: they print an image on a page. A printer's resolution, cost, speed, and
overall ability vary.

 WATCH

Learn more about the types of peripheral devices in the video below.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Keyboard
Device that provides text and/or numeric input into a computer system.

Pointing Device
Device that moves an on-screen pointer and provides buttons for input.

Mouse
A device that can be moved across a flat surface to move an on-screen pointer.

Touchpad
Touch-sensitive pad that behaves like a mouse and is built into laptop computers.

Scanner
Input device that allows users to input documents as images or text.

Digital Camera
Input device that captures a picture and converts it to digital information.

Monitor
Output device used to display video, images, and text.

Printer
Output device that generates a hard copy of work created on a computer.

 SUMMARY

Computers consist of a wide array of internal and external components. In this tutorial we covered the
common external components and peripheral devices utilized by a computer system.

Source: SOURCE: DERIVED FROM CHAPTER 2 OF “INFORMATION SYSTEMS FOR BUSINESS AND BEYOND”
BY DAVID T. BOURGEOIS. SOME SECTIONS REMOVED FOR BREVITY.
HTTPS://WWW.SAYLOR.ORG/SITE/TEXTBOOKS/INFORMATION%20SYSTEMS%20FOR%20BUSINESS%20A
ND%20BEYOND/TEXTBOOK.HTML; IMAGE OF CD ROM, PUBLIC DOMAIN, IMAGE OF USB PORT, CREATIVE
COMMONS, HTTPS://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/USB#/MEDIA/FILE:USB_HEAD_CABLE.JPG; IMAGE OF
DOCUMENT SCANNER, CREATIVE COMMONS,
HTTPS://EN.WIKIPEDIA.ORG/WIKI/IMAGE_SCANNER#/MEDIA/FILE:FUJITSU_SCANSNAP_FI-
5100C_TRAY_OPEN.JPEG

 TERMS TO KNOW

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 31
 CD/DVD-ROM Drive
Drive bay used to insert CDs and DVDs.

Digital Camera
Input device that captures a picture and converts it to digital information.

Keyboard
Device that provides text and or numeric input into a computer system.

Monitor
Output device used to display video, images, and text.

Mouse
Device that can be moved across a flat surface to move an on-screen pointer.

Pointing Device
Device that moves an on-screen pointer and provides buttons for input.

Ports
Area into which device cables can be connected to the system unit.

Printer
Output device that generates a hard copy of work created on a computer.

Scanner
Input device that allows users to input documents as images or text.

Status Lights
Provide user with feedback as to the current operation with the system.

Touchpad
Touch sensitive pad that behaves like a mouse built into laptop computers.

Vent
Provides area for internally generated heat to be dissipated.

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 32
Computer Software
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

Computer hardware describes the physical/tangible components of an information system. However,

hardware is only half of the system. The second component of an information system is software.
Without software, the hardware would not be functional. In this tutorial we will discuss what computer
software is and its major categories, as well as common computer software packages.

Our discussion breaks down as follows:

1. What is Software
Software is the set of instructions, written in a specific format called a computer program, that tells the
hardware what to do. Software is created through the process of computer programming. Computer
programming is the process used by computer programmers to create software that solves problems.
Software can be broadly divided into two categories: operating systems and application software. Essentially,
software “drives” the computer’s hardware. For example, when you press a key on your computer’s keyboard
(hardware), a code is sent to the computer’s software to display the character pressed. The software then tells
the monitor (hardware) how to display the character on the screen.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Software
The set of instructions that tells the hardware what to do.

Computer Programming
Process used by computer programmers to develop software that solves problems.

2. Operating Systems
The first major category of software is operating system software. Operating systems manage the hardware
and create the interface between the hardware and the user. All computing devices run an operating system.
For personal computers, the most popular operating systems are Microsoft’s Windows, Apple’s OS X, and
different versions of Linux. Smartphones and tablets run operating systems as well, such as Apple’s iOS,
Google’s Android, Microsoft’s Windows Mobile, and Blackberry. The operating system provides several
essential functions, including: managing the hardware resources of the computer, providing the user-interface
components, and providing a platform for software developers to write applications. The operating system
also starts and keeps the computer running. Ultimately, the operating system determines what you can do
with your computer. For example, in education, network administrators will configure the operating on all
computers to ensure that nobody can install software on the school system’s PC.

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 33
  TERM TO KNOW

Operating System
Software that performs the task required to keep the system running, and provides the main interface
for the user.

3. Application Software
The second major category of software is application software. Application software is, essentially, software
that allows the user to accomplish some goal or purpose. For example, if you have to write a paper, you might
use the application software program Microsoft Word. If you want to listen to music, you might use iTunes or
Windows Media player. To surf the web, you might use Internet Explorer, Firefox, or Google Chrome. Even a
computer game could be considered application software.

