CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

In this chapter the researcher discusses some theories related to the

research. There are some theories, which require careful and perceptive reading,

and attention to detail discusses on the review of the literature. This chapter

contains about some referents ideas, some pertinent ideas and conceptual

framework.

A. Theoritical Review

1. Some Concepts of Vocabulary

a. Definition of Vocabulary

According to Widyawati (2010), vocabulary is the total number

of words, which make up the language. It can be defined, roughly, as

the words we teach in the foreign language.

Richards (2016) says that vocabulary is one of the components of

language and one of the first things applied linguists turned their

attention to.

Meanwhile, Mukoroli(2011) defines vocabulary is a set of

words that are the basic building blocks used in the generation and

understanding of sentences.

b. Kinds of Vocabulary

According to Munir, there are two kinds of vocabulary (Munir,

2012:12):

5
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a) Active vocabulary

Active vocabulary is used by students in oral and written

expressions. The words that students understand are quite good,

they use these words effectively, both in speaking and writing

b) Passive vocabulary

Passive vocabulary depends on the words that are reached

by students in a context that helps them remember the meaning of

the word. Students usually increase passive vocabulary while

listening and reading material

From the statement above, the types of vocabulary can be

divided into two, namely active and passive vocabulary. Active

vocabulary is used during speaking and writing skills. Then passive

vocabulary is used in listening and reading skills. Meanwhile, Rahmah

(2016) cleans vocabulary in two, based on its functional categories,

namely: main class and closed class.

1) Major Classes

a) Noun: it means that to a person, place or thing, i.e. Maria, park,

book, etc.

b) Adjective: it means that the words that give information about a

noun or pronoun, i.e. kind, smart, beautiful, bad, ugly, etc.

c) Verb: it means that the words that denote action, i.e. walk, read,

smile, eat, run, etc.

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d) Adverb: it means that the words that describe or add to the

meaning of a verb, adjective, another adverb or a whole

sentence, i.e. carefully, diligently, honestly, etc.

2) Closed Classes

a) Pronoun: it means that nouns that have already been mentioned,

i.e. she, they, he, etc.

b) Preposition: it means that the words that help locate items and

actions in time and space, i.e. at, on, beside, under, between,

etc.

c) Conjunction: it means that the words that connect sentences,

phrases or clause, i.e. and, so, but, etc.

c. The Problem of Vocabulary

According to Girsang&Lubis (2014:56), There are several

compelling reasons why the vocabulary component of a language

course should be planned with a heartbeat. First, because other

vocabularies provide very different results for learning, it is important

to ensure that students have good control over high-frequency

language words before belonging to a more constant vocabulary.

Second, it is more difficult that most language building courses are

more difficult because of the way the vocabulary is ordered in the

course. Groups, opposites, synonyms and articles in a series of lexical

courses. The disease that leads to student confusion is a simple matter

of preventing this problem. Third, the ability to learn vocabulary, and

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the quality of vocabulary learning can be significantly improved by

careful design, both vocabulary and other skills. Many problems focus

Indonesian students on languages like English in vocabulary, not

understanding the relationship between the new vocabulary you have

learned and the vocabulary function, you cannot use your new

vocabulary in mind for communication. . The terms used to classify

words based on functional categories are referred to as subsets of

language. Classification of language words in this way depends on

their function in communication. Independent nouns can occur in

certain places in a sentence and have certain functions. Verbs,

adjectives and abilities are also in certain speech in a sentence and

have a special function. In English, the functional category contains

pronouns and fun words. A noun is a member of a word class that can

work on a topic or object in a structure, looking at a body, animal,

thing, state, or quality. A verb is a member of a member class, which

can act as an essential element of a predicate, usually specifying an

action, state or relationship between two things. Adjectives are words

that are used to fulfill independent nouns or pronouns. Description is a

word that matches a verb, adjective or other instruction.

d. Methods in Teaching Vocabulary

Theoretical methods regarding design are governed by design

and are practically realized in procedures. This method is a language

formation plan that fits the theory. In other words, the procedure is
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procedural. Heineich also stated that there are categories of general

methods of teaching in lessons in lessons as follows (Munir, 2012: 19):

1) Presentation

In the presentation method, the source is in formation to

find out, dramatize, or reverse . It is a single-use communication

controlled by a source without an immediate response.

2) Demonstration

In this teaching method, students see something that is real

or alive. Demonstrations can be included and played with media

such as video.

3) Discussion

As a method, discussion involves the exchange of ideas and

opinions between students or between students and teachers. Can

be used in small or large groups.

