UNIT I.

COMMUNICATION PRINCIPLES

Lesson 1: Principles of Communication

Gamble and Gamble (2010) stated several core communication principles.

Communication is dynamic.

When we call communication a dynamic process, we mean that all its elements
constantly interact with and affect each other. Since all people are interconnected,
whatever happens to one person determines in part what happens to others.

Communication is unrepeatable and irreversible.

Every human contact is unique. It has never happened before, and never again
will it happen in just the same way. A communication encounter affects and changes
people so that the encounter can never happen in exactly the same way again. We
can neither take back something we have said nor erase the effects of something we
have done.

Communication is culturally linked.

Cultural diversity, including race, ethnicity, gender, and age, influences the
meanings we attribute to communication. Cultural differences exist not only between
persons who speak different languages but also between persons who speak the same
language as well. Every cultural group has its own rules or preferences for interaction.
When these are ignored or unknown, we are likely to misinterpret the meaning of
messages received and miscalculate the impact of messages sent.

Communication is influenced by Ethics.

Every time we communicate, we decide implicitly or explicitly whether we will do

so ethically. Ethics includes the moral principles, values and beliefs that the members of
society use to guide behaviour. Since communication has consequences, it involves
judgment of right and wrong. When the agreed-upon standards of behaviour are
violated, the behaviour is judged unethical. For example, most of us expect those with
whom we interact to be honest, play fair, respect our rights and accept responsibility
for their actions.

Communication is competence-based.

While we all have different communication strengths and weaknesses, we can

all benefit from getting better at communicating. When we add to our knowledge and
make a commitment to develop the skills to apply that knowledge across an array of
communication situations or contexts, we gain communication competence. For
example, included among the skills necessary for effective communication is the ability
to think critically. We have the ability to examine ideas reflectively and to decide what
we should and should not believe, think, or do, given the specific set of circumstances.

Communication is being transformed by media and technology.

As media critic Marshall McLuhan cautioned, “The medium is the message.” In

McLuhan’s view, different channels of communication affect the way a sender
encodes a message and the way a receiver responds to a message. The words
delivered face-to-face, on paper, or via radio or television do not constitute the same
message. The channel of communication changes things.

Not just the medium, but also its content, changes communication. The content
of books, newspapers, radio, television, and film, for example, also influence our cultural
values, often reinforcing the stereotypes we have of gender, race, and ethnicity and
contributing to the perceptions we have of various people and groups in society,
including ourselves.

Technology continues to speed up communication as it brings the world into our

living rooms and bedrooms, offices and cars. Instead of valuing sequential
understanding and careful logic, we now value immediate gratification and emotional
involvement. Technology has also given us the ability to interact in more ways.

In addition, Angell (1997) also stresses on these communication principles. These

principles will help you understand how communication is done and the aspects
involved when we communicate with others.

Communication is a process. The exchange of messages is on-going and dynamic.

Communication is contextual. Our interactions with others occur during specific social
situations, in different physical environments, and for a variety of purposes.

Communication is continuous. It is an on-going process.

Communication is symbolic. Words or nonverbal modes may be used in

communication.

Communication is culturally linked. Our communication style is linked to the culture into
which we are born.

Communication is collaborative. People work together to accomplish a goal.

Communication is ethical. Ethics is a system of principles that guide the proper conduct
of companies and individuals.

Communication can be oral or written. Below is a table that presents principles

of effective oral and written communication.
 PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE ORAL PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE WRITTEN
COMMUNICATION COMMUNICATION: The 7 C’s
1. Be clear with your purpose. You 1. Be clear. Be clear about your
should know by heart your message. Always be guided by
objective in communicating. your purpose in communicating
2. Be complete with the message you 2. Be concise. Always stick to the
deliver. Make sure that your claims point and do not beat or run
are supported by facts and around the bush. Be brief by
essential information. focusing on your main point.
3. Be concise. You do not need to be 3. Be concrete. Support your
verbose or wordy with your claims with enough facts. Your
statements. Brevity in speech is a readers will easily know if you
must. are bluffing or deceiving them
4. Be natural with your delivery. because there is nothing to
Punctuate important words with substantiate your claims.
appropriate gestures and 4. Be correct. It is important that
movements. Exude a certain you observe grammatical
degree of confidence even if you correctness in your writing.
do not feel confident enough. Always have time to revise and
5. Be specific and timely with your edit your work. Even simple errors
feedback. Inputs are most helpful may easily distract your readers.
when provided on time. 5. Be coherent. Convey logical
messages. The idea should be
connected with each other and
related to the topic. Observe
sound structure that will present
a smooth flow of ideas. Use
transitional or cohesive devises
so that the ideas will cohere with
one another.
6. Be complete. Include all
necessary and relevant
information so that the
audience will not be left
wanting of any information.
7. Be courteous. The tone of your
writing should be friendly. Avoid
any overtone or insinuation to
eliminate confusion and
misinterpretation.