A “killer” application is one that becomes so essential that large numbers of people will buy a device just to
run that application. For the personal computer, the killer application was the spreadsheet. Along with the
spreadsheet, several other software applications have become standard tools for the workplace. These
applications, called productivity software, form the first major subcategory of applications. Productivity
software allows office employees to complete their daily work. Many times, these applications come
packaged together, such as Microsoft’s Office Suite. Generally, regardless of manufacturer, an office suite will
be inclusive of a text editor (word processing) application, a spreadsheet application, and a presentation
application. Depending on the manufacturer, other application software packages such as email, database,
and information-gathering applications are included, as well as social media and communication platforms
such as Skype, Windows Messenger, Google Circle, Hangout, etc.

Two other subcategories of application software worth mentioning are: utility software and programming
software. Utility software includes system software that allows you to fix, modify, and maintain your computer
in some way. Examples include antivirus software and disk defragmentation software. Programming software
is software whose purpose is to make more software. Most of these programs provide programmers with an
environment, known as an integrated development environment (IDE), in which they can write the code, test it,
and convert it into the format that can then be run on a computer.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Application Software
Provides user with the ability to accomplish a goal or purpose.

Productivity Software
Subcategory of application software that provides office employees the ability to complete their work.

Utility Software
Software that allows you to fix or modify your computer in some way.

Programming Software
Software whose purpose is to make more software.

 SUMMARY

Software is the set of instructions that tells the computer’s hardware what to do. Without software, a

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 34
 computer would be useless, as it would have no way in which to provide a relevant experience for
users. Computer software is categorized according to function. There are two major categories of
computer software: application software and operating system software. Several subcategories of
application software exist, such as productivity software, utility software, and programming software.
Common application software packages include word processing applications, spreadsheet
applications, presentation applications, and database applications.

Source: Derived from Chapter 3 of “Information Systems for Business and Beyond” by David T. Bourgeois.
Some sections removed for brevity.
https://www.saylor.org/site/textbooks/Information%20Systems%20for%20Business%20and%20Beyond/Text
book.html#

 TERMS TO KNOW

Application Software
Provides user with the ability to accomplish a goal or purpose.

Computer Programming
Process used by computer programmers to develop software that solves problems.

Operating System
Software that performs the task required to keep the system running and provides the main interface for
the user.

Productivity Software
Subcategory of application software that provides office employees the ability to complete their work.

Programming Software
Software whose purpose is to make more software.

Software
The set of instructions that tells the hardware what to do.

Utility Software
Software that allows you to fix or modify your computer in some way.

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 35
The Relationship Between Hardware and
Software
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

Information systems can be incredibly complex, depending on their size and scope. In spite of varying
levels of complexity, information systems consist of five components: hardware, software, data,
people, and process. The first three components fit under the category of technology, and place the
computer square at the center of modern information systems. In this tutorial, we will take a look at the
core relationship between hardware and software.

Our discussion breaks down as follows:

1. Overview of Hardware and Software

Recall that information systems contain both hardware and software. Hardware is the part of an information
system you can touch — the physical components of the technology. Computers, keyboards, disk drives,
iPads, and flash drives are all examples of information systems hardware.

Software is the set of instructions that tells the hardware what to do. When programmers create software
programs, what they are really doing is simply typing out lists of instructions that tell the hardware what to do.
Software can come in many forms, including the operating system and application software. There are many
types of application software as well. For example, word processing or spreadsheet applications are
productivity software, and antivirus programs installed on a computer are an example of utility software.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Hardware
The part of the information system that you can touch; the physical components of the technology.

Software
The set of instructions that tells the hardware what to do.

2. Relationship Between Hardware and Software

Essentially, computer software controls computer hardware. These two components are complementary and
cannot act independently of one another. In order for a computer to effectively manipulate data and produce
useful output, its hardware and software must work together. Without software, computer hardware is useless.
Conversely, computer software cannot be used without supporting hardware. Similarly, computer software
has to first be loaded into the computer’s hardware and then executed. There are several categories of

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 36
software, with the two main categories being operating-system software, which makes the hardware usable,
and application software, which does something useful. Examples of operating systems include Microsoft
Windows on a personal computer and Google’s Android on a mobile phone. Examples of application software
are Microsoft Excel and Angry Birds.

IN CONTEXT

Consider the following analogy: an iPod is used to play recorded music in the form of an MP3. In
order to listen to the recorded music, you need three things: an iPod, a speaker, and the MP3 file. In
this analogy, both the iPod and the speaker are examples of hardware. The MP3 file, in this case,
would represent software. Without the iPod or the speaker, you would not be able to listen to the
MP3. By the same token, the iPod and the speaker would be worthless without the MP3 files to play.

 SUMMARY

Information systems such as geographic information systems, search engines, and data warehouses
rely on both hardware and software working in concert to achieve the goal of data manipulation.
Computer software drives computer hardware by providing the instructions that tell the hardware
what to do. Hardware will not function without software and software will not run without the
appropriate hardware.

Source: Derived from Chapters 2 and 3 of “Information Systems for Business and Beyond” by David T.
Bourgeois. Some sections removed for brevity.
https://www.saylor.org/site/textbooks/Information%20Systems%20for%20Business%20and%20Beyond/Text
book.html

 TERMS TO KNOW

Hardware
The part of the information system that you can touch; the physical components of the technology.