4) Practice and Practice

In practice and practice, students are carried out with a

number of diverted exercises to increase fluency in a new skill or

extension ability. To be effective, exercises and exercises must

contain feedback to reinforce correct answers and correct mistakes

students may make on their way.

5) Tutorials

Tutorials usually last from a single one and are often used

to teach basic skills such as reading and counting.

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6) Cooperative Learning

Criticism of competitive learning strongly urges a focus on

cooperative learning as a method of assertion. They claim that

students must develop and learn in the workplace, because the

workplace ultimately requires teamwork.

7) Game play from

Offers a fun environment where students follow set rules

while trying to achieve demanding goals. This game can be a way

for students to be active students.

8) Stimulation

Stimulation includes providing students with regular

versions of real-life situations. Simulation may refer to participant

dialogue, manipulation of materials and devices or interaction with

a computer.

9) Discovery

Discovery methods with inductive learning or research

approaches, presenting problems that must be solved by traps and

builds.

10) Troubleshooting

Life Sickness can provide a starting point for learning. As

part of wrestling with real challenges, students can receive real-

world knowledge and skills after graduation.

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From the above statement, there are various methods of

teaching vocabulary, such as games, exercises, and exercises;

Discussion etc. Each method has its strengths and weaknesses.

Therefore, the teacher must choose a method that suits the

characteristics of the students.

2. Some Concepts of Reading

a. Definition of Reading

According to Nunan (2014:50), Reading is a set of skill which

need comprehension in determining or finding out the making of sense

and meaning from the printed word and also ability in decoding (sound

out) the printed word.

Alderson (2015) says that Reading is about understanding

written texts. It is a complex activity with perception and thinking.

Reading consists of two related processes; Introduction and

understanding of the word. Word recognition refers to the process of

understanding how written symbols correspond to one's oral language.

Insight is the process of understanding words, sentences and texts.

Meanwhile, Nurainun (2017) defines reading is defined as

getting information from the text and interpretation. In other words,

reading is the ability to draw from the printed text and interpret the

information appropriately.
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b. Types of Reading

According to Brown (2011), in the case of reading, variety of

performance is derived more from the multiplicity of types of texts

than from the variety of overt types of performance. These are various

assessment tasks:

1) Perspectives: increased attention to broader discourse components.

2) Selectives: To ensure one's reading recognition of lexical,

grammatical or language disc functions, in a very short language

area, certain typical tasks are used: picturale tugaughher, match,

right/wrong, multiple choice, etc.

3) Interactives: including the species of interactive reading is a piece

of language from a paragraph that differs on one or more sides of

the reader in psycholinguistic feelings, interaction with the text.

The focus of the interactive task is to explain identifying the

relevant functions in the text to get the information received.

4) Extendeds: Applies to more than one-sided texts up to and

including professional articles, essays, technical reports, short

stories and books. The goal is to use students' global

understanding of the text that does not require test takers to raise

small details.

Meanwhile, Grabe (2013) mentioned that three kinds of genres

of reading such as:

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1) Academic reading

a) General interest article (examples, magazines, newspapers,

etc).

b) Technicals reports examples, lap reports), professional journal

articles.

c) Reference materials (example, dictionaries, etc).

d) Textbook and theses.

e) Essay and papers.

f) Test and direction.

g) Editorial, and opinions of writing.

2) Job-related reading

a) Message (examples, phone messages).

b) Letter/email.

c) Memo (example, interoffice).

d) Report (examples, job evaluation, project reports).

e) Schedule, label, sign, and announcement.

f) Form, application, and questionnaire.

g) Financial of documents (bills, invoices, etc).

h) Directories (telephones, office, etc).

i) Manual and direction.

3) Personal reading

a) Newspaper and magazine.

b) Letter, email, greeting card, invitation.

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c) Message, note, list.

d) Schedule (train, bus, plane, etc).

e) Recipe, menu, map, and calender.

f) Advertisement (commercial, want ads).

g) Novel, short story, joke, drama, poetry.

h) Financial document (examples, checks, tax forms, loan

applications).

i) Form, questionnaire, medical report, immigration documents,

comic strip, cartoon.

c. Micro and Macro Skills for Reading

Black & William (2012) states lists Micro and macro readings

as follows:

1) Micro ability to read

a) Divide between typical graphic graphics and English

orthographic patterns.

b) Maintain another length of language piece in a short period of

time.

c) The process of writing at an efficient speed according to the

purpose.) recognize core words and interpret word patterns

and meanings.

d) Detection of grammatical words (substantive independent,

verbs, etc.), systems (eg, tense, agreement, pluralization)

patterns, rules and elliptical forms.