Communication Ethics
Ethics is the discussion of the judgments we make about the appropriateness, the
right or wrong, of our actions and policies be those actions communicative, political,
social, personal, or a mixture of areas (Johannensen,1990).
 Ethics will help us determine whether what we say or do is suitable or proper
considering its effects on society. When a classmate, for instance, encourages you to
forge a signature for an important document, how would you respond?

There are situations in school or in the workplace when you have to decide on
what to say or what not to say, or even how to convey a message. People may
interpret messages differently. We vary in terms of cultural background and
personalities, hence there is a need to consider our behaviour when we communicate
with others.

One ethical issue in communication is plagiarism. It is best to be aware of the

rules on copyright and the legal issues on the use of information from various sources.

As a whole, for us to be guided in our decisions in our communication with

others, it is best to consider suggestions on ethical communication (Johannensen,1990).

Ethical communicators are respectful of their audiences.

Ethical communicators consider the consequences of their communication.

Ethical communicators respect truth.

Ethical communicators use information properly.

Ethical communicators do not falsify information.

Ethical communicators respect the rights of others to information.

As we communicate, we need to take into account the ethical aspect of our

interaction with others. Respecting others’ rights and their views may result in
negotiations, effective communication, and a good working relationship.

In the workplace, Eunson (2007) listed ethical dilemmas that people are often
faced with, such as:

• Should I embellish my resume or curriculum vitae with ‘half-truths’ in order to get

a job?
• Should I ‘lie with statistics’ when using graphs or charts in documents or
presentations to make my arguments more persuasive?
• Should I pass on, and perhaps embellish, rumours on the organizational
grapevine?
• Should I plagiarize materials to pad out documents I am writing?
• Should I use dubious tactics (attack the person, divide and conquer) when
negotiating with others?
• Should I censor, filter or block information getting to others?
• Should I censor myself or remain silent when the group I am in is making
important decisions?
• Should I create ‘spin’ or deceptive impressions when communicating with the
public?
 • Should I use knowledge about human behaviour to more effectively manipulate
others?
• Should I deliberately distort the situation analysed in a report I am writing in order
to create further work opportunities for myself?
• Should I use knowledge about leadership styles to manipulate others?
• Should I manipulate meetings so that a hidden agenda, rather than the written
agenda, is followed?
Communication ethics emphasizes that morals influence the behavior of an
individual, group, or organization thereby affecting their communication. It is important
to note that one’s behavior should be regulated by honesty, decency, truthfulness,
sincerity, and moral uprightness.

Be guided by the following to achieve ethical communication:

1. Establish an effective value system that will pave the way for the
development of your integrity as a person. One’s behavior and decision-
making style affect, in turn, the operations of an organization.

2. Provide complete and accurate information. Whether it is needed or not,

the data you provide should always be contextualized and correct.

3. Disclose vital information adequately and appropriately. Never conceal

or hide information that are necessary for purposes of transparency.

Observing a code of ethics is essential as it determines the kind of behavior that is

proper and desirable over one that is displeasing and offensive. A code of ethics
sets the standards to be observed by a person or a company that will create a
good reputation or a positive image not only for an individual but also for the
organization.

Questions for Discussion

1. Choose one principle of communication and explain it in your own words.

2. Based on your experience, comment on the observance of ethics in online

communication, particularly on social media.

Assessment

Assignment

• Search for the definition/description and provide examples.(Redding’s

Typology of Unethical Organizational Communication)
 • Group 1: Coercive Communication
• Group 2: Destructive Communication
• Group 3: Deceptive Communication
• Group 4: Intrusive Communication
• Group 5: Secretive Communication
• Group 6: Manipulative-Exploitative Communication

Reading Activity
Read the article below and observe how the principles of communication are
applied.
Eating processed foods is hurting your brain, study says

By: Scott Gleeson

Although it's obvious that a diet of hot dogs and ice cream won’t lead to a healthy
physical life, new research illuminates how ultra-processed foods can also cause a
significant decrease in brain function.