Software
The set of instructions that tells the hardware what to do.

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 37
Computer Components and Roles
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

At their core, all personal computers consist of the same basic components: a CPU, memory, circuit
board, storage, and input/output devices. Each of these basic components performs a specified
function that ultimately works to aid users in performing useful tasks, such as typing a paper, or
sending an email message. In this tutorial we will discuss computing systems and their core
components. We will also take a look at the role each component plays within the system.

Our discussion breaks down as follows:

1. Computing Systems
Simply put: a system is a combination of parts that work together to achieve a goal. Based on this definition,
we can easily see how a computer fits the description of what a system is. All computers have a way to accept
user input and receive instructions from users, a way of delivering data back to the user, a central processing
unit, basic hardware, and software.

2. Data Processing Components

After a computer receives data from an input device, the data must be processed before it is sent to an output
device such as a monitor. In a computer, a data processing device is any device that is responsible for the
storage and retrieval of data. Listed below are the data processing devices located in a computer.

Data
Processing Description
Devices

Central Most computing devices have a similar architecture. The core of this architecture is the
Processing central processing unit (CPU). The CPU can be thought of as the “brains” of the device. The
Unit (CPU) CPU carries out the commands sent to it by the software and returns results to be acted upon.

Graphics The graphics processing unit or GPU is essentially what generates the image(s) on the
Processing monitor. It is located internally and typically connects directly to the motherboard. The GPU is
Unit (GPU) more widely referred to as a “video card.”

The motherboard is the main circuit board on the computer. The CPU, memory, and storage
components, among other things, all connect into the motherboard. Motherboards come in
Motherboard different shapes and sizes, depending upon how compact or expandable the computer is
designed to be. Most modern motherboards have many integrated components, such as

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 38
 video and sound processing, which used to require separate components.
Network Commonly referred to as an ethernet card, the network interface card (NIC) is an expansion
Interface card that provides a computer with the ability to connect to a network. Most newer model
Card (NIC) computers have their network interface card built into the motherboard.

The sound card is an expansion card that produces sound through the speakers or
headphone. The sound card is also sometimes referred to as the audio card. Sound cards are
Sound Card
included with every computer system; however, they are not required by the computer to
operate.

 WATCH

Learn more about the data processing components in the video below.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The "brains" of the device; it performs computations and logic operations sent to it by application
software, and returns results to be acted upon.

Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)

Generates images on the monitor; also referred to as the video card.

Motherboard
The main circuit board on the computer to which the CPU, memory, and storage connect.

Network Interface Card

Expansion card that provides a computer with the ability to connect to a network.

Sound Card
Expansion card that produces sound through the speakers or headphone.

3. Data Storage Components

In a computer, data storage is handled by several components. Generally, a data storage component is any
hardware that can store information temporarily or permanently. Data storage devices are classified as either
primary storage or secondary storage. Primary storage refers to internal storage, such as random access
memory (RAM). Secondary storage is not readily accessible by the computer and can be internal or external,
such as a hard drive or flash drive. Listed below are the data storage components located in a computer.

Data
Storage Description
Components

Most of today’s personal computers use a hard disk for long-term data storage. A hard disk is
Hard Disk where data is stored when the computer is turned off and where it is retrieved from when the
computer is turned on. Maximum capacity is currently around 2TB.

The solid-state drive (SSD) performs the same function as a hard disk: long-term storage.
Solid-State Instead of spinning disks, the SSD uses flash memory, which is much faster. Solid-state drives
are currently quite a bit more expensive than hard disks. However, the use of flash memory

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 39
 Drives (SSD) instead of disks makes them much lighter and faster than hard disks. Maximum capacity is
currently around 1TB.

Around the turn of the century, a new portable storage technology was being developed: the
USB flash drive. This device attaches to the universal serial bus (USB) connector, which
Flash Drives
became standard on all personal computers beginning in the late 1990s. Maximum capacity is
currently around 256GB.

When a computer starts up, it begins to load information from the hard disk into its working
memory. This working memory, called random-access memory (RAM), can transfer data much
Random-
faster than the hard disk. Any program that you are running on the computer is loaded into
Access
RAM for processing. In order for a computer to work effectively, some minimal amount of RAM
Memory
must be installed. In most cases, adding more RAM will allow the computer to run faster.
(RAM)
Another characteristic of RAM is that it is “volatile.” This means that it can store data as long
as it is receiving power. When the computer is turned off, any data stored in RAM is lost.

An optical disc is a form of removable storage media that stores data on the surface of the
Optical Disc disc. Compact Disc (CD) and Digital Video Disc (DVD) are examples of optical discs. Maximum
capacity is currently 900MB for CDs and 50GB for DVDs.

 WATCH

Learn more about the data storage components in the video below.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Hard Disk
The location for long-term data storage when the computer is turned off, and where data is retrieved
when the computer is turned on.