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e) Recognizing that certain meanings can be expressed in

different grammatical forms.

f) Dealing with coherent devices in unintelligible writing and

their role in signifying the relationship between and between

clauses

2) Macro ability to read

a) They recognize the rhetorical form of discrincation and its

meaning for interpretation.

b) Recognize the communicative function of the written text

according to its form and for the purpose.

c) Concludes that the context does not explicitly use background

knowledge.

d) From the described events, IDEs, etc., infer relationships and

relationships between events, infer causes and consequences

and acknowledge relationships such as the most important

ideas, idea support, new information, information,

generalizations, and examples.

e) Distinguishes between the importance of literal and implicit

meanings.

f) Detecting specific cultural references and interpreting them in

the correct cultural setting.

g) Develop and use a series of reading strategies, such as: B.

Scanning and skimming, hopelessness detection,

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recommendation of the meaning of words from context and

activation of text interpretation schemes.

3. Some Concepts of Context Clues

a. Definition of Context Clues

Context instructions are instructions for unknown words or

phrases in words or sentences in sentences. Schmitt and McCarthy say

it is more efficient to issue lessons on contextual guessing strategies

(Almunawaroh, 2016).

b. Types of Context Clues

According to Almunawaroh (2016), types of context clues

strategy in discussing the contextual clues, Joffe gives four types of

contextual clues that are quite common that then will be studied in this

research, namely:

1) Synonym. It is the sentence uses a similar word to help explain the

meaning of the vocabulary word. Synonym used in the sentences.

My opponent sargumentis fallacious, misleadings, and plain

wrong.

2) Antonym. It is a word or group of words that has the opposites

meaning reveals the meanings of an unknown words. Although

some men are loquacious, others hardly talks at all.

3) Explanation. It is the unknowns words is explained within the

sentences or in a sentences immidiately preceding.

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4) Example. It is specifics of examples are used to define the words.

The four types of contextual clues above; synonyms, antonyms,

explanations, and examples are can be clues the students in

determining of meaning of difficults words in the texts.

c. Kinds of Context Clues

According to Sasmita (2013), There are types of context clues,

it means that definitions, examples, causes and effects, contrasts,

restatement and modifiers.

1. Definitions or direct explanation

Definitions or direct explanation are the simplest

identifiable instructions and the most commonly used manuals.

Some writers direct the word by giving other synonyms with the

same meaning; Others say that the meaning of words used with

signal words, such as (one), which is defined as acres, is referred to

as a resource. The next item can be defined formally in the

following sentence or sentences or a sufficient explanation.

Instructions for definition include "ie" commas, hyphens and

parentheses. For example:

a) the scenery is like a frame, very scary to look at. "Appearance

as a frame" is the definition of "thin".

b) Fluoroscopy, fluoroscope inspection, has become a common

practice. The commas before and before "study with a

fluoroscope" indicate the definition of "fluoroscopy".

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c) The dolls found in Irish folklore are briefly packaged. The

"short-term toner" split line represents the definition of "Guy".

2. Examples

Sometimes, if readers come across new words, you can find

examples in your area to help explain their meaning. Words like,

how, and, for example, example instructions. Often the author is an

example related to the word to clarify. Sometimes examples are

used to show characteristics or events that illustrate the meaning of

the word. Signals like likes. Example:

a) Pisacatorial creatures, such as bone, salmon, and trout, live in

the coldest parts of the ocean. "Pisacatorial" with reference to

fish.

b) Students can be divided into many criteria, for example. B.

Random sample, ability, friendship and interest.

c) There are many skills and strategies that should help students

write texts in English, such as skimming, searching for specific

information, interpreting signals, pictures, synthetics, counters

or predictions, as well as inference and subtraction.

d) If a student is asked as a question about certain events that have

occurred, knowledge of the words of the first description, then

finally, etc. proud.

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e) With regard to the geographical basis, natural boundaries such

as rivers and mountains have determined the boundaries of the

country's territory.

f) Biological basis related to physical properties, such as skin

color, eye shape, nose, mouth, etc.