Research presented Monday at the Alzheimer’s Association International

Conference in San Diego outlined how foods such as instant noodles, sugary drinks and
frozen meals all play a factor in a faster rate of cognitive decline.

“It’s no secret that physical and mental-cognitive health are intimately involved with
each other, so it’s no surprise that this latest research suggests brain impairment, too,”
said Rafael Perez-Escamilla, a professor of public health at Yale University.

"Just 100 calories of processed foods can affect your physical health. So, that’s two
cookies."

Research has linked ultra-processed food consumption to health problems like obesity,
cardiovascular disease, diabetes and cancers. "And now, we are starting to realize they
affect the mind," Perez-Escamilla said. "That’s because they cause inflammation, which
can affect neurotransmitters in the brain. Processed foods also operate on a micro
level with billions and billions of bacteria cells that (impair) functioning."

New research links processed food to cognitive decline

Researchers presented the findings at the Alzheimer’s Association International

Conference from a study – not yet peer-reviewed – in Brazil that examined the diets
and cognition of 10,000 middle-aged and older adults.

The findings found that participants who were getting 20% or more of their daily
calories from ultra-processed foods saw a far faster decline in cognitive performance
over the span of six to 10 years versus people with diets containing few processed
foods.
“It is a robust study, and the evidence is very consistent with what has been observed with ultra-
processed food over time,” said Perez-Escamilla, who was not involved in the study.

Processed foods require little preparation and are often easy to consume because they usually
don't lead to feeling as full as when eating whole foods like fruits, vegetables, beans, potatoes,
eggs, seafood or meat, Perez Escamilla noted. And a wide array of ultra-processed foods can be
disguised or even promoted as healthy.

Previous studies on ultra-processed foods have indicated signs of cognitive decline before,
namely with increased risk of dementia. A study published last week found that for every 10%
increase in the daily intake of ultra-processed foods, people in the U.K. had a 25% higher risk of
developing dementia.

"Ultra-processed foods are a problem not just later in life but starting at the beginning of life in
the toddler, preschool period," Perez-Escamilla said. "That’s when kids develop a taste or
preference for ultra-processed foods that determine future risk."

What is processed food?

Processed foods are items with very few whole ingredients and often contain flavorings, colorings
or other additives. On the list would include bread, crackers, cookies, fried snacks, cream cheese,
ice cream, candy, soda and hot dogs. Frozen meals are also at the forefront of processed foods.

Studies on the American diet reveal that 58% of calories are consumed via processed food in the
U.S., according to a 2016 peer-reviewed study.

Claudia Suemoto, author of the study on cognitive decline and assistant professor of geriatrics at
the University of Sao Paulo Medical School, said it's essential to look at more than simply calorie
counting when considering both mind and body.

Source: Scot, G. ( August 2, 2022). Eating processed foods is hurting your brain, study says.
Even '2 cookies' can affect health. Retrieved from
https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/health/2022/08/02/processed-food-brain-function-
study/10211114002/

Comprehension questions:

1. Why are processed foods bad for the brain?

2. What are examples of processed foods?
3. How can we avoid eating processed foods?
Language and vocabulary Activities

Complete the table below by constructing a sentence using the idioms.

Idiom Meaning Sentence

To be in good Being fit and healthy The economy is in good
shape shape and inflation is
under control.

I knew I was in good shape

coming into the season
To be fit as a To be very healthy and strong After a refreshing vacation
fiddle by the sea, I now feel fit as
a fiddle.
To be a gym rat Someone who spends a lot of time Pualine was one of those
exercising in the gym gym rats working out hour
after hour, preparing for
her competition.
To get ripped Someone who has high muscle
definition

Complete the table by searching for the meaning and constructing a sentence for
each of the adjectives

Adjectives Meaning Sentence

Flamboyant
Sedentary
Sumptuous
Propitious
Fastidious
Indulgent
Ostentatious
Profligate
Innocuous
Hedonistic

Writing Activity

Write a blog entry on how you observe a healthy lifestyle. Be mindful of the principles of
written communication.

