Q4 Chemistry 9 Reviewer

Intermolecular Forces of Attraction- the forces that hold the compounds and molecules together. Through them, a
compound or molecule is able to change its phase depending on the existing condition

SUBSTANCES BASED ON POLARITY

1. Electronegativity difference (DEN)- if the DEN is less than 0.5 then the bond is nonpolar; otherwise, it will be
polar (if there are two nonmetals) or ionic (if it consists of metal + nonmetal).
2. Distribution of polarity- if the distribution of polarity is symmetrically away from the central atom, even if
the bonds are polar, the whole molecule will become nonpolar.

TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

1. LONDON DISPERSION- A type of van der Waal’s force; weakest type; due to instantaneous dipoles in
molecules; exists in all molecules.
2. DIPOLE-DIPOLE- Relatively stronger than LDF but weaker than other types; due to partial charge; exists in
polar molecules
3. HYDROGEN BONDING- A special case of dipoledipole; stronger than other dipole-dipole interaction; due to
large electronegativity difference between hydrogen and another elecctronegative element such as the N, O
and F.
4. ION-DIPOLE INTERACTION- Stronger than dipole interactions; due to ions interacting with partially charged
molecules; exists in electrolytic (ionic) solutions.

INTERMOLECULAR FORCES ON LIQUID PROPERTIES

1. SURFACE TENSION This is the cohesive force exerted upon the surface of a liquid by underlying molecules.
Stronger attractive force leads to stronger surface tension.
2. VISCOSITY This is the resistance of a liquid substance to flow. Stronger attractive force leads to more viscous
liquid. Viscosity is inversely related to temperature.
3. FLUIDITY This is the ability of a substance to flow. Weaker attractive force leads to more fluid substance.
Fluidity is directly related to temperature.
4. BOILING POINT This is the temperature and pressure required for a liquid to become vapour. Stronger
intermolecular force leads to higher boiling point.
5. VAPOR PRESSURE This is the pressure exerted by the gas upon a solid or liquid in a closed container. Weaker
attractive force leads to higher vapour pressure.
6. HEAT OF VAPORIZATION This is the amount of energy to be added in a liquid for it to become vapour.
Stronger attractive force leads to higher enthalpy of vaporization.

INTERACTION IN SOLIDS

CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS- Crystalline solids have repetitive orderly internal molecular arrangement that can be observed
microscopically and macroscopically. This repetitive internal structure (fractals) also leads to flat faces in crystals.

AMORPHOUS SOLIDS- have random, irregular internal molecular arrangement. When amorphous solids are broken,
it will produce fragments with irregular surfaces (fracture).

TYPES OF CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS

1. COVALENT CRYSTALS- The crystal lattices are held by true covalent bond; hence, a covalent crystal is
technically a big molecule; extremely high melting point; diamond, 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 , transition metal oxides
2. IONIC CRYSTALS- The crystal lattices are made of ions which are held by electrostatic force (Coulomb force);
high melting point; Sodium chloride and other ionic salts
3. METALLIC CRYSTALS- Individual metal atoms sit on lattice and are held by true metallic bond. Electrons can
freely move in the lattice; high melting point; all metals.
4. MOLECULAR CRYSTALS- The crystal lattices are made of covalent compounds which are held by London
dispersion or dipole-dipole; low melting point; all organic crystals (e.g., sugar), ice
CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTION

Solution- a type of homogenous mixture which consists of solute (the one that is being dissolved) and solvent (the
one that dissolves). The primary differences between the solution, colloid and suspension lie in the nature and the
size of their components

Classification of Solutions

1. Physical State- Solutions can be solid (such as brass and bronze), liquid (such as coffee and mineral water)
and gaseous (such as the air)
2. Saturation or Solubility Limit- Solutions can be unsaturated (less than solubility limit), saturated (almost
equal to solubility limit) or supersaturated (more than solubility limit)
3. Concentration- Solutions can be concentrated if it contains large amount of solute in a given solvent or
dilute if it contains relatively small amount of solute in a given solvent

Concentration of Solution--tells the amount of solute dissolved in solution

Dilution is directly proportional to the volume of the solution but inversely proportional to its concentration.
Factors Affecting Solubility

1. Nature of Solute and Solvent- “Like dissolves like”- polar solutes will dissolve only in polar solvents and
nonpolar solutes will dissolve only in nonpolar solvents.
2. Temperature- The solubility of solid in a liquid increases with temperature; however, the solubility of gas in
a liquid decreases with temperature.
3. Pressure- No effect for solid and liquid; the solubility of gas in liquid increases as the partial pressure above
the liquid increases (Henry’s Law)(Ex: opening softdrink)

Colligative Properties- are properties of a solution which depend on solution concentration. Colligative properties
change as the concentration of the solution changes.