3. Contrasts

Contrasts or antonyms are words that have opposite

meanings. Clues to context of opposite meanings to distinguish the

importance of unknown words from the sense of well-known

terms. Words as "though", "but" and "but" can define contrasting

names, for example:

a) Although most experts agree with the results of the study,

they do not agree.

b) I'm sure the hotel maintains our reservation, but if you have

any doubts contact me to make sure.

c) Spokespeople condemn certain laws, but praise other reforms.

d) Some wealthy city dwellers; Another life in or near poverty.

e) Art always talks a lot, but ED is usually quiet.

f) Although we have found, we found that an old man lives

there.
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4. Causes and effects

The author explains the reason or result of the word. Words

like "because", "there", ", so", so ", so", so ", so can set context

instructions. for example:

a) Mary's eyes hurt for almost a week, so Decided her mother to

take her to the occult.

b) Joe tore off his jacket, so his sister has done it.

c) If psychological balance is not developed, treatment is very

difficult to achieve. prevention is the best methodology to look

for.

d) Computers are very expensive, so we can't afford them.

e) The first multi-word languages are not easy to identify because

it is difficult to distinguish between having any words.

f) His father died in front of five classes, as a result of all the

responsibility for raising the children, the responsibility fell to

his mother.

5) Restatement/ synonym clues

The readers discover the meaning of unfamiliar words as

they repeatedly present ideas in the area. Synonyms are words that

have the same meaning. Words and expressions like you, like or in

other words, that is, draw, commas, brackets and dashes indicate

statements. for example:

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a) Mountain trails are trails of coats, wraps and mandia as snakes

around trees on mountain slopes. "My suit means"wrap and

twirl".

b) Teachers also learn culture (community ideas and beliefs)

c) Students who prepare information; in other words, they learn

and remember rules and facts. 444 (d) From here, the key is

that ijtihad (intellectual implementation) is required on the site

of the slave episode to fight.

d) Our communication or messaging is not only a second

language teacher, but also in our daily life in whatever

language we speak.

e) Awareness of subtle massage body language, supplied by

gestures, hand movements, smiles is one of the many

opportunities to improve communication for adults.

6) Modifiers

Unknown words with sentences or clauses. Bonds or

clauses change words. Example:

a) People who cannot read or write illiterate often, often

b) As a read component, acting as a stable transition as the server

part of a larger system, where each part of the order is

relatively unaffected.

c) Common words, usually spoken and printed, are of

Anglosaxon heritage.
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d) Letter Spelling consonants are almost unchanged that each

letter represents a sound.

e) This discrepancy (more Rauscher as a letter) will be at the

beginning of the development of English writing with (a) with

(a), with two-letter marks, and (b), with alternative

instructions or curses,

d. The Procedure of Context Clues Strategy

According to Innaci& Sam (2017), Thereare some procedure of

context clues based on Gebhard and Thornbury, followed:

1) The author offers a text based on the topic of the book.

2) The writer asks the students to read the text once and to circle the

unknown words without looking at the meaning in the dictionary.

3) The author represents the students to determine the part of the

utterance of the unknown words and look for further instructions

from the word kolimeless, if it is a noun, it has an article, and if it

is a verb, it is an object ?

4) The author asks students to display broader context guides, such as

synonyms, antonyms, examples and punctuation marks, which are

usually preceded or followed by pointers, but for example.

5) The writer asks students to guess the meaning of unknown words

6) The students received vocabulary exercises on the context guide

test.

7) Writing confirms and discusses students' correct answers.

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e. Teaching Vocabulary through context

According to Sari (2007), experiments show that when

teaching “new vocabulary”, we teach in the context of new items.

However, for high students, have the opportunity to handle words out

of context. Kruse (in Nunan) makes five proposals for teaching written

vocabulary in context:

1. Word elements such as prefix, suffix and root. Ability to recognize

parts of word components, family words, etc. Can be the only

parallel vocabulary, which can have students in EFL.

2. Pictures, charts, and graphs. These instructions are very clear to

native speakers and should be displayed by EFL students.

3. Instruction definition. Students must learn to pay attention to the

many types of definition instruction which are very useful. Among

them are: brackets or footnotes, synonyms and antonyms.

4. Notes on discourse, which are usually not limited to sentences, e.g.

B. Sampling instructions, instructions and summary attempts.

5. Public tools that students usually do do not help with the special

meaning of limiting the possibilities.

f. Indicator of Using Synoym and Antonym Context Clues Strategy

There are various indicators of contextual strategy, namely:

1. Students can answer various types or measurements in

multiple choice, for example. B. Determine the most

important ideas, definitions and definitions of detailed

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information.

2. Students can make new words

3. Students can discover how they can read the Word.

Finally, the implementation of context instruction at SMA

Purnama Trimurjo is based on that students have difficulty

understanding the text because of foreign words in the text.

Students need good strategies to improve students' reading

comprehension skills. Here you try here to use the researcher's

context instruction to help students to improve students' reading

ability.

g. The Advantages of Using Context Clues in Teaching Vocabulary

According to Innaci & Sam (2017), as we saw above, the

results of contextual instruction in lesson vocabulary are better

than other means. The students experienced improved results after

they used contextual instruction as a technique to find difficult

words without using a dictionary.

