2 - 2 Fundamentals of Casting

Addis Ababa Institute of Technology
School of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering
Manufacturing Engineering I
Chapter Two
2.2 Fundamentals of Metal
Casting
Casting terminology
 Facing Sand: the small amount of carbonaceous material sprinkled
on the inner surface of the mold cavity to give a better surface finish
to the castings.
 Gate: a channel through which the molten metal enters the mold cavity
 Core Print: a projection made on the pattern to form a seat for the core
in the mold. the core is correctly seated in this seat.
 Chaplet: metal pieces for supporting the cores inside the moulds and for
holding them while the molds are filled with molten metal. The chaplets
stays in the body of the casting and unites well with it. Therefore, it is
made of metal similar to the cast metal, its melting point is greater than
the casting material.
2 Mar-23
Cont...
 Chiller: a metallic object kept inside the mold to promote rapid solidification in a
specific portion of the casting. Metallic piece (steel block) kept inside the mold. when the
molten metal comes incontact with the steel block it rapidly dissipates heat to the steel
block, because it absorbs heat than the mold (molten) one. then the section near to the
chill (steel bloack) solidifies faster and gradually the solidification propagates towards the
riser.
 Types of Chiller: Internal chiller and External chiller
1. Internal Chills: are placed (located) inside the mold cavity and are usually made of
the same material as the casting. when the metal solidifies the internal chills are fused
into the metal casting itself.
2. External Chills: placed outside the casting.

3
Foundry Tools & Equipment
1. Molding board: is a smooth wooden board on which pattern is placed and the molding
box is placed on it. it also supports the mold until the casting is solidified.
2. Hand riddle:
Consists of a screen of standard circular wire mesh equipped
with circular wooden frame.
It is generally used for cleaning the sand for removing foreign
material such as nails, shot metal, splinters of wood etc. from it.
Even power operated riddles are available for riddling large Hand riddle
volume of sand.
3. Shovel:
Consists of steel pan fitted with a long wooden handle.
It is used in mixing, tempering & conditioning the foundry
sand by hand.
It is also used for moving & transforming the molding sand to
the container & molding box or flask.
It should always be kept clean. Shovel
3/31/2023 4
4. Rammers:
Are required for striking the molding sand mass in the molding box to
pack or compact it uniformly all around the pattern.
The common forms of rammers used in ramming are hand rammer, peen Rammers
rammer, floor rammer & pneumatic rammer.
5. Sprue pin:
is a tapered rod of wood or iron which is placed or pushed in cope to
join mold cavity while the molding sand in the cope is being rammed.
Later its withdrawal from cope produce a vertical hole in molding
sand, called sprue through which the molten metal is poured into the
mold using gating system.
It helps to make a passage for pouring molten metal in mold through
gating system. Sprue pin
3/31/2023 5
6. Strike off bar:
is a flat bar having straight edge & is made of wood or iron.
It is used to strike off or remove the excess sand from the top of
a molding box after completion of ramming thereby making its
surface plane and smooth.
Its one edge is made beveled & the other end is kept perfectly
smooth & plane. Strike off bar
7. Mallet:
is similar to a wooden hammer & is generally as used in
carpentry or sheet metal shops.
In molding shop, it is used for driving the draw spike into the
pattern & then rapping it for separation from the mold surfaces
so that pattern can be easily withdrawn leaving the mold cavity
without damaging the mold surfaces. Mallet
3/31/2023 6
7. Vent rod:
is a thin spiked steel rod or wire carrying a pointed edge at one
end & a wooden handle or a bent loop at the other.
After ramming & striking off the excess sand it is utilized to
pierce series of small holes in the molding sand in the cope
portion.
The series of pierced small holes are called vents holes which
Vent rod
allow the exit or escape of steam & gases during pouring mold
& solidifying of the molten metal for getting a sound casting.
3/31/2023 7
8. Draw spike (draw screw):
is a tapered or straight mild steel rods having a loop or ring at
its one end & a sharp point or screw at the other.
Draw screw
It may have screw threads on the end to engage metal pattern
for it withdrawal from the mold.
It is used for driven into pattern which is embedded in the
molding sand & raps the pattern to get separated from the
pattern & finally draws out it from the mold cavity
Draw Spike
9. Lifters:
are also known as cleaners or finishing tool which are made
of thin sections of steel of various length & width with one
end bent at right angle.
They are used for cleaning, repairing & finishing the bottom
& sides of deep & narrow openings in mold cavity after
withdrawal of pattern. Lifters/Cleaners
They are also used for removing loose sand from mold cavity.
3/31/2023 8
10. Trowels:
are utilized for finishing flat surfaces, joints & partings lines of the
mold.
They consist of metal blade made of iron & are equipped with a
wooden handle.
The common metal blade shapes of trowels may be pointed or
contoured or rectangular oriented. Trowels
The trowels are basically employed for smoothing or slicking the
surfaces of molds.
They may also be used to cut in-gates & repair the mold surfaces..
11. Slicks:
are also recognized as small double ended mold finishing tool
which are generally used for repairing & finishing the mold
surfaces & their edges after withdrawal of the pattern.
The commonly used slicks are of the types of heart & leaf,
square & heart, spoon & bead, & heart & spoon.
The nomenclatures of the slicks are largely due to their shapes. Slicks
3/31/2023 9
12. Swab:
is a small hemp fiber brush used for moistening the edges of sand
mold, which are in contact with the pattern surface before
withdrawing the pattern.
It is used for sweeping away the molding sand from the mold
surface & pattern. Swab
It is also used for coating the liquid blacking on the mold faces in
dry sand molds.
13. Gate cutter:

is a small shaped piece of sheet metal commonly used to cut
runners & feeding gates for connecting sprue hole with the mold
Gate cutter
cavity.
14. Bellows gun:

is hand operated leather made device equipped with compressed
air jet to blow or pump air when operated.
It is used to blow away the loose or unwanted sand from the
surfaces of mold cavities.
Bellows
15. Mold boxes:
are also known as molding flasks.
Boxes used in sand molding are of two types.
Open molding boxes: are made with the hinge at one corner &
a lock on the opposite corner Open molding box
Closed molding boxes:

Are which may be made of wood, cast-iron or steel & consist
of two or more parts.
The lower part is called the drag, the upper part the cope & all
the intermediate parts, if used, cheeks.
All the parts are individually equipped with suitable means for
clamping arrangements during pouring.
Closed metallic molding boxes may be called as a closed
rectangular molding box
Closed molding boxes
3/31/2023 11
16. Crucible:
It is made of a refractory material.
it is used as a metal melting pot.
The raw material or charge is broken into the small pieces & placed in
crucible.
Crucibles are then placed in a pit furnace which is coke fired.
After melting of the metal, crucibles are taken out & received in handles.
Pouring is done directly by using crucible instead of transferring molten
metal to ladle. Crucible
17. Ladle:
It is similar in shape to the crucible which is also made
from graphite or steel shell lined with suitable
refractory material like fire clay.
It is commonly used to receive molten metal from the
melting furnace and pour the same into the mold cavity.
Its size is designated by its capacity.
Small hand shank ladles are used by a single foundry
personal and are provided with only one handle.
It may be available in different capacities up to 20 kg.
Medium and large size ladles are provided with handles Ladle: Two man handle
on both sides to be handled by two foundry personals
12
Molding Sand
Types of molding sand:
1. Green sand: tempered (natural) sand which is prepared from the mixture of base sand, binder and
moisture. It is commonly employed for the production of ferrous and nonferrous castings.
2. Core Sand: used for making cores and it is highly rich silica sand mixed with oil binders such as core oil.
The core oil is composed of linseed oil, resin, light mineral oil and other binder materials
3. Dry Sand: green sand that has been dried or baked in suitable over after the mold making and core. It has
more strength, rigidity and thermal stability. It is mainly suitable for larger castings.
4. Loam Sand: Loam is soil composed mostly of sand (particle size > 63 micrometres), silt (particle size >
2 micrometres), and a smaller amount of clay (particle size < 2 micrometres).mixture of sand and clay
with water to a thin plastic paste. Loam sand possesses high clay as much as 30 – 50% and 18% water.
Shape is given to mold by sweeps
13 Mar-23
Molding Sand
5. Facing sand: it is applied as an initial coating around the pattern so that the mold
cavity will have a smooth surface. It is made of fine silica sand and clay, without the use
of used sand
6. Baking sand: used to back up the facing sand and is used to fill the whole volume
of the molding flask. Used molding sand is mainly employed for this purpose. Backing
sand becomes black in color due to addition of coal dust and burning on coming in
contact with the molten metal.
7. Parting sand: it is applied along the parting line so that the sands in the drag and
cope do not stick to each other. Base sand (silica sand) without any binder and mixture
us used as a parting san.
14 Mar-23
Advantages of green sand molding
Ø Reasonable cost
Ø High productivity
Ø Easily adaptability to manual, semi-automatic and automatic molding machines
 Green sand compositions:
Ingridient Proportion (wt. %)

Base Sand 85 - 90
Binder 6 - 11
Additives 2-8
Water 2-5
15 Mar-23
i. Base sand
oCommonly used base sands:
Ø silica sand
Ø zircon sand
Ø olivine sand
Ø chromite sand
Ø aluminum sand
i. Silica sand: used for its economic advantages and sufficient thermal
resistance. Available abundantly on river and sea beds.
• Main components of silica sand are:
ü SiO2 98%
ü Al2O3 0.13%
ü Fe2O3 0.06%
Silica sand
Ø Silica sand is used for general applications
16 Mar-23
Molding Sand
ii. Zircon Sand (Zirconium silicate): is the oldest known material on earth. it is
very hard mineral and has a very high melting point (3000 ). it is used for applications where
high refractoriness is required.
Chemical composition of zircon sand:

Name Weight percentage
Zirconia (ZrO2) 65.9
silica (SiO2) 32.64
Alumina (Al2O3) 1.15
Titania (TiO2) 0.27
Zircon sand Ferrous Oxide (Fe2O3) 0.04

q For Low or Moderate melting point alloys: Silica sand can be used as base material
q For high melting temperature alloys the base sand should have high refractoriness properties.
Zircon sand is the better candidate for sound casting.

17 Mar-23
Molding Sand
iii. Olivine sand: it is the most abundant minerals on earth. it is named
after its olive green color.
chemical composition of olivine sand(Magnesium iron silicate (MgFe)2SiO4):

MgO 46 - 50.0
SiO2 41 - 43
Fe2O3 6-8
Olivine sand
• The aluminium foundry industry uses olivine sand to cast objects in aluminium.
• Olivine sand requires less water than silica sands while still holding the mold together during
handling and pouring of the metal.
• Less water means less gas (steam) to vent from the mold as metal is poured into the mold.
18 Mar-23
Molding Sand
iV. Chromite sand: is an Iron chromium oxide found naturally in the earth crust.
Chromite sand is a special sand with very good properties at high temperatures.
Provides a high resistance to penetration of the liquid metal, and compared with other sands
produce more rapid cooling of the casting. MP = 2150 .
Properties of chromite sand: Good thermal conductivity, good resistance to thermal

shock, high dimension stability.
Cr2O3 46
SiO2 1
Fe2O3 26
CaO 0.15
Al2O3 15
Chromite sand
MgO 9.8
19
Mar-23
Molding Sand
V. Aluminum Silicate sand (Al2SiO5): have high refractoriness, low
thermal expansion and high resistance to thermal shock. widely used in
precision investment foundries, often in combination with zircon.
Aluminium silicate sand
Properties of molding sand

20 Mar-23
properties of
molding sand
Silica sand Chromite sand Zircon sand Olivine sand

Formula SiO2 FeOCrO3 ZrSiO4 (MgFe)2SiO4
Specific density 2.65 4.3 4.7 3.5
Sinter Point oC 1730 2095 >2200 1857
Thermal conductivity Low High High Low
Reaction High Low Low Low
Mold/Metal
Utilization All Metals Steel and Mn Steel Steel
Availability High Very low Very low Good
21 Mar-23
Price Low High High Medium
Binders
 Binders are added to give cohesion to the molding sands
 Binders provide strength to the molding sand and enable it to retain its shape as
mold cavity
 binders should be added in optimum quantity as they reduce refractoriness and
permeability.
 Common binders used in green sand:
Ø Bentonite
Ø Fireclay
Ø Illite Fireclay
Bentonite
Ø Limonite
Ø Kaolinite
22 Illite clay Kaolinite

Limonite clay
cont...
 Bentonite: is a type of clay whose main constituent is montmorillonite, belonging
to the smectite group.
 Bentonite has a sheet like structure and particle size of less than two microns.
 Bentonite is relatively soft stone, formed over geological time by the natural
alteration of volcanic tuffs due to acid or alkaline rain.
 Types of bentonite:
1. Southern bentonite (calcium bentonite): also known as non-swelling

bentonite. temperature of destruction is 700
2. Western bentonite (sodium bentonite): also known as swelling bentonite.

temperature of destruction is 1000
v When clay is incontact with molten metal(if the molten metal temperature crosses
the temperature of destruction) the clay losses its property and becomes dead clay
23 Mar-23
which bentonite is better?
 Calcium bentonite is better known for its ability to quickly develop green properties. it
offers better flow than sodium bentonite and lower deformation.
 A molding sand with calcium bentonite has better ability to flow into deep and tight pockets
on the pattern
 Both bentonites can be blended at different ratios to achieve roughly average physical properties.
§ Fireclay: is usually found near coal mines. the size of the fireclay particle is large so that it
gives poor or moderate bonding strength to the foundry sand.
§ Illite clay: is found in natural molding sands that are formed by the decomposition of
micaceous materials due to weathering.
q Illite Possesses moderate shrinkage and poor bonding strength than bentonite.
24 Mar-23
Additives
why Additives are needed?
Ø To prevent burn-on defects
Ø To develop a smooth surface on the casting
Ø To prevent metal penetration defects (fins, projections)
Ø To prevent oxidation of the metal from the mold atmosphere
Ø To create a space between the sand grains to expand without deforming
Ø To improve the collapsibility of the mold
Ø To stabilize green sand properties e.g green strength.

q Common additives used in green sand:
ü coal dust
ü dextrin
ü pitch
ü wood flour
25 Mar-23
i. Coal dust: is a fine powder of coal and acts as a lustrous carbon film on
the surface of the mold cavity. coal dust increases the strength of the
mold by making a coating around the sand grains. coal dust produces
CO and develops a gas cushion which prevents metal penetration into
the sand grains.
ii. Dextrin: is an organic additive obtained by the hydrolysis of starch.