Random-Access Memory (RAM)

The working memory of a computer that transfers data from the hard disk upon starting the device.

4. Input/Output Components
All computers accept input from the keyboard or mouse (or other designated input device), process it, and
output it to a monitor (or other designated output device). An input device is any hardware component that
sends data into a computer. An output device is any hardware component that sends data out of a computer.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Input Device
Any hardware component that sends data into the computer.

Output Device
Any hardware component that sends data out from the computer.
Below are the common input and output devices utilized by most computer systems.

4a. Input Devices

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 40
 Keyboard: All personal computers need components that allow the user to input data. Keyboards help the
user enter text or numbers as input for documents or files. Keyboards are available in different sizes.
Some keyboards are designed for ergonomics, while others are designed to be small.
Pointing Device: A pointing device is an input device that moves an on-screen pointer and gives users
the ability to click to initialize applications, or to open files. The most common type of pointing device is a
mouse. Users move the mouse across a flat surface and press a button to click. Another type of pointing
device is a touchpad. A touchpad is a touch-sensitive pad that is built into a notebook computer and is
designed to behave like a mouse.
Scanner: Scanners allow users to input documents into a computer, either as images or as text. Most
scanners have flat surfaces for users to place documents to be scanned on. However, some scanners
feed documents one page at a time. Most scanners utilize the USB interface.
Digital Camera: A digital camera is a device that captures a picture and converts it into digital information.
Most digital cameras provide a local storage option until the picture can be transferred to a computer.
Typically, a digital camera connects to a computer using the USB interface.

4b. Output Devices

Monitor: A monitor is a device used to display video, images, or text. With a laptop computer, the monitor
is built in, and with a desktop computer, the monitor comes as a separate component connected to the
system unit via cable (typically VGA). Most monitors are used only for output, but some, such as
touchscreen monitors, can be used for both input and output.
Printer: A printer is an output device that generates a hard copy of work created on a computer. All
printers do the same basic thing: they print an image on a page. A printer's quality, cost, speed, and
overall ability vary.

 HINT

Some devices can be both input and output devices if they are allowed to get information into the
computing system, and also send information back out of the system. For example, a printer that has a
scanner is both an input and an output device. A touchscreen is another example. The output is the
monitor display, and the input is the touch interactions to click, zoom in, and zoom out.

 SUMMARY

Computers are systems with multiple components all designed to work in concert for the purpose of
data manipulation. In this tutorial, we examined what a computing system is, along with its data
processing, data storage components, and its various input/output components.

Source: Derived from Chapters 2 and 3 of “Information Systems for Business and Beyond” by David T.
Bourgeois. Some sections removed for brevity.
https://www.saylor.org/site/textbooks/Information%20Systems%20for%20Business%20and%20Beyond/Text
book.html

 TERMS TO KNOW

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 41
 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The "brains" of the device; it performs computations and logic operations sent to it by application
software, and returns results to be acted upon.

Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)

Generates images on the monitor; also referred to as the video card.

Hard Disk
The location for long-term data storage when the computer is turned off, and where data is retrieved
when the computer is turned on.

Input Device
Any hardware component that sends data into the computer.

Motherboard
The main circuit board on the computer to which the CPU, memory, and storage connect.

Network Interface Card

Expansion card that provides a computer with the ability to connect to a network.

Output Device
Any hardware component that sends data out from the computer.

Random-Access Memory (RAM)

The working memory of a computer that transfers data from the hard disk upon starting the device.

Sound Card
Expansion card that produces sound through the speakers or headphone.

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 42
Data Storage
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

When data enters a computer it is immediately routed and stored in memory. If the data needs to be
kept for future use, it must be saved to a storage device. Numerous options for storage are available
for computers, each with their own set of advantages and disadvantages. In this tutorial, we will take a
look at computer memory, the various storage options, and the capacities for each storage option.

Our discussion breaks down as follows:

1. How Data is Stored

In a computer, data sent to and read from the hard disk is initially read by the hard disk controller. Thehard
disk controller gives the processor access to read, write, and modify data on the hard disk, CD-ROM, flash
drive, and any other storage device. If the operating system needs to read or write data to a storage device, it
examines the storage device to determine where to read from (file location) or where to write to. After a
read/write location is obtained, the hard disk controller tells the drive to read or write.

All data stored on a hard disk is done magnetically. If the computer needs to read data from the hard disk, it
reads magnetic polarities from the hard disk. One side of the polarity is 0 (off) and the other side is 1 (on). The
computer reads the 0 or 1 as binary data. Each 0 or 1 is referred to as a bit (a contraction of binary digit). This
means that the computer reads data from its storage location as a binary number. For the computer to write
information to the hard disk, the magnetic polarities are aligned with the hard disk’s read/write head. The
read/write head then writes 0s and 1s that can be read by the computer at a later time. This means that the
computer writes information to the hard disk as a binary number.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Hard Disk Controller

A hard disk component that enables the CPU to access, modify, read, and write data to and from the
hard disk, CD-ROM, and any other drive.

Bit
A contraction of "binary digit" — a digit containing either a 0 or 1.