Experiments have shown that the use of contextual

instruction offers distinct advantages; Can be seen in the test

results. Scores are obtained much higher after the use of

techniques, such as learning vocabulary. This technology also

encourages students to be more confident. It also encourages them

to fear mistakes. They want not to respond to the dictionary. You

feel that you can do something with your English, even though the
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dictionary is not on the page.

The use of contextual instruction also prevents students

from wasting time because they are looking for you. We know

most of our students get blocked when they come across a new

word and spontaneously think that a dictionary is the only way

out. They found no other way. Context dependent instruction

ensures that you find that reading the dictionary every time you

come across new words, only time and fall time. Another

advantage is that you can complete tests faster and easier.

h. The Disadventages of using Context Clues in Teaching

Vocabulary

According to Innaci & Sam (2017: 67), in addition to

excellence, contextual learning instructions in one sentence

cannot be ignored. This means that he managed to guess the

meaning in relation to the size of the students.

It is also difficult to guess the importance of the

unknown words, because students do not have knowledge of

this part of speech. Or you don't have the experience to decide

whether unknown words are independent nouns, verbs or

adjectives, etc. You cannot choose the most appropriate

meaning of unfamiliar words because they do not understand

the instructions. Eventually, they will finally find the meaning

of the word addiction.

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Context dependent instruction is also difficult for

students to use if they do not know the relationship between

clauses and sentences containing unknown words. The students

did not understand and made the context of the mistakes of the

unknown words. Currently there are various factors that affect

students' assets in the search for meaning from context.

B. The Previous Related Research Findings

The use synonym and antonym context clue to improve reading

comprehension of descriptive text at the eighth grade of SMPN 8 Depok by

SarililaUtama. Based on research results, the use of synonyms, and antonyms

Context clues can improve reading comprehension of eighth grade of SMPN 8

Depok the application of contextual synonyms and antonym instructions can

also be used as an alternative strategy in teaching reading comprehension

because the strategy is easy to apply and interesting for students to learn to

read. The students are actively involved in the teaching-learning process. This

makes students easier to understand the material so that it can improve

students' reading comprehension abilities.

The Implementation of contextual clues to increase student’s

vocabulary mastery of seventh grade students’ at SMPN 1 Sidamanik by

Semaria Eva Elita Girsang and KhairunnisaLubis.It could be concluded that

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the contextual clues technique was evident that it was useful to all of the

students, although to varying degrees. The researcher found that the contextual

clues made them learn how to find the meaning of unfamiliar words and new

words without using a dictionary. It allowed the students to find the meaning

of a new word more quickly because they don't need to translate all of the

words in the sentence but they are just needed to connect the clues or

keywords to guess the meaning of the words in the text. Based on the previous

explanations above, the writer can give conclusion that the researchers have

similar skill. But on the other hands, the method was used by the researcher

and writer is different. The writer provides context clues to teach and develop

the students’ vocabulary achievement.

The effect of context clues on students' descriptive texts for St Kip

"South Tapanuli" Understanding Padangsidimpuan from Harahap Control et

al. If the context clues have learned from the results of the study, students on

the basis of closed, they can achieve higher reading skills and then understand

an explanation by conventional techniques (with a dictionary). Then it is

easier for students, examples of examples to understand context clues.

Although the results because this study showed a positive influence, learning

contextual learning comprehension of reading execution on students in STKIP

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"South Tapanuli" Padangside Impuan, the results of this study could not read

for all students api "generalization Selatan Tapanuli" in Padside Impuan,

researchers still use the method experimental research (nonrandom) with a

very small sample. In other words, context clues can be used as an alternative

technique for students' concepts of reading better. Simply by the application of

text context clues that describe the understanding of better results in student

understanding.

C. Conceptual Framework

Input Process Output

Students’ Treatment Students’

previous vocabulary
knowledge mastery

From the review of the conceptual framework above, we can see the

teaching graph that will be given to students. Students' previous knowledge

with the old method and will be processed with a new connection analysis

which will be processed through several stages of contextual treatment

instructions that can produce a new output of vocabulary knowledge of

students and the ability to analyze very clearly to enable students to be more

aware when reading conditions in text. Mastery and perception of students’

vocabulary based on the discussion above, it is assumed that there is a

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positive relationship between the uses of contextual guidance analysis to

deduce the meaning of words as a strategy for the ability to understand new

students' vocabulary at SMPN 52 Makassar.

D. Hypotesis

Based on conceptual framework, the hypothesis of the research is there

is any significant different between the students vocabulary building using

context clues trough reading text at SMPN 52 Makassar.