Dextrin improves the dry compression strength and erosion resistance of
the mold surface.
iii. Pitch: it is a distilled form of soft coal. It can be added from 0.02 - 2% in
the mold and core sand. It enhances hot strength, surface finish of mold
surface
26 Mar-23
cont...
iv. Wood flour: is finely pulverized wood. Its particle ranges from a fine
powder to the size of a rice grain. It is relatively long thin fibers which can
prevent the sand grains from making contact with other sand grains. thus, it
reduces mold wall movement (crack).
Ø It can be added from 0.05 - 2 wt. % in the mold and core sands
Ø wood flour increases collapsibility of the mold or core sands. It also improves
flowability
Pitch
Coal dust Dextrin Wood flour
27 Mar-23
Water
 what kind of water to add to the molding sand?
 the water should be clean
 not the salty water b/se the salt deactivates the bentonites
electrostatic bonding properties. Na+ from bentonite can react
with the salt water of Cl-. Which decreases bonding strength of the
sand (bentonite clay)
28 Mar-23
Dead Clay
 The part of the Binder clay (benonite clay) heated above 500 looses its
structural water and settles itself on the sand grains. this bentonite loses
permanently its binding properties and becomes a dead clay.
 At each sand circulation, a part of the sand grains is coated by this
dead clay, this is known as Oolitisation process
 dead clay reduces the expansion of the green sand
29 Mar-23
Proportion of the green sand for cast iron
Component Proportion (Wt. %)
Base sand 75 - 85
Active binder 6 - 10
Dead clay 5-8
Moisture 2- 4
Proportion of the green sand for Steel casting

Component Proportion (Wt. %)
Base sand 75 - 85
Active binder 8 - 12
Dead clay 6-9
Moisture 2- 4
Optimum Metal to sand ratio

q For Ferrous casting: Metal to sand ratio = 1:9
q For Non-ferrous casting : Metal to sand ratio= 1:5 Mar-23
Mixing of the green sand
 Uniform mixing of all constituent is important for each sand grain to
be coated uniformly with the additive using sand muller
 Green sand preparation machine (muller)

 Manual
 Pneumatic sand conveyor for mass production
31 Mar-23
H2O, Additives, Core making
Binders, New sand
Molding
sand
Pouring
preparation
Dust extractor
Cooling Shakeout
Screening
(Magnetic
separator)
32 Circulation System
in Sand Casting Process
Molding sand properties
1. Refractoriness: it is the ability of the molding material to withstand the high
temperature of the liquid metal to be poured.
ü Moding sand with poor refractoriness may burn during pouring and casting surface may be damaged.
ü The degree of refractoriness depends on the quarty content (SiO2), Shape and grain size of the sand
particle
2. Permeability: the ability of the molding material to allow hot gases to pass
through it.
Ø An increase in permeability usually indicates a more open structure in the rammed sand. If the
permeability is too high, it will lead to penetration defects and rough castings.
Ø A decrease in permeability indicates tighter packing of sand. If the permeability is too low, it could lead to
blow holes and pin holes.
33 Mar-23
Cont...
 Factors which affects the permeability of the mold sands:
Ø Grain shape
Ø Grain fineness number (GFN)
Ø Grain distribution
Ø Moisture content
Ø Active clay
Ø Additives
i. Grain shape: Round, angular, sub angular shape of sands
ü Round grain shaped sands: lower permeability
ü Angular grain shaped sand: Higher permeability
ü Sub-angular grains: results intermediate permeability and strength.
ii. Grain Fineness Number (GFN): the quantitative indication of the grain size distribution of the sand
Sample by carrying out sand sieve analysis.
Ø Higher GFN indicates finer grain, such grains decrease permeability but improves the surface finish.
Ø Lower GFN indicates coarser grains, such grains increase permeability but reduces surface finish (quality)
iii. Grain distribution:

Ø Sand grains of uniform size and distribution results higher permeability
Ø sand grains of variable size and distribution results reduced permeability.
34 Mar-23
Cont...
3. Cohesiveness: the ability of the sand particles to stick to each other. A sand with good
cohesiveness doesn’t break after the molding and pouring
4. Adhesiveness: the ability of the molding sand to stick with the inner walls of the
molding box of flask.
5. Flowability: the ability of the molding sand to flow and get compacted all around the
pattern and take up the required shape.
Factors affect flowability:
Ø Grain shape: Round grains increases flowability
Ø Amount of binders and additives used: Excess binder (clay) and additives results decrease in flowability
of the molding sand.
6. Green Strength: the ability of the molding sand to retain the shape of the constructed
moulds in its green state.
Ø The green strength of fine sand is higher than coarse sand with the same quantity of ingredients added
35 Mar-23
7. Dry Strength: the ability of the molding material to retain the exact shape of the mold cavity in the dry
condition (After the molten metal is poured in the cavity) and to withstand the metallostatic pressure of the liquid metal.
Ø Dry strength can be enhanced by incorporating additives on the sand ingredients.
8. Collapsibility: the ability of the molding sand to get collapsed after the casting solidifies. Presense of additives like wood flour will
improve the collapsibility of the molding sand.
9. Durability: it is the ability of the moulding sand to withstand repeated cycles of heating and cooling during casting operations.
10. Compactability: the percentage decrease in height of a loose mass of sand under the influence of a controlled compaction.
compactability indicates the water tempering degree of the green sand moulding.
High compactability could result in:
Ø improved dimensions
Ø better casting finish Factors affecting compactability:
Ø less mold penetration v moisture content
Ø gas/ blow/ pinholes defect may arise
v mixing time
Ø expansion problem
Ø difficult shake out
v type of additives
Low compactability of the molding sand could result in: v quality of base sand (bentonite) e.g.
ü friable edges swelling capacity, water holding capacity
ü crushes, inclusions
ü mechanical penetration
ü cope drops
ü over size casting
ü rough surfaces
Important molding sand tests:
1. Moisture content test
2. Clay content test
3. Grain fineness test
4. Permeability test
5. Compactability test
6. Strength test
37 Mar-23
 used to determine the moisture content in the molding sand. Moisture
content can be tested using infrared heater.
 Method 1:
a. drying a 20 - 50 grams of molding sand to a constant temperture up
to 100oc in an oven for about 1 hr.
b. The moisture in the molding sand is thus evaporated
c. Moulding sand is then cooled to a room temperature and then
reweighting the molding sand.
d. The percentage of moisture can be calculated from the difference in
weight.
where: W1 is weight of sand before drying and W2 is weight of sand after drying.
Ø High moisture content in sand increases by more than 5% gas defects such as pinholes and blow holes.
Ø Less moisture content in the sand below 2% reduces the strength of the mold Mar-23
Method 2:
 The percentage of moisture content in the molding sand can be determined speedily by an
instrument called Speedy moisture teller.
 This instrument is based on the principle that when water and calcium carbide react, they form
acetylene gas which can be measured and this will be directly proportional to the moisture content .
 This instrument is provided with a pressure gauge calibrated to read directly the percentage of
moisture present in the molding sand
Procedure:
Ø A weighted quantity of sand sample is mixed with a fixed quantity of calcium carbide reagent and the
whole mixture is thoroughly shaken in a vessel to which a pressure gauge is assembled.
Ø The amount of acetylene gas produced depends on the amount of moisture.
Ø The acetylene gas produced develops pressure and the instrument indicates moisture content on the
pressure gauge.
39 Mar-23
 Used to measure the total amount of clay present in the mold sand
 There are two types of clay in a sand mould. Active clay and dead clay.
 Clay becomes dead above it loses all its binding properties but clay is physically present.
A. Clay content test to determine the amount of dead clay:

ü Step 1: A sample of 50 gram moulding sand is taken and weighted (W1).
ü Step 2: Agitate the distilled water with sand and sodium hydroxide
ü Step 3: Allowed sample to remain in the water for 10 minutes and settle down
ü Step 4: After 5 minutes the sand particles and clay will be separated from each other in the water
as shown in the figure below.
40
ü Step 5: The sand that is settled down in the clay is dried in the oven evaporating any
moisture
ü Step 6: Settled clay is now weighted to determine clay content which will be W2
𝑊 − 𝑊
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡 = × 100
𝑊
41
B. Clay content test to determine Active clay
Procedures:
Ø Step 1: Calibrate the methylene apparatus. (number of mililiter of methylene blue required for each % of
bentonite or clay)
Ø Step 2: mix 50 ml tetrasodium pyro-phosphate solution via pipette with 5gm of active sand in a stainless
steel container
Ø Step 3: Disperse the sand particles using ultrasonic equipment
Ø Step 4: fill the vessel slowly with methylene blue and stir the vessel
Ø Step 5: Clay is dried in the oven by passing hot air over it.
Ø Step 6: The weight of the clay is measured directly after drying them in the oven. clay weight is directly
measured on a weighing scale
Ø Step 7: Active clay reacts with methylene blue in the vessel till a blue-green halo mark appears
Ø Step 8: After the mark has appeared stop the methylene blue supply and calculate the amount of blue
methylene consumed and determine the clay content of the sand.
Ø Step 9: Methylene blue only reacts with active clay and never with sand or dead clay. Calculate and
determine the clay content in the sand.
§ Excess clay content reduces permeability and increasing gas defects in casting Mar-23
42
§ Very low clay content makes mould weaker
3. Grain Fineness test
 Grain fineness test is used to determine how fine to the large size of sand grains are there in
total in the sand.
 Equipment for GFN test: sieve of different sizes and sieve shaker
Procedures:
Ø Step 1: Collect the sand to be tested and pour it into a sieve shaker
Ø Step 2: Vibrate the sieve shaker
Ø Step 3: stop the sieve shaker and remove all sieves
Ø Step 4: Weight the amount of sand retained in each sieve
Ø Step 5: Compute the percentage distribution of grains
NB: The sieve on the top is a sieve with less meshed traps coarse grains and
the sieve at the bottom traps fine grains with high GFN.
43
Data sheet for sieve analysis
Weight of sample taken= ------------grams
U.S. Series Equivalent Sand Retained Multiplier Product

Sieve number (B) (A× )
Weight (gram) Percent Cummulative
(A) %
Total
44 Mar-23
4. Permeability Test
 The quantity of air that will pass through a standard specimen of the sand at a particular pressure
condition
 Equipments required for permeability test: sand rammer, bell jar, manometer
 Procedures:
1. Green sand is rammed under the sand rammer to prepare the sand specimen. A
5cm*5cm standard specimen of sand is used
2. The sand specimen is held by a tube called “sand specimen tube”. This standard
specimen has heighy and area,cm.
3. Pressure (P1 in g/cm2) at the start is measured
4. Air (volume in 2000 cm3) is passed through the sand specimen and pressure (P2 in
g/cm2) is measured at a certain time (T in seconds) at the end of the specimen
5. All the above values are put in the permeability formula to determine the
permeability number.
45 Mar-23
cont...
• Permeability number: the volume of air that is passed through a specimen of 1cm2 in area, 1cm
deep and a pressure of 1g/cm2
Where: v is volume of air (cc), H is height of specimen (cm), A is area of specimen