2. Bits and Bytes

As mentioned above, a bit is a unit of digital data, containing a single value of either a 0 or a 1. Digital
information can be very large, and thus can result in incredibly lengthy strings of 0s and 1s. A string of eight
bits is known as a byte. So a byte is also a unit of digital information, and it contains eight bits.

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 43
  TERM TO KNOW

Byte
A unit of digital data, containing a string of eight binary units (0s or 1s).

3. Units of Measurement for Storage

Similar to RAM, storage space is measured in bytes. As the capacities of digital devices grew, new terms were
developed to identify the capacities of processors, memory, and disk storage space. Prefixes were applied to
the word byte to represent different orders of magnitude. Since these are digital specifications, the prefixes
were originally meant to represent multiples of 1024 (which is two raised to the 10th power), but have more
recently been rounded to mean multiples of 1000. The table below shows various storage sizes, how they are
related to bytes, and an example of media with an approximate storage size.

Prefix Represents Example Storage Device Value Contained

B Byte Byte = Eight Bits 1 Character; e.g. the letter “t” is 1 byte

KB Kilobyte 1 KB = 1,000 Bytes Two or three paragraphs of text

One-minute MP3 file

MB Megabyte 1 MB = 1 Million Bytes Floppy Disk One digital picture (four megapixel)
Four books (200 pages each)

One 650MB CD of data

DVD-R
256 MP3 songs
Blu Ray Disc
GB Gigabyte 1 GB = 1 Billion Bytes 340 digital pictures
Hard Disk
600 web pages
USB Flash Drive
4,470 books (200 pages each)

1600 CDs of data

230 DVDs
40 Blu-Ray Discs
TB Terabyte 1 TB = 1 Trillion Bytes Hard Disk 262,100 MP3 songs
349,500 digital pictures
655,300 web pages
4,500,000 books (200 pages each)

4. Common Storage Media

Various storage media have their own storage capacity limitations.

Storage Media Description

Hard Drive/Hard Most of today’s personal computers use a hard disk for long-term data storage.
Disk Maximum capacity is currently around 2TB.

The solid-state drive (SSD) performs the same function as a hard disk: long-term storage.
Solid-State Drives
Maximum capacity is currently around 1 TB.

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 44
 The USB flash drive serves as a portable and removable storage solution. Maximum
Flash Drives
capacity is currently around 256GB.

Optical Disc An optical disc is another form of portable and removable storage. Maximum capacity is
(CD/DVD-ROM) currently 900MB for CDs and 50GB for DVDs.

 TERMS TO KNOW

Hard Disk
The location for long-term data storage when the computer is turned off, and where data is retrieved
from when the computer is turned on.

Solid-State Drive (SSD)

Form of data storage that uses flash memory; all data is stored on a microchip.

Flash Drive
Form of data storage that attaches to the USB connector on PCs.

Optical Disc
A form of removable storage media that stores data on the surface of the disc.

 SUMMARY

As data is generated by a computer, there must be sufficient space in which to store it. Various types
of storage media are available, each with their own storage capacities, pros, and cons.

Source: Derived from Chapter 2 of “Information Systems for Business and Beyond” by David T. Bourgeois.
Some sections removed for brevity.
https://www.saylor.org/site/textbooks/Information%20Systems%20for%20Business%20and%20Beyond/Text
book.htm

 TERMS TO KNOW

Bit
A contraction of "binary digit;" a digit containing either a 0 or 1.

Byte
A unit of digital data, containing a string of eight binary units (0s or 1s).

Flash Drive
Form of data storage that attaches to the USB connector on PCs.

Hard Disk
The location for long-term data storage when the computer is turned off, and where data is retrieved
when the computer is turned on.

Hard Disk Controller

A hard disk component that enables the CPU to access, modify, read, and write data to and from the
hard disk, CD-ROM, and any other drive.

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 45
 Optical Disc
A form of removable storage media that stores data on the surface of the disc.

Solid-State Drive (SSD)

Form of data storage that uses flash memory; all data is stored on a microchip.

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 46
Unit Prefixes
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

As the capacities of digital devices grew, new terms were developed to identify the capacities of
processors, memory, and disk storage space. Prefixes were applied to measurements — such as byte
— to represent different orders of magnitude. Since bits and bytes are binary numbers, the prefixes
were originally meant to represent multiples of 1024 (which is two to the 10th power), but have more
recently been rounded to mean multiples of 1000. In this tutorial, we will examine the most common
prefixes, and apply them to measurements of storage and processing speed.

Our discussion will break down like this:

1. Unit Prefixes
A unit prefix is a group of letters attached to the beginning of a unit of measurement. You’re probably familiar
with unit prefixes for measurements, such as the meter. For example, the prefix “kilo” can be added to the
meter to form a kilometer, a unit of length equivalent to 1000 meters. A kilogram is a unit of weight equivalent
to 1000 grams.

In these examples, the prefix multiplies the base unit by a power of 10 (1000 = 10).
3 With units of digital

information, such as the byte, these prefixes actually multiply the base by a power of two. This is because the
byte is made of binary digits (binary meaning two).