Speaking Task : Prepare a three-minute conversation with a partner. Discuss about your
lifestyle. Observe proper turn-taking.
 UNIT II: INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

Learning Outcomes

At the end of the unit, you are expected to:

1. explain fully how cultural and global issues affect communication;

2. adopt cultural and intercultural awareness and sensitivity in the communication
of ideas.
3. express ideas and opinions with precision, present and respond to complex lines of
argument convincingly;
4. take an active part in formal and informal discussions

Lesson1: Globalization

The way we live now has certainly changed because of many factors. People
can move freely from one country to another; we can communicate with people in
any part of the world; we can move products quickly; and people can instantly get
information anytime at any place. All these are possible because we thrive in a
globalized world. Ledbetter (2015) states that globalization represents a new, post-
traditional order, forging new identities, institutions and ways of life. It is ‘the way we live
now’, in a worldwide network of social relations, seemingly unfettered by the constraints
of geography.

Globalization has increased the economic, political, and cultural

interdependence of diverse cultures. Globalization is related to two other concepts—
diversity and glocalization. Diversity is the recognition and valuing of difference,
encompassing such factors as age, ethnicity, ability, religion, education, marital status,
sexual orientation, and income. Glocalization is a newer concept describing how
globalization affects and merges with local interests and environments.

Garret (2000) mentions that the causes of globalization are technological

innovations lowering the costs of moving goods and more notably information around
the world, growing international economic activity, and the liberalization of foreign
economic policies.

Economic Globalization

Nations are economically interdependent. For instance, Filipino workers are

found across the globe, and their income helps boost our economy. In order to solve
issues on unemployment, poverty, unending consumerism, economic exploitation of
workers in developing and developed countries, and deterioration of environment,
communication between and among countries is essential.

In addition, the economic welfare of member nations of international

organizations such as WTO, World Bank and IMF may also be controlled by these
organizations. The growth of multinational companies such as Coca Cola, Nike, and
McDonald’s make products available in almost all countries.

Globalization of Government Policies

Government policies of developed countries are also globalized. Examples of

these are privatization of state enterprises and trade liberalization (removal of world
tariffs) which decreased trade barriers. Liberalization of ‘capital accounts’ allow people
to invest overseas, and foreign funds can be invested in the home country.

Globalization of Culture

Some popular culture have been globalized like rock music, television dramas
and programs, movies, fast food, dance, and sports.

Language is part of culture, and the English language has become the “world
language” or the lingua franca of the modern world. As English dominates, second
language and foreign speakers of English have developed their own varieties of English.
The study of World Englishes emerged.

In the age of globalization, people are likely to be working and living with people
from all over the world. Globalization has resulted in diversity in the workplace, hence
the need for effective communication skills in a diverse work environment.

Globalization and Its Impacts on Business Communication

Language is a part of culture and is closely bound to the principles, rules and
values which are formed in the given society.

The Impact of globalization on Cross-Cultural Communication

As society becomes more globally connected the ability to communicate across

cultural boundaries has gained increasing prominence. Global businesses must
understand how to communicate with employees and customers from different
cultures in order to fulfil the organization’s mission and build value for stakeholders. The
use of technology has had a profound impact on how businesses communicate
globally and market their products and services. However, with the advancements in
technology, organizations must still be discerning of the culture nuisances that can
potentially present obstacles in trying to increase profits and market share. According
to Genevieve Hilton, “cultural proficiency doesn't mean memorizing every cultural
nuance of every market. It's knowing when to listen, when to ask for help, and when—
finally—to speak”

Culture can affect how we perceive the actions of others. Our perception of
others directly affects how we interpret their behavior and actions. Effective cross-
culture communication requires that we base our perceptions on facts and not merely
on personal biases and prejudices. Successful business leaders must be able to balance
organizational objectives with external global challenges. As organizations become
more interconnected the role of leaders in managing global teams is becoming
increasingly important. Being able to navigate through different cultural nuances is a
key skill for global leaders ( Matthews and Thakkar, 2012).

Cross-cultural Communication

Cross-cultural communication refers to the communication between people

who have differences in any one of the following: styles of working, age, nationality,
ethnicity, race, gender, sexual orientation, etc. Cross-cultural communication can also
refer to the attempts that are made to exchange, negotiate and mediate cultural
differences by means of language, gestures and body language. It is how people
belonging to different cultures communicate with each other.

Each individual can practice culture at varying levels. There is the culture of the
community he grows up in, there is work culture at his workplace and other cultures to
which one becomes an active participant or slowly withdraws from. An individual is
constantly confronted with the clash between his original culture and the majority
culture that he is exposed to daily. Cultural clashes occur as a result of individuals
believing their culture is better than others.

Cross-cultural communication is necessary in order to avoid misunderstandings

that can lead to conflicts between individuals or groups. Cross-cultural communication
creates a feeling of trust and enables cooperation. The focus is on providing the right
response rather than providing the right message.