(cm2), P is air pressure (g/cm2), and T is time taken (seconds)
46 Mar-23
5. Compactibility Test
 Compactibility indicates the water tempering degree of the green sand molding
 A compactibility test is done to indicate how much sand is able to compact and reduce in height when
ramming the loose sand.
 Compactibility is the percentage decrease in height of a loose mass of sand under the influence of a controlled compaction
 Testing procedure:
Ø Fill the specimen tube with sand
Ø Strickle the sand and make it to the same level
Ø Remove the specimen from the specimen tube
Ø Place the tube under the sand rammer
Ø Compact the sand specimen with a rammer
Ø A reduction in height (h) will be observed in the sand specimen
Ø Note and observe the reduction in compactibility in percentage
47 Mar-23
6. Strength Test
A. Green compression strength test:
§ Green compression strength is measured using a universal sand strength machine that is used to determine the compression
of green sand under compressive force.
§ Equipments for the test: Specimen tube, universal sand strength machine, sand rammer
Testing Procedure:
1. fill the specimen tube with green sand
2. Place the specimen under the sand rammer
3. Allow the specimen to go through compressive force in the ram and remove the specimen from the rammer
4. Place the compressed specimen on a universal sand strength machine to measure green compression strength by passing the
specimen through compressive forces
5. The universal sang strength machine brakes the specimen and indicates the compression strength on the indicator.
 The unit for measuring green compression strength is MPa or (N/mm2)
Figure: Green compression strength test machine setup
48 Mar-23
cont...
B. Green Shear Strength Test:
§ Green Shear strength is used to measure the strength of the molding assuming a real life situation when a
pattern is taken out from the mold.
Testing Procedure:
1. Fill the specimen tube with green sand and make a sand specimen for the shearing operation
2. Remove the specimen which is in form of pads with projection
3. Allow the specimen to go through shear force by placing the specimen under a universal sand strength
machine to measure shear strength
4. Universal sand strength machine breaks the specimen and shear strength is indicated on the machine indicator.
 The unit for measuring green shear strength is MPa or (N/mm2)
49 Mar-23
cont...
C. Dry compression strength test:
§ Dry compression strength is measured using a universal sand strength machine by subjecting a
sand specimen to compressive loads.
§ Testing Procedure:
1. Fill the specimen tube with sand and ram to produce a standard size sample
2. Use the oven to dry the sand and make it a dry specimen
3. Remove the specimen from the oven and place it on the universal strength machine to measure
the dry strength
4. Measure the dry compression strength when the specimen breaks and determine the dry
compression strength on the indicator of the machine.
 The unit for measuring dry compression strength is MPa or (N/mm2)
Figure: Dry compression strength test machine setup
50 Mar-23
7. Hardness test of the molding sand
§ Mold hardness test is performed in the foundry to determine the hardness of the molding
after the ramming os the sand is done.
 Hardness indicates the resistance of the mold to plastic deformation due to evolution of gases. It also indicates the resistance
against erosion due to flow of molten metal
 The sand specimen used for this test is dried and cured in the oven
 Equipments used for the test: Hardness tester, specimen tube for making the sand specimen
 Testing Procedures:
Prepare the specimen in a specimen tube of desirable size and shape
1.
2. Dry and cure the test specimen for evaporating the all the mositure from the sample
3. Determine the hardness of the sand in the tester
§ Hardness test is done by measuring the depth of penetration with the hardness tester directly on the mold.
§ The mold hardness is measured as BHN (Brinell Harness Number) and is tested the same way wiyth the hardness test for metals.
51 Mar-23
Cores and Core Sands
§ Core: the object that is placed inside the molds to form internal cavities of the casting
§ Cores are normally disposable items that are destroyed after solidification
§ Cores are made from core sands and baked before use.
§ Types of cores: Green sand and Dry sand cores

v Green sand cores: are not a typical type of cores, they are part of the cope and drag, form
an internal features.
§ Disadvantages of green sand: lack of strength, difficult to make casting with long narrow core features
v Dry sand cores: overcomes some of the disadvantages of green sand cores. They are
formed independently of the mold and then inserted into the core prints in the mold. Core
prints hold the cores in the correct position. they are made by mixing sand with a binder in a
wooden or metal core box, which contains a cavity in the shape of the desired core.
§ Ingredients of dry sand cores:

Ø Base sand grains (E.g. Silica sand, Chromite sand, Zircon sand, etc)
Ø Cereals or clay
Ø Organic binder (E.g. vegetable oils , Synthetic oils)
52 Mar-23
Cores and Core Sands
§ Procedures of making cores:
§ mixing of the ingredients
§ packing of core sand in the core box
§ curing (cold box, hot box and no bake types)
§ Cold box type of curing: curing is done by hardening the binder by passing special gasses (example: Co2)
Cold box curing method 1:
Ø Mix about 5% of sodium silicate binder with fresh silica sand
Ø pack the sand mixture inside the core box
Ø harden the sand mixture by passing 𝐶𝑂 gas through it
Ø withdraw the hardened core from the core box
Cold box curing method 2:

Ø Mix a little amount of polyolphenolic formaldehyde resin and polyisocyanate binder with fresh silica sand
Ø Pack the sand mixture inside the core box
Ø harden the sand mixture by passing amine gas through it for ten to twenty seconds.
Ø withdraw the hardened core from the core box.
§ Hot box type of curing: Curing is done by baking the core in an oven between 200 − 250℃
§ No-bake type of curing: curing is done without gas and heating. Fine silica sand and urethane binders are mixed in a
high speed mixer and packed in the core box, then the sand mixture sets hard in a few minutes at room temperature.
§ Advantage of no-bake type of curing: excellent dimensional tolerance, better casting surface finish
§ Disadvantage of no-bake curing: binder (urethane) is expensive
Mar-23
54 Mar-23
q In this process, liquid sodium silicate is mixed with the sand. The sand is rammed into a core box
and cured by passing carbondioxide gas through the core. the core should be between 25 to 30 .
55 Mar-23
56 Mar-23
Types of core box
1. Half core box
2. Dump core box
3. Split core box
4. Left and right hand core boxes
1. Half core box: is most common type of core box. It is used for making the two
identical halves of a symmetrical core. These two half portions are pasted together after
backing, thus makes a complete core.
Figure: Half core box
57 Mar-23
2. Dump core box: is similar to half core box in construction but produces a
full core at a time. This box is commonly used for making rectangular, square,
slab, triangular and trapezoidal cores. Dump core box sometimes is also known
as slab core box
Figure: Dumb core box
3. Left and right hand core boxes: are used when the cores are
symmetrical about left and right of a centre line. The core is made in two half’s.
Mar-23
58 Figure: Left and right hand core box
cont...
3. Split core box: consists of two parts, joined together with the help of dowel pins and holes.
A complete core is produced in single operation (ramming). In its operation, the two boxes are
properly aligned and the core sand is rammed from one side. After ramming, the surplus sand is
strickled off. The clamps are opened and the core-boxes are withdrawn carefully leaving the core.
Figure: Split core box

Core coatings
§ Core coatings:
Ø helps to achieve better surface finish
Ø helps to reduce defects, particularly, surface defects and penetration defects
Ø refractory coatings provide a protective barrier between molten metal and the mold
Table: Classification of core coatings