 EXAMPLE When adding the prefix kilo to byte, we get the kilobyte. A kilobyte is defined as 210 or
1024 bytes. This can be confusing, especially since we are familiar with multiplying other
measurements by 1000, not 1024, when applying the prefix kilo. Due to this confusion, it has become
common and acceptable to round 1024 to 1000 when applying prefixes to bytes.

 HINT

Technically, binary prefixes apply a multiplier of 210 (or 1024). However, because it is easier to multiply by
1000 instead of 1024, it is acceptable to interpret the prefixes as multiples of 1000. For example, 1
gigabyte can be expressed as 1,000,000,000 bytes (1000*1000*1000), rather than 1,073,741,824 bytes
(1024*1024*1024).

 TERM TO KNOW

Unit Prefix
A group of letters attached to the beginning of a unit; common prefixes include kilo, mega, giga, and
tera.

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 47
2. Bytes
Recall that a byte is a unit of digital data, consisting of binary digits made of 0s and 1s. When dealing with
millions and billions of bytes, it is easier to express the size of the data using binary prefixes. The most
common binary prefixes are kilobyte, megabyte, and gigabyte. In today’s society, the terabyte is also
becoming more popular to describe machines with very large storage capacities.

Below is a table of common prefixes and their application on the byte.

Prefix Notation Represents Example

kilo KB 1 thousand 1 KB = 1,000 bytes

mega MB 1 million 1 MB = 1,000,000 bytes

giga GB 1 billion 1 GB = 1,000,000,000 bytes

tera TB 1 trillion 1 TB = 1,000,000,000,000 bytes

 EXAMPLE A brief email of text would be one to two kilobytes. A larger file, such as a minute-long
video clip, would be 15 to 20 megabytes. Today’s smartphones can have capacities of 64 gigabytes or
more. A professional videographer might need a hard drive with one terabyte to store the multimedia
files and software programs she needs to do her job.

 TRY IT

Rank the following storage sizes from smallest to largest: 5KB, 1TB, 6MB, 3GB.

What did you come up with? To solve this, it is helpful to write each measurement in one unit, such as
bytes, and then compare:

5KB= 5,000 bytes

1TB= 1,000,000,000,000 bytes
6MB= 6,000,000 bytes
3GB= 3,000,000,000 bytes

So, the correct ordering of these, from smallest to largest, would be 5KB, 6MB, 3GB, 1TB

 TERM TO KNOW

Byte
A unit of digital data, containing a string of eight binary units (0s or 1s).

3. Hertz
Hertz is a unit of frequency named after German physicist Heinrich Hertz. This unit of frequency is defined as
one cycle per second, and is used to describe the processing speed of computing devices. Hertz is
abbreviated Hz, and can also be used with the prefixes mentioned above.

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 48
The same prefixes that were used with bytes can be applied to hertz. The most common prefix associated
with processing speed is giga. All of the prefixes applied to hertz are multipliers of a power of 10. This differs
from the prefixes applied to bits and bytes, as those prefixes are multipliers of two.

Prefix Notation Represents Example

kilo KHz 1 thousand 1 KHz = 1,000 hertz

mega MHz 1 million 1 MHz = 1,000,000 hertz

giga GHz 1 billion 1 GHz = 1,000,000,000 hertz

tera THz 1 trillion 1 THz = 1,000,000,000,000 hertz

 EXAMPLE The speed of today’s desktop and mobile processors are measured in gigahertz (GHz)
and can range from two to four GHz.

 TERM TO KNOW

Hertz
A unit of frequency used to describe the speed of computing devices; abbreviated Hz.

 SUMMARY

Several prefixes can be applied to the beginning of measures to represent much larger quantities. In
computing, common measurements include the byte, a unit of data, and the hertz, a unit of frequency
or speed. The most common prefixes applied to the byte are kilo, mega, giga, and tera, which
represent multiples of 1000 from one prefix to the next. For example, 1 kilobyte equals 1000 bytes, 1
megabyte equals 1000 kilobytes, 1 gigabyte equals 1000 megabytes, and so on. These same prefixes
can be used with the hertz; however, the most common unit of processing speed is the gigahertz
(GHz), which is 1 million hertz.

Source: Derived from Chapter 2 “Information Systems for Business and Beyond” by David T. Bourgeois. Some
sections modified for brevity.
https://www.saylor.org/site/textbooks/Information%20Systems%20for%20Business%20and%20Beyond/Text
book.html

 TERMS TO KNOW

Byte
A unit of digital data, containing a string of eight binary units (0s or 1s).

Hertz
A unit of frequency used to describe the speed of computing devices; abbreviated Hz.

Unit Prefix
A group of letters attached to the beginning of a unit; common prefixes include kilo, mega, giga, and
tera.