Matthews and Thakkar, (2012) suggest a cross-cultural model of communication

in organizations or in the workplace. Their model (see Figure 3) shows that
communication barriers can be eliminated for companies to be successful.
 Figure 3. Cross Culture Communication Model

Successful cross-cultural communication creates a dialogue, a continuous

transfer of information. This exchange of information addresses our assumptions and
clarifies points we do not understand. It also provides the opportunity for us to ask
questions and confirm the information that was received. Having a dialogue reduces
conflict because cultural misunderstandings can be dealt with when they arise. The
dialogue only occurs when both parties agree to share information and ensure that the
transfer of information is not blocked.

Questions for Discussion

1. Is globalized culture a threat to local cultural differences?

2. Through the integration of economies, governmental policies, values and

cultures, has globalization made the world homogenous?

3. Why might a person not identify fully with members of his or her own culture until
becoming an immigrant in another country?

4. How does globalization influence business communication?

ASSESSMENT

Select a culture that seems substantially different from your native culture. Using
the Internet, research the values and norms that are common in that other culture. In a
short essay, describe the values and norms of that culture and discuss how you would
use that knowledge to communicate effectively with people of that cultural
background.

Lesson 2: Local, global, and glocal communication

Local Communication

Communities develop their own ways of communicating with other people. They
have their own ways of exchanging information, conversation, ideas or messages with
other people using words, signs, writings, verbal or non-verbal means
of communication. In fact they use their own terms depending on their environment
and the social context. People identify themselves with a group or community with
members of the same language and culture.

Global Communication

As people are becoming more and more interdependent and technology has
greatly advanced, they engage in global communication. Communication globalizes
but it also remains local. (Mattelart, 2014).

Global communication today is a crucial source for our perceptions of the world
and for our sense of belonging to this world.

Global communication is a key player in the global economy.

Global communication is essential to global politics.

Military operations depend upon global communication.

Global communication is a carrier of cultural expressions.

Glocal Communication
 According to Mattelart (2014), communication globalizes but it also remains
local. Global and local belong together. We do not live in the globe but in specific
locations. However cosmopolitan one may be, one’s identity is primarily defined by
“locality”: the locus of birth, family, language, jokes. Attachment to the place where
you experience the greatest cultural “comfort” – often referred to as cultural proximity –
is an essential experience. We are global and local citizens and our communication
could possibly best be termed “glocal”. This notion connects the global (e.g. a product
for global marketing) with the local (e.g. local tastes and experiences).

Glocalization in business is communication which conveys and imparts the

essential core message and the spirit of a brand globally but can simultaneously
integrate at the local level the particularities of regional markets.

Lesson 3: Intercultural Communication

Intercultural communication is the exchange of information between individuals

who are unalike culturally. Intercultural communication is essential because of our
increasing exposure to people of other cultures and co-cultures. More people are
exposed to different global cultures through vacation travel, transnational jobs,
international conflicts, military and humanitarian service, and the presence of
immigrants, refugees and new citizens. Intercultural communication includes better
understanding of cultural and co-cultural friends and enemies (Pearson, Nelson,
Titsworth, & Harter, 2011). Being an effective communicator means interacting positively
with people from various racial, ethnic, and cultural backgrounds. You can
communicate better with people from other cultures if you know something about
theirs.

According to science, each person is genetically unique. This uniqueness

becomes even more heightened because of individual experiences. Family
background, religious affiliations, educational achievements, sociocultural forces,
economic conditions, emotional states and other factors shape human identities.
Because of this, no two people can ever be exactly the same.

Culture is: The ever-changing values, traditions, social and political relationships,
and worldview created and shared by a group of people bound together by a
combination of factors (which can include a common history, geographic location,
language, social class, and/or religion)

What are some intercultural communication problems?

Intercultural communication is subject to all the problems that can hamper effective
interpersonal communication.
Ethnocentrism

Ethnocentrism is the belief that your own group or culture is superior to all other
groups or cultures. In ethnocentrism, you use your own culture as the measure that
others are expected to meet. Cultural relativism is the belief that another culture should
be judged by its own context rather than measured against your culture. To
communicate effectively with people from different cultures, you need to accept
people whose values and norms may be different from your own. An effective
communicator avoids ethnocentrism and embraces cultural relativism.