Ø Aluminium silicate
Minerals Ø Zircon silicate
Ø Graphite
ü Water
Carrier liquid ü Iso-propanol
Ø Powder
Delivery Form Ø paste
Ø Slurry (ready for use)
Mar-23
Pattern
 Pattern: is the principal tool during the casting process. It is the replica of the object to be made by the
casting process, with some modifications (allowances). It is the model for creating the mold cavity.
 Pattern is made with some modifications compared to the final cast component, i.e. pattern allowance and
provision for core prints
 Functions of a pattern:
 It prepares the mold cavity
 It enables creation of core prints
 It makes provision for runner, gates and risers
 Characteristics of a pattern:
Ø Easily worked, shaped and joined
Ø Light in weight
Ø Strong, hard and durable
Ø Resistant to wear and abrasion
Ø Resistant to corrosion and to chemical reactions
Ø Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in temperature and humidity
Ø Available at low cost
§ Common pattern materials: Wood, metals and alloys, plastic and rubbers, wax, etc. Mar-23
Types of Pattern
1. Single piece pattern
2. Split or two piece pattern
3. Match plate pattern
4. Cope and drag pattern
5. Gated pattern
6. Sweep pattern
7. loose piece pattern
8. Skeleton pattern
1. Single piece (Solid) pattern: same geometry as the casting, adjusted in size for
shrinkage and machining. Although it is the easiest pattern to fabricate, it is not the easiest to use in making the
sand mold.
Ø Determining the location of the parting line between the two halves of the mold for a solid pattern can be a
problem, and incorporating the gating system and sprue into the mold is left to the judgment and skill of the
foundry worker.
Ø Consequently, solid patterns are generally limited to very low production quantities. used only in cases where
the job is very simple.
Pouring cup
62 Mold cavity
cont...
2. Split piece pattern: consist of two or more pieces, dividing the part along a plane coinciding
with the parting line of the mold.
Ø Split patterns are appropriate for complex part geometries (intricate casting) and moderate production
quantities.
Ø The parting line of the mold is predetermined by the two pattern halves, rather than by operator
judgment.
Ø The two halves of the pattern must be aligned properly by making use of the dowel pins.
Ø Split patterns can be split into more than two parts for complex casting.
Pattern Pattern
Figure: Two piece split pattern
63
Figure: Three piece split pattern
Types of pattern
3. Match plate pattern: this pattern is made in two halves and is on mounted
on the opposite sides of a wooden or metallic plate, known as match plate.
on either side of which each half of a number of split pattern is fastened. The
gates and runners are also attached to the plate.
Ø Match-plate patterns are used for higher production quantities
64
Figure: Match plate pattern
Types of pattern
4. Cope and Drag Pattern: A cope and drag pattern is similar to a match plate pattern,
except that each half of the pattern is attached to a separate plate and the mold halves are made
independently. Just as with a match plate pattern, the plates ensure proper alignment of the mold
cavities in the cope and drag and the runner system can be included on the plates.
Ø Cope and drag patterns are often desirable for larger castings, where a match-plate pattern would be
too heavy and cumbersome. They are also used for larger production quantities and are often used
when the process is automated.
Figure: Cope and drag pattern

Types of pattern
5. Gated pattern: employed for small casting, make several casting in a single mold
(mass production). In the mass production of casings, multi cavity moulds are used.
Such moulds are formed by joining a number of patterns and gates and providing a
common runner for the molten metal. These patterns are made of metals, and
metallic pieces to form gates and runners are attached to the pattern. In this type of
pattern, the molten metal pours through the runner. It passes through several gates
and then finally to the pattern.
66
Figure: Gated pattern
Types of pattern
6. Sweep pattern:
Ø Sweep patterns are used for forming large circular moulds of symmetric kind by revolving a sweep
attached to a spindle as shown in Figure below. Loam sand is used, it acts like paste
Ø Sweep is a template of wood or metal and is attached to the spindle at one edge and the other edge has
a contour depending upon the desired shape of the mould. The pivot end is attached to a stake of metal
in the center of the mould.
67 Figure: Sweep pattern

Pattern Allowances:
1) Shrinkage (contraction) Allowance
2) Draft or taper allowance
3) Machining or finishing allowance
4) Distortion or camber allowance
5) Rapping allowance
68 Mar-23
i. Shrinkage or Contraction Allowance
# Almost all cast metals shrink or contract volumetrically on cooling.
# Types of metal shrinkage: Liquid, solidification and solid shrinkage
a. Liquid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume when the metal changes from
liquid state to solid state at the solidus temperature. To account for this shrinkage;
riser, which feed the liquid metal to the casting, is provided in the mold.
b. Solid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume caused when metal loses
temperature in solid state. To account for this, shrinkage allowance is provided on
the patterns.
ü The rate of contraction with temperature is dependent on the material. For example steel contracts to a higher degree
compared to aluminum.
Cont’d…
Table: Shrinkage allowance for various metals
Material dimension (mm) Shrinkage allowance (mm)
< 610 mm 0.01

Gray cast iron 610 - 1220 0.009
> 1220 0.007
< 610 mm 0.021
Cast steel 610 - 1830 0.016
> 1830 0.013
<1220 0.013
1220 - 1830 0.012
Aluminium
>1830 0.010
<1220 0.014
Magnesium >1220 0.013
ii. Draft or Taper Allowance
> By draft is meant the taper provided by the pattern maker on all
vertical surfaces of the pattern so that it can be removed from the
sand without tearing away the sides of the sand mold and without
excessive rapping by the molder.
> A pattern having no draft allowance being removed from the pattern, in this
case, till the pattern is completely lifted out, its sides will remain in
contact with the walls of the mold, thus tending to break it.
> Providing draft allowance, the moment the pattern lifting commences,
all of its surfaces are well away from the sand surface. Thus the
pattern can be removed without damaging the mold cavity.
Cont’d…
# Draft allowance varies with the complexity of the sand job. But in
general inner details of the pattern require higher draft than outer
surfaces.
# The amount of draft depends upon the length of the vertical side
of the pattern to be extracted; the intricacy of the pattern; the

method of molding; and pattern material.
Cont’d…
Table: Draft (taper) allowance for various metals
Pattern material Height of the given Draft angle for Draft angle for
surface (mm) external surface (°) internal surface (°)
<25 3 3
25 - 50 1.5 2.5
Wood
50 - 100 1.0 1.5
100 - 200 0.75 1.0
200 - 800 0.5 1.0
> 25 1.5 3.0
25 - 50 1.0 2.0
Metal and Plastic
50 - 100 0.75 1.0
100 - 200 0.5 1.0
200 - 800 0.5 0.75
iii. Machining or Finish Allowance
E The finish and accuracy achieved in sand casting are generally poor and therefore
when the casting is functionally required to be of good surface finish or

dimensionally accurate, it is generally achieved by subsequent machining.
Machining or finish allowances are therefore added in the pattern dimension.
E The amount of machining allowance to be provided for is affected by the method of
molding and casting used (hand molding or machine molding, sand casting or
metal mold casting).
E The amount of machining allowance is also affected by the size and shape of the
casting; the casting orientation; the metal; and the degree of accuracy and
finish required.
Cont’d…
Table: Machining allowance for various metals
Material Dimension (mm) Allowance (mm)

< 300 3
Cast iron 300 - 500 5
500 - 1000 6.25
< 150 3
Cast steel 150 - 500 6.25
500 - 1000 7.50
< 200 2.25
Non-ferrous 200 - 300 3
300 - 1000 4
iv. Distortion or Camber Allowance
# Sometimes castings get distorted, during solidification, due to their
typical shape. For example, if the casting has the form of the letter U,
V, T, or L etc. it will tend to contract at the closed end causing the
vertical legs to look slightly inclined.
# This can be prevented by making the legs of the U, V, T, or L shaped
pattern converge slightly (inward) so that the casting after distortion

will have its sides vertical.
# The distortion in casting may occur due to internal stresses. These
internal stresses are caused on account of unequal cooling of

different section of the casting and hindered contraction.
Cont’d…
q Measures taken to prevent the distortion in casting include:
> Modification of casting design
> Providing sufficient machining allowance to cover the distortion effect
> Providing suitable allowance on the pattern, called camber or distortion
allowance (inverse reflection).