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 49
© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 50
Understanding Numbering Systems
by Sophia

 WHAT'S COVERED

A numbering system is a way to represent numbers of a certain type, and to have as their root base
the same number of digits in the system. The system of numbering we are most familiar with is base-
10 numbering. This means that there are 10 digits in the numbering system, zero through nine. If we
count these digits in numerical order, we stop at nine, and then have to use two digits to express the
next number, 10.

The decimal numbering system is not the only numbering system. In fact, computers primarily use the
binary numbering system to represent data. As you will learn below, this system uses only two digits
— zero and one. Because there are only two digits in this system, representing data in this system can
require an incredibly long string of digits. When making computations or processing data, it can be
quicker and easier to manage if data is expressed in fewer digits. To make this possible, other
numbering systems were developed that contain more digits in their system. This allows the same
information to be expressed using fewer digits.

Our discussion will break down as follows:

1. Decimal Numbering System

We are most familiar with the decimal number system, which is a base-10 system. This system is natural to us
because we have 10 fingers on our hands, and we use our fingers for counting. This system is based in 10
digits, zero to nine. In this system, each digit in the number represents a power of 10. The far-right digit
represents the “1s” which can be thought of as 10^0. The next digit to the left represents the “10s,” which can
be thought of as 10^1. As we continue to the left, the next digits represent the “hundreds” (10^2), the
“thousands” (10^3), and so on.

 EXAMPLE In the decimal numbering system, the number 1010 contains four digits, and each digit
corresponds to a power of 10. We can break down 1010 into four digits — 1, 0, 1, 0 — and associate
each digit with its corresponding power of 10: (1 x 1000) + (0 x 100) + (1 x 10) + (0 x 1). If we add these
numbers, we get the value 1010.

 TERM TO KNOW

Decimal Number System

Base-10 numbering in which each column in the number represents a power of 10; includes the digits
zero through nine.

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 51
2. Binary Numbering System
Computers primarily use the base-two numbering system, also known as thebinary number system. This
system is based on two digits: 0 and 1. In this system, each digit in the number represents a power of two. The
far-right digit represents the “1s” which can be thought of as 2^0. The next digit to the left represents the “2s”
which can be thought of as 2^1. As we continue to the left, the next digits represent the “fours” (2^2), the
“eights” (2^3), and so on.

 EXAMPLE In the binary number system, the number 1010 contains four digits, and each digit
corresponds to a power of two. We can break down 1010 into the four digits — 1, 0, 1, 0 — and
associate each digit with its corresponding power of two: (1 x 8) + (0 x 4) + (1 x 2) + (0 x 1). In base-10,
this evaluates to 10.

 TERM TO KNOW

Binary Number System

Base two numbering system used by computers to work with data; includes the digits 0 and 1.

3. Octal Numbering System

The octal number system is based on eight digits (zero through seven). In this system, each digit in the
number represents a power of eight. The far-right digit represents the “1s” (8^0). The next digit to the left
represents the “eights” (8^1). As we continue to the left, the next digits represent 8^2 (which is 64), 8^3 (which
is 512), and so on.

 EXAMPLE In the octal numbering system, the number 1010 contains four digits, and each digit
corresponds to a power of eight. We can break down 1010 into the four digits — 1, 0, 1, 0 — and
associate each digit with its corresponding power of eight: (1 x 512) + (0 x 64) + (1 x 8) + (0 x 1). In base-
10, this evaluates to 520.

 TERM TO KNOW

Octal Number System

Numbering system based on eight digits; includes the digits zero through seven.

4. Hexadecimal Numbering System

Computers also use a hexadecimal number system for some tasks, such as defining color. Hexadecimal is a
numbering system based on 16 digits (hex meaning six, and decimal meaning 10). The first 10 digits are the
numbers zero through nine, and because we don’t have any single digit numbers to represent 10 through 16,
we use the first six letters of the alphabet, A through F. In this system, each digit in the number represents a
power of 16. The far-right digit represents the “1s” (16^0). The next digit to the left represents the “16s” (16^1).
As we continue to the left, the next digits represent 16^2 (which is 256), 16^3, (which is 4096), and so on.

 EXAMPLE In the hexadecimal numbering system, the number 1010 contains four digits, and each
digit corresponds to a power of 16. We can break down 1010 into the four digits — 1, 0, 1, 0 — and

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 52
 associate each digit with its corresponding power of 16: (1 x 4096) + (0 x 256) + (1 x 16) + (0 x 1). In
base-10, this evaluates to 4112.

 TERM TO KNOW

Hexadecimal Number System

A numbering system based on 16 digits; includes the digits zero through nine and A through F.

 SUMMARY

Numbering systems define how numbers are represented, and they can be used to define how data
is processed. Computers represent data primarily using the binary numbering system. However,
other number systems can also be used to represent data. Common number systems, such as octal
and hexadecimal, can make it easier and quicker to write and manage data by using a smaller
number of digits.

Source: Derived from “Information Systems for Business and Beyond” by David T. Bourgeois. Some sections
removed for brevity.
https://www.saylor.org/site/textbooks/Information%20Systems%20for%20Business%20and%20Beyond/Text
book.html#_Chapter2:_What

 TERMS TO KNOW

Binary Number System

Base-two numbering system used by computers to work with data; includes the digits 0 and 1.