Colligative Properties

1. Boling Point Elevation- The boiling point elevation of a solution is directly proportional to its molality (∆𝑇𝐵 =
𝐾𝐵 • m)
2. Freezing Point Depression- The freezing point depression of a solution is directly proportional to its molality
(∆𝑇𝐹 = 𝐾𝐹 • 𝑚)
3. Osmotic Pressure- Osmotic pressure is the pressure needed to prevent osmosis. It is directly proportional to
the molarity of solution (𝜋 = 𝑀𝑅𝑇)
4. Vapor Pressure Lowering- Raoult’s Law states that the vapour pressure lowering is directly proportional to
the mole fraction of the solute (∆𝑃 = 𝑃° • 𝛘 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒)

Thermodynamics is a classical branch of Physics that deals with energy, work and heat in a system and how do the
aforesaid quantities affect a matter.

Thermochemistry is a branch of Chemistry that deals with energy, work and heat in a chemical reaction or phase
change and how do the aforesaid quantities affect the reaction or phase change.

LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS

1. 0th Law- If two bodies are in thermal equilibrium with the third body, then the two bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with each other (i.e., if A=C and B=C, then A=B)
2. 1 st Law- a.k.a Law of conservation of energy; energy cannot be created nor destroyed. the internal energy
of a closed system is equal to the heat delivered into or out of a system, plus the work done on or by the
system [∆𝐸 = 𝑄 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 + 𝑊 (𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘)]
3. 2 nd Law- a.k.a Law of Entropy; entropy is the measure of disorderliness of a system or more technically, it
is the measure of a system's thermal energy that is unavailable for doing work per unit temperature.
According to this law, in any spontaneous process, the entropy (S) is always increasing (∆𝑆𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 > 0)
 4. 3 rd Law- a.k.a Nernst heat theorem; absolute zero is the theoretically lowest possible temperature where
molecules cease to move. This is equivalent to -273.15 °C or 0 K. According to this law, the entropy of a pure
crystalline substance at absolute zero is also zero (∆𝑆−273.15 𝐶 = 0)

ENTHALPY- is the sum of the internal energy (U) and the work done by a system (𝑯 = 𝑼 + 𝑾 or 𝑯 = 𝑼 + 𝑷𝑽). When
work is done, the enthalpy changes and the evidence for this change is the heat released by the system. Positive ∆𝑯
means the process is endothermic (gains heat) while negative ∆𝑯 means that the process is exothermic (loses heat)

ENDOTHERMIC VS. EXOTHERMIC

Endothermic- A type of reaction that happens when there is an overall gain of heat (i.e., the ∆𝑯 is positive).
Endothermic reaction favors a nonspontaneous reaction in which products are not formed under a given set of
conditions (e.g., photosynthesis, cooking, baking, cold pack)

Exothermic- A type of reaction that happens when there is an overall loss of heat (i.e., the ∆𝑯 is negative).
Exothermic reaction favors a spontaneous reaction in which products are immediately and continuously formed
under a given set of conditions (e.g., fermentation, cell respiration, wood burning, hot pack)

ENTROPY- is the measure of a system's thermal energy that is unavailable for doing work per unit temperature. One
can say that entropy is a measure of energy dispersal at a certain temperature. Positive ∆𝑺 means the process is
more disordered while negative ∆𝑺 means that the process is less disordered. Nature tends to go with +∆𝑺 .

FACTORS AFFECTING ENTROPY

1. Temperature- As temperature increases, the entropy also increases as molecules would move more
randomly in higher temperature.
2. Phase- Gases have the highest entropy among the three phases of matter since gas molecules can move
freely as compared to liquids and solids.
3. Number of particle- The higher the number of particle is, the more the system becomes entropic as there
would be more possible arrangements of position and thermal energy (i.e., microstate) if there are more
particles.

Less Disordered- A type of reaction that happens when there is an overall decrease of thermal energy dispersal (i.e.,
the ∆𝑺 is negative). Less disordered reaction favors a nonspontaneous reaction in which products are not formed
under a given set of conditions (e.g., photosynthesis, cooking, baking, cold pack)

More Disordered- A type of reaction that happens when there is an overall increase of thermal energy dispersal (i.e.,
the ∆𝑺 is positive). More disordered reaction favors a spontaneous reaction in which products are immediately and
continuously formed under a given set of conditions (e.g., fermentation, cell respiration, wood burning, hot pack)

STANDARD-STATE ENTROPY- the entropy of formation under the normal room temperature (298.15 K) and 1-bar
pressure.

GIBBS’ FREE ENERGY- s the system's thermodynamic potential energy that enables that system to do work at
constant pressure and volume. During a chemical reaction or phase change, the Gibbs’ free energy of the system
also changes and the evidence for this change is the overall spontaneity of the event. Positive ∆𝑮 means the process
is endergonic (nonspontaneous) while negative ∆𝑮 means that the process is exergonic (spontaneous).

Endergonic Reactions- A type of reaction that happens when there is an overall absorption of free energy (i.e., the
∆𝑮 is positive). Positive change in Gibbs free energy means the reaction is nonspontaneous where products are not
formed under a given set of conditions and needs an input of extra energy (e.g., photosynthesis, cooking, baking,
electrolysis)

Exergonic Reactions- A type of reaction that happens when there is an overall release of free energy (i.e., the ∆𝑮 is
negative). Negative change in Gibbs free energy means the reaction is spontaneous where products are
immediately and continuously formed under a given set of conditions (e.g., fermentation, cell respiration, wood
burning, hot pack)