Cont’d…
Fig. Distortions in casting

v. Rapping Allowance
# Before the withdrawal from the sand mold, the pattern is rapped all around
the vertical faces to enlarge the mold cavity slightly, which facilitate its
removal.
# Since it enlarges the final casting made, it is desirable that the original
pattern dimension should be reduced to account for this increase.
# There is no sure way of quantifying this allowance, since it is highly
dependent on the foundry personnel practice involved. However, it is

recommended to use a rapping allowance of 0.5-1 mm (-ve) for most castings.
# It is a negative allowance and is to be applied only to those dimensions that
are parallel to the parting plane.

Pattern design Exercise
 Design a metal pattern for a sand cast product of the following geometrical
& dimensional specifications. Consider all the required allowances

(machining, shrinkage, draft or tapper & shaking allowances) and partings.
Dimensions of the cast:

> It is made of Al metal with Outer dia = 60 cm , Inner dia = 40 cm , Most inner
sect dia = 20 cm, Connecting section (cyl.) dia = 15cm and thickness = 25 cm
CASTING Working Design
 For all foundry techniques, the first step is casting design,
that is the definition of the (3D) shape of the cast part. In
general, some changes have to be made with respect to the
final part.
 Casting geometry must comply with foundry constraints: not

all shapes may be cast with each process (holes with high
length to diameter ratio, flat perpendicular smooth surfaces
etc. may give problems). In general, a subsequent
machining is required for at least some part features.
 A correct casting design requires the definition of the whole

foundry cycle and, in most cases, it requires changes in some
of the part details to satisfy casting-related constraints.
81 Mar-23
Casting working Design
82 Mar-23
Casting Working Design
83 Mar-23
Casting working Design
 The first step is casting (shape) design,
which means pattern, risers and sprue
design.
 At each step we need information
from the previous ones.
 Shape changes can be made, but only
if necessary and after part designer
approval.
Process design is circular: at each step, a feasibility control is made.

If this check fails, modification of the previous results is required to
continue.
84 Mar-23
FROM PRODUCT TO CASTING
Casting design must deal with the following issues:
q Patterns must be extracted (drawn) from the mold (easily and

without damaging it);
q There are some geometrical constraints, typical of the casting

process (“deep holes”, thickness distribution…);
q Casting tolerances are broad, some features require finishing by

machining: stock allowances must be left on some surfaces;
q Small fillet radii cannot be cast because of casting stresses;
q Cooling (and solidification) speed should be kept under control,

smooth and directional thickness change is extremely important.
85 Mar-23
FROM PRODUCT TO CASTING –Stock allowance
§ Casting accuracy is rather low. When higher precision is required

(almost all functional surfaces of mechanical parts fall within this case)
a subsequent machining (that is, chip removal) is mandatory.
The right amount of stock allowance to be left on the casting is a trade off
between opposite
üneed for extra material to compensate the geometrical inaccuracy of the
casting, leaving at least some material to be removed;
üneed to reduce the amount of metal to be removed.
86 Mar-23
From product to stock allowance
 Stock allowance thickness depends on both overall part size and
individual part dimensions, also in this case there are tables of
suggestions:
The effect of overall part size is due to mold deformation, under metallostatic forces and part weight.
87 Mar-23
FROM PRODUCT TO CASTING –Holes
Some holes are difficult to make in a casting:
§ slender holes(large H/D ratios): they would require a core that is too weak.
Better made by machining.
§ small holes (small D): core making techniques are unable to produce cores
smaller than about 5 mm in diameter. Better made by drilling.
As a “rule of thumb”, we can use cores when:-the

hole diameter is at least once the wall thickness
• When the core diameter is larger than the wall thickness, the core has a positive effect on
the casting, since it cools the wall till the end of solidification.
• When the core diameter is considerably small, the core starts to cool the wall. However
during the wall solidification the core is overheated. As a consequence the core reduces wall
solidification, which at the end presents porosity and shrinkage. The same happens when the
core height is considerably higher than the core diameter.
88 Mar-23
FROM PRODUCT TO CASTING –Cope and Drag
 We always start from parting plane(parting line) selection.
All other decisions will depend on this one.
Try and:
Ø avoid undercuts (easy drawing);
Ø exploit symmetry, if present (for symmetric metallurgical structure);
Ø place gate and risers in a suitable position (aesthetic of some as-cast surfaces);
Ø use just one pattern half (cheaper molding);
Ø reduce cavity depth (less extra material for draft).
89 Mar-23
FROM PRODUCT TO CASTING –Cope and Drag
90 Mar-23
FROM PRODUCT TO CASTING –Draft
§ Pattern drawing (stripping) is a critical operation. Pattern
surfaces parallel to drawing direction are likely to damage the
mold, requiring a manual mold repair.
§ For this reason, these surfaces are tapered by a suitable draft angle for easy
drawing, so that the drawing movement itself disconnects the pattern from the
mold walls.
§ Drafts cause extra material to be lain on some surfaces of the pattern, thus
always increasing stock.
91 Mar-23
FROM PRODUCT TO CASTING –Draft
Ø Draft angles are generally small. They depend on both surface
properties of the pattern (i.e. pattern material) and height of the
part to be tapered.
Pattern material Height of the given Draft angle for external Draft angle for internal surfaces
surface(inch) surface(degrees) (degrees)
1 3.00 3.00
Wood 1 to 2 1.50 2.50
2 to 4 1.00 1.50
4 to 8 0.75 1.00
8 to 32 0.50 1.00
1 1.50 3.00
Metal and plastic 1 to 2 1.00 2.00
2 to 4 0.75 1.00
4 to 8 0.50 1.00
8 to 32 0.50 0.75
92 Mar-23
FROM PRODUCT TO CASTING –Fillets
q Sharp corners (both inner and outer) should be avoided on castings. They should be
replaced by fillets, because of:

Ø Unacceptable differences in solidification and cooling velocities
Ø Notch effect on castings (located in areas where casting stresses are remarkable
Ø Unacceptable mold wear because of metal flow erosion during filling
93 Mar-23
FROM PRODUCT TO CASTING –Fillets
Fillet radii:-
outer fillet radii = equal to stock allowance-inner corners: empirical
equation or interpolation rule
§ divide a and b in the same number of

segments
§ connect 1 with 1, 2 with 2 and so on
§ draw the curve tangent to the
connection lines
94 Mar-23
FROM PRODUCT TO CASTING –Stock allowance
Sometimes, some extra stock is left for special purposes:
a. simplify core shape (economical reason);
b. allow directional solidification (padding action).
95 Mar-23
FROM PRODUCT TO CASTING –Thickness
Ø Changes in casting thickness must be as smooth as possible, to

control casting stresses (due to solid shrinkage)
Ø Moreover, a regular change in thickness is beneficial, since a

directional solidification contributes to the feeding action.
96 Mar-23
FROM PRODUCT TO CASTING –Thickness
Heuvers’ circles may be used to evaluate thickness rate of variation.