Decimal Number System

Base-ten numbering in which each column in the number represents a power of ten; includes the digits
0-9.

Hexadecimal Number System

A numbering system based on sixteen digits; includes the digits 0-9 and A-F.

Numbering System
Method of representing numbers of a certain type.

Octal Number System

Numbering system based on eight digits; includes the digits 0-7.

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 53
Terms to Know
Application Software
Provides user with the ability to accomplish a goal or purpose.

Binary Number System

Base-two numbering system used by computers to work with data; includes the digits 0 and
1.

Bit
A contraction of "binary digit;" a digit containing either a 0 or 1.

Byte
A unit of digital data, containing a string of eight binary units (0s or 1s).

CD/DVD-ROM Drive
Drive bay used to insert CDs and DVDs.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The "brains" of the device; it performs computations and logic operations sent to it by
application software, and returns results to be acted upon.

Client-Server
Computer system in which a centralized server provides data to connected computers over
a network.

Cloud Computing
Storing and processing data over the Internet rather than on personal computer hardware.

Computer
An electronic device that use a combination of hardware and software to manipulate data.

Computer Network
A group of computers connected for the purpose of communication-sharing of data and
resources.

Computer Programming
Process used by computer programmers to develop software that solves problems.

Data

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 54
 Information, or a collection of facts.

Decimal Number System

Base-ten numbering in which each column in the number represents a power of ten;
includes the digits 0-9.

Digital Camera
Input device that captures a picture and converts it to digital information.

Flash Drive
Form of data storage that attaches to the USB connector on PCs.

Graphics Processing Unit (GPU)

Generates images on the monitor; also referred to as the video card.

Hard Disk
The location for long-term data storage when the computer is turned off, and where data is
retrieved when the computer is turned on.

Hard Disk Controller

A hard disk component that enables the CPU to access, modify, read, and write data to and
from the hard disk, CD-ROM, and any other drive.

Hardware
The part of the information system that you can touch; the physical components of the
technology.

Hertz
A unit of frequency used to describe the speed of computing devices; abbreviated Hz.

Hexadecimal Number System

A numbering system based on sixteen digits; includes the digits 0-9 and A-F.

Information System
A combination of technology, people, and processes that collect, create, distribute, and
exploit useful information.

Input
Mode by which data enters the computer.

Input Device

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 55
 Any hardware component that sends data into the computer.

Keyboard
Device that provides text and or numeric input into a computer system.

Local Area Network (LAN)

Computer network that links computers within a building.

Monitor
Output device used to display video, images, and text.

Motherboard
The main circuit board on the computer, to which the CPU, memory, and storage connect.

Mouse
Device that can be moved across a flat surface to move an on-screen pointer.

Network Interface Card

Expansion card that provides a computer with the ability to connect to a network.

Numbering System
Method of representing numbers of a certain type.

Octal Number System

Numbering system based on eight digits; includes the digits 0-7.

Operating System
Software that performs the task required to keep the system running and provides the main
interface for the user.

Optical Disc
A form of removable storage media that stores data on the surface of the disc.

Output
Mode by which data is delivered.

Output Device
Any hardware component that sends data out from the computer.

Peripheral
A hardware component that is not natively a part of the system.

© 2023 SOPHIA Learning, LLC. SOPHIA is a registered trademark of SOPHIA Learning, LLC. Page 56
Pointing Device
Device that moves an on-screen pointer and provides buttons for input.

Portability
How easily a computer can be transported.

Ports
Area into which device cables can be connected to the system unit.

Printer
Output device that generates a hard copy of work created on a computer.

Processing Speed
Amount of clock cycles a processor can perform in a second, measured in hertz.

Productivity Software
Subcategory of application software that provides office employees the ability to complete
their work.

Programming Software
Software whose purpose is to make more software.

Random-Access Memory (RAM)

The working memory of a computer that transfers data from the hard disk upon starting the
device.

Read-Only Memory (ROM)

A form of memory in which the data stored can only be read; it cannot be changed.

Scanner
Input device that allows users to input documents as images or text.

Screen Size
The length of the monitor, typically the diagonal measured in inches.

Smartphone
A mobile phone that incorporates the same functionality as a computer.

Software
The set of instructions that tells the hardware what to do.
Solid-State Drive (SSD)
Form of data storage that uses flash memory; all data is stored on a microchip.

Sound Card
Expansion card that produces sound through the speakers or headphone.

Status Lights
Provide user with feedback as to the current operation with the system.

Tablet Computer
A computer that uses a touch screen as its primary input.

Touchpad
Touch sensitive pad that behaves like a mouse built into laptop computers.

Unit Prefix
A group of letters attached to the beginning of a unit; common prefixes include kilo, mega,
giga, and tera.

Utility Software
Software that allows you to fix or modify your computer in some way.

Vent
Provides area for internally generated heat to be dissipated.

Volatile
Computer storage that only holds data while power remains on.