Stereotyping

Ethnocentrism is not the only perceptual trap you can fall into in intercultural
communication. Equally dangerous is the tendency to stereotype people in cultural
and co-cultural groups. Rogers and Steinfatt (1999) define a stereotype as “a
generalization about some group of people that oversimplifies their culture.” The
stereotype of a gay male is an effeminate fellow, but gay people are just as likely to be
truckers, physicians and athletes.

Sometimes stereotyping occurs because people have had a negative or positive

experience with a person from another culture or co-culture. In one investigation,
people stereotyped black people after only one observation of a negative behaviour.
In another, simply hearing about an alleged crime was sufficient to stereotype blacks
(Henderson-King & Nisbett, 1996). Clearly, people are willing to stereotype with little
evidence.

Prejudice

While ethnocentrism is thinking your culture is better than others and stereotyping
is acting as if all members of a group are alike, prejudice is a negative attitude toward
a group of people just because they are who they are. Often the groups on the
receiving end of prejudice are marginalized groups—people in poverty, people of
color, people who speak a language other than English, gay men and lesbian
women—but sometimes the group receiving the prejudice is actually larger than the
group that exhibits the prejudice.

Characteristics of Different Cultures

1. Individualistic Versus Collectivist Culture

Individualistic cultures value individual freedom, choice, uniqueness, and

independence. These cultures place “I” before “we” and value competition over
cooperation, private property over public or state owned property, personal behaviour
over group behaviour, and individual opinion over what anyone else might think.

Collectivist cultures, on the other hand, value the group over the individual.
These collectivist cultures place “we” before “I” and value commitment to family, tribe,
and clan; their people tend to be loyal to spouse, employer, community, and country.
Collectivist cultures value cooperation over competition, and group-defined social
norms and duties over personal opinions. An ancient Confucian saying captures the
spirit of collectivist cultures: “If one wants to establish himself, he should help others to
establish themselves first.”

2. M-Time Versus P-Time

M-time, or monochronic time schedule, compartmentalizes time to meet

personal needs, separates task and social dimensions, and points to the future (Ting-
Toomey, 1997). M- Time is dominant in Canada, the United States, and Northern
Europe. These cultures see time as something that can be compartmentalized, wasted,
or saved.

P-time, or polychromic time schedule views time as contextually based and

relationally oriented (Ting-Tooney, 1997, p. 395). For P-time cultures, time is not saved or
wasted; instead, time is only one factor in a much larger and more complicated
context.

3. High-Context vs. Low-Context

All international communication is influenced by cultural differences. Even the

choice of communication medium can have cultural overtones. The determining factor
may not be the degree of industrialization, but rather whether the country falls into a
high-context or low-context culture (Goman, 2011). High-context cultures leave much
of the message unspecified, to be understood through context, nonverbal cues, and
between-the-lines interpretation of what is actually said. By contrast, low-context
cultures expect messages to be explicit and specific.

4. Affective vs. Neutral

In international business practices, reason and emotion both play a role. Which
of these dominates depends upon whether we are affective (readily showing
emotions) or emotionally neutral in our approach. Members of neutral cultures do not
telegraph their feelings, but keep them carefully controlled and subdued. In cultures
with high affect, people show their feelings plainly by laughing, smiling, grimacing,
scowling, and sometimes crying, shouting, or walking out of the room.

5. Non-verbal Cultural Differences in Communication

 Our knowledge on nonverbal communication is invaluable. It helps us to be
conscious of messages that we may send in face-to-face setting.

Nonverbal Cultural Differences

The table below further shows some differences in nonverbal communication in some
countries.

Hand gestures Hand sign for “OK” In Tunisia the “OK” sign
characterized by touching means zero, like a person is
the forefinger and thumb nothing. In Greece it is an
together can mean a obscenity.
situation or person is In Turkey, men sometimes
satisfactory in North hold hands as a sign of
America. friendship. The Japanese
avoid touching as a
greeting, including shaking
hands, and prefer the
traditional bow.

Eye contact Direct eye contact in In Japan and some other

North America shows Eastern cultures, direct eye
interest and attention. contact can signal
disrespect, aggression, or
an invasion of privacy.
Physical Space In North American culture, In some South American
standing in close proximity cultures, close physical
can be uncomfortable proximity can show
because this space is often connection and comfort,
reserved for intimates. whether or not the person
is an intimate.

Tips for Effective Communication with Diverse Workplace Audiences

1. Understand the value of differences.

2. Don’t expect conformity.
3. Practice focused, thoughtful and open-minded listening.
4. Invite, use, and give feedback.
5. Make fewer assumptions.
6. Learn about your cultural self.
7. Learn about other cultures and identity groups.
8. Seek common grounds.

Strategies for Improving Intercultural Communication

 Having some strategies in advance will prepare you for new situations with
people from other cultures and co-cultures and will increase your confidence in your
ability to communicate effectively with a variety of people.

1. Conduct a personal self-assessment. How do your own attitudes toward different

cultures and co-cultures influence your communication with them?

2. Practice supportive communication behaviors. Supportive behaviors, such as

empathy, encourage success in intercultural exchanges; defensive behaviors
tend to hamper effectiveness.

3. Develop sensitivity toward diversity. One healthy communication perspective

holds that you can learn something from all people. Diverse populations provide
ample opportunity for learning. Take the time to learn about other cultures and
co-cultures before a communication situation.

4. Avoid stereotypes. Avoid making assumptions about another’s culture, and get
to know individuals for themselves.

5. Avoid ethnocentrism. You may know your own culture the best, but familiarity
does not make your culture superior to all others. You will learn more about the
strengths and weaknesses of your own culture by learning more about other
cultures.

6. Develop code sensitivity. Code sensitivity refers to the ability to use the verbal
and nonverbal language appropriate to the cultural or co-cultural norms of the
individual with whom you are communicating. The more you know about
another’s culture, the better you will be at adapting.

7. Seek shared codes. A key ingredient in establishing shared codes is being open-
minded about differences while you determine which communication style to
adopt during intercultural communication.

8. Use and encourage descriptive feedback. Effective feedback encourages

adaption and is crucial in intercultural communication. Both participants should
be willing to accept feedback and exhibit supportive behaviours. Feedback
should be immediate, honest, specific, and clear.

9. Open communication channels. Intercultural communication can be frustrating.

One important strategy to follow during such interactions is to be patient as you
seek mutual understanding.
 10. Manage conflicting beliefs and practices. Think ahead about how you might
handle minor and major differences, from everyday behaviour to seriously
different practices like punishments, realities, and beliefs.

Language plays an important role in achieving a more effective communication.

Using appropriate terms also avoids conflicts and misunderstanding. Study the table
below.

Gender biased Bias- free

female doctor, woman attorney, doctor, attorney, cleaner
cleaning woman
waiter/waitress, authoress, stewardess server, author, flight attendant
mankind, man-hour, man-made humanity, working hours, artificial
office girls office workers
the doctor . . . he doctors . . . they
the teacher . . . she teachers . . . they
executives and their wives executives and their spouses
foreman, flagman, workman lead worker, flagger, worker
businessman, salesman businessperson, sales representative
Each employee had his picture taken. Each employee had a picture taken. All
employees had their pictures taken. Each
employee had his or her picture taken.
Racially or Ethnically Biased Bias- free
An Indian accountant was hired. An accountant was hired.
James Lee, an African American, James Lee applied.
applied.

Age Biased Bias -free

The law applied to old people. The law applied to people over sixty-five.
Sally Kay, 55, was transferred. Sally Kay was transferred.
a spry old gentleman a man
a little old lady a woman
Disability Biased Bias -free
afflicted with arthritis, suffering from . . ., has arthritis
crippled by . . .
confined to a wheelchair uses a wheelchair

Questions for Discussion

1. To which culture do you belong? Describe some of its characteristics, then

examine how it differs from other cultures.
2. Consider the cultural characteristics discussed. Which culture do you identify
with most of prefer?
3. What is the implication of a diverse workplace environment?
4. How can your own cultural experiences affect your performance at work?
5. To what extent does cultural relativism or ethnocentrism affect you?
ASSESSMENT

Your Task: Consider how such differences could affect the communication, for
instance, between an interviewer and a job candidate. If negatively, how could the
differences and barriers be overcome? Role-play or discuss a potential job interview
conversation between the following individuals. After a while summarize your findings,
either orally or in writing:

a. A female top executive is interviewing a prospective future assistant, who is male.

b. A candidate with a strong but not disruptive foreign accent is being interviewed by a
native-born human resources manager.

c. A manager dressed in a conventional business suit is interviewing a person wearing a

turban.

d. A person over fifty is being interviewed by a hiring manager in his early thirties.

e. A recruiter who can walk is interviewing a job seeker using a whe

Dimensions of Culture

Dutch management researcher Geert Hofstede studied more than 100,000 IBM employees in 40 countries
to determine the value dimensions across which cultures vary. His work continues to be widely used in a
variety of disciplines and has been accepted by many as being helpful in
understanding cultural values.

Hofstede identified four dimensions that he labeled individualism, masculinity, power distance, and
uncertainty avoidance. The individualism-collectivism dimension describes relationships between the
individual and the group. The masculinity-femininity dimension describes how a culture's
dominant values are assertive or nurturing. Power distance refers to the distribution of influence within a
culture. And uncertainty avoidance reflects a culture's tolerance of ambiguity and acceptance of risk.

Later, a fifth dimension was added: long-term orientation versus short-term orientation to life. This
dimension describes cultures that range from short-term values with respect for tradition and reciprocity in
social relations to long-term values with persistence and ordering relationships by status. And recently a
sixth dimension was added: indulgence versus restraint, which deals with the gratification of human
desires.

The Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner dimensions based on 46,000 managers in 40 countries are
presented as a contrast to the Hofstede dimensions. Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner identified seven
dimensions: universalism versus particularism (rules versus relationships), individualism versus
communitarianism (the individual versus the group), specific versus diffuse, neutral versus emotional,
achievement versus ascription, sequential time versus synchronous time, internal direction versus outer
direction.

Recently, studies have attempted to correlate the Hofstede dimensions to environmental concerns. A
relationship between power distance and masculinity has been shown to be a predictor of environmental
performance. A new measure, the Environmental Performance Index, was developed to use environmental
outcome-oriented indicators.

While some assume that Japan is a collectivist culture, it actually ranks near the middle on that dimension.
Japan can be better understood as a homogeneous country. That belief is reflected in history, religion,
cultural patterns, and communication style. A second case study presents Singapore as a culture that has
balanced Confucian values with an individualistic capitalist economy.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. List and describe examples of each of the Hofstede dimensions in our university.
2. Explain how one can use the Hofstede dimensions without stereotyping.
3. Compare the homogeneity in Japan with multicultural countries such as the United States. What
important communication challenges become clear?
4.Reading Activity
Explain how homogeneity can be related to the concept of high- and low-context cultures.
Writing Task: Write an argumentative essay on globalization. Use 250 words.

Speaking Activity: Conduct a debate on any of the following topics. Observe proper turn- taking and use
phrases in expressing opinions and arguments. Support your arguments with evidences

a. Globalization causes increased inequality

b. Globalization reduces poverty

Listening Activity: Watch the video clip on stereotyping from this site:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DWynJkN5HbQ. Observe how the speakers could have avoided
stereotyping in their conversation

Vocabulary: a. Create a concept map on globalization

b. List 10 collocations related to argumentation. Construct sentences using these

collocations.

Question 1
2 / 2 pts
Which sentence uses the idiom correctly?

To play this game well, you have to be in good shape.

Question 2
2 / 2 pts
Which sentence uses the idiom correctly?

My mother is old, but she is as fit as a fiddle.

Question 3
2 / 2 pts
Which sentence uses the idiom correctly?

The winner of the body building competition is a gym rat.

Question 4
2 / 2 pts
Which sentence uses the idiom correctly?

The actor who played Wolverine had to get ripped to fit the role.

Question 5
2 / 2 pts
Which sentence uses the idiom correctly?

She ran a marathon to prove that she is still alive and kicking.

Question 6
2 / 2 pts
Which sentence uses the word appropriately?

The flamboyant actress loves to wear diamond-studded gowns.

Question 7
2 / 2 pts
Which sentence uses the word appropriately?

Being seated most of the time is considered a sedentary lifestyle.

Question 8
2 / 2 pts
Which sentence uses the word appropriately?
The cruise ship offers sumptuous banquets.

Question 9
2 / 2 pts
Which sentence uses the word appropriately?

The sunny weather made it propitious for walking.

Question 10
2 / 2 pts
Which sentence uses the word appropriately?

The technician has a fastidious attention to detail.

Question 11
2 / 2 pts
Which sentence uses the word appropriately?

His indulgent parents gave him everything he wanted.

Question 12
2 / 2 pts
Which sentence uses the word appropriately?

The citizens criticized the ostentatious lifestyle of their leaders.

Question 13
2 / 2 pts
Which sentence uses the word appropriately?
Some politicians are known for their profligate spending habits.

Question 14
2 / 2 pts
Which sentence uses the word appropriately?

Some people look innocuous but are actually vile.

Question 15
2 / 2 pts
Which sentence uses the word appropriately?

That is a city known for its wild, hedonistic nightlife.