An Heuvers’circle is the biggest circle that can be inscribed in a casting
cross-section. The difference between the diameter of any pair of
adjoining circles (tangent to each other) should not exceed 15 -20%.
97 Mar-23
CASTING WORKCYCLE DESIGN
Once casting shape is designed, it is possible to start pattern definition.
98 Mar-23
Pattern Design
q The pattern and the part to be made are not same. They differ in the
following aspects:
ü A pattern is always made larger than the final part to be made. The
excess dimension is known as Pattern allowance.
Pattern allowance => shrinkage allowance, draft (taper) allowance, camber allowance,
machining allowance, rapping allowance
Ø Shrinkage allowance: will take care of contractions of a casting

which occurs as the metal cools to room temperature.
o Liquid Shrinkage: Reduction in volume when the metal changes

from liquid state to solid state. Riser which feed the liquid metal to the
casting is provided in the mould to compensate for this. It is about
0.5% of the room temperature volume.
99 Mar-23
Shrinkage
Shrinkage: Undesired (yet unavoidable) phenomenon in casting
processes. All foundry materials, during cooling, shrink. This
affects part accuracy and even its soundness.
o Solidification shrinkage: it occurs during cooling from liquidous

to solidus temperature.
o Solid Shrinkage: Reduction in volume caused when metal looses

temperature in solid state. It is a function of the coefficient of thermal
expansion of material.
v The solid shrinkage is compensated by shrinkage allowance.
v The liquid and the solidification shrinkage are taken care of by a riser.
• Shrink rule is used to compensate solid shrinkage depending on the material

contraction rate
Mar-23
100 Manufacturing Engineering I
shrinkage
101 Mar-23
Shrinkage
NB:
Ø Volume contraction is used for liquid and solidification shrinkage
Ø Linear contraction is used for solid shrinkage
102 Mar-23
Solid shrinkage
Solid shrinkage must be controlled because of the following problems:
Ø Dimensions: at room temperature the cast part is smaller than mold cavity, this problem may be
handled using a correct design;
Ø Casting stresses: due to inhomogeneous cooling velocity, they may lead to hot cracks.
103 Mar-23
Solid shrinkage- dimensions
Linear solid shrinkage depends on cast material properties:
Linear Shrinkage (%)
Material Small size casting Middle size casting Large size casting
White cast iron 1 0.85 0.7
Ductile cast iron 1.4 1 0.75
Gray cast iron 1.3 1.05 0.35
Cast steel 2 1.5 1.2
Aluminium 1.6 1.4 1.3
Bronze 1.4 1.2 1.2
Brass 1.8 1.6 1.4
Magnesium 1.4 1.3 1.1
104 Mar-23
Solid shrinkage- dimensions
Example: the shrinkage of Carbon steel is about 1.5%. Thus, cooling
from melting temperature a one-meter-long bar we get 980 mm.
To get the correct final length we can oversize the mold cavity by the
same amount. Therefore, to cast our one-meter-long bar we should
use a cavity 1015 mm long.
105 Mar-23
FROM CASTING TO PATTERN –Solid shrinkage
 It is worth noting that shrinkage is a linear contraction: hollow parts shrink
in the same way as solid parts (a hole reduces its diameter).
 As a consequence, during solid shrinkage, cores are “squeezed” by the casting.

Core sand cannot be over-compacted because cores are not supposed to hinder
contraction too much (it would cause extra stresses during cooling, moreover light
compact design increases core permeability).
106 Mar-23
Casting work cycle design
§ Once the pattern is designed, it is possible to start designing the
feeding systems.
107 Mar-23
Liquid and Solidification shrinkage
§ (Liquid) and solidification shrinkage (VTC–VTS) is controlled through
the feeding system, composed of one or more risers, placed so that
they supply liquid metal to compensate metal lacks. To work, they
must be the last parts where solidification ends.
108 Mar-23
Liquid and Solidification shrinkage
§ Volume contraction while solidification depends on cast material

and on external pressure.
NOTE: gray cast iron has negative volume contraction (expansion). This is due to
metallurgical transformation during phase change (formation of graphite, with
lower density). When it happens, this phenomenon is generally helpful.
109 Mar-23
Liquid and solidification shrinkage
§ Solidification always starts near to the surface. Since volume decreases,
liquid surface gets lower. As solidification goes on, a shrinkage cone is
generated.
We need an extra metal supply (riser), where solidification occurs later.
110 Mar-23
§ In a closed mold, shrinkage produces voids (i.e. shrinkage cavities),

always located very far from the surface .
Well designed
risers (last in
solidifying) can
control this effect
also in this case.
111 Mar-23
Example of a void:
112 Mar-23
Solubility of gases
§ Some gases are far less soluble in solid metals than in their molten phase
(example: Hydrogen in Aluminum alloys). The excess of gas is released
and it forms bubbles (gas porosity, pinhole porosity.
113 Mar-23
Solubility of gases
§ Hydrogen is especially harmful in castings: it comes mainly from dissociation of
atmospheric humidity (at high temperatures water vapor splits into H and O).
Gas content in molten metal (exp. Al) can be controlled by:

Chemical degassing: specific compounds are added to molten metal to form insoluble
compounds; these are removed with the slag (compound removal is often assisted by
Argon fluxing).
Vacuum m elting, vacuum casting: ve ry low pre ssure p roced ure s t o pre vent
contamination from air and to remove gases already dissolved in the metal. In die-
casting, low pressure helps metal injection.
Pressure casting: such as in injection molding, die casting, squeeze casting etc.;
pressure on the molten metal during die filling helps in reducing porosity.
114 Mar-23
Design of a Riser
§ The casting process is essentially a phase transformation of metals from liquid to solid
state in a mold cavity. This phase transformation is accompanied by some volumetric
shrinkage in most of the cast metals. In order to produce a sound casting, it is necessary
to provide means for compensating volumetric shrinkage.
§ Functions of a Riser:
Ø It acts as a reservoir of molten metal in the mold to compensate for shrinkage
during solidification
Ø It gives an indication that the cavity is full with the molten metal
Ø It also enables escape of hot gases during pouring of moleten metal
§ Need of Riser design:

ü An undersized riser could lead to shrinkage defects and ultimately results in rejection of the casting
ü An oversized riser requires excess molten metal and results in excess power or fuel consumption for
melting
Feeding system
Guide lines for riser design and location:

Ø The riser must not solidify before the casting- it should freeze later than the
casting section it is feeding.
Ø The volume of riser (s) must be large enough to feed the entire shrinkage of
the casting.
Ø The pressure head from the riser should enable complete cavity filling
Ø Risers must be placed so that the liquid metal can be delivered to locations
where it is most needed (directional solidification).
116 Mar-23
Types of solidification within casting
 Directional solidification: solidification that occurs from farthest
end of the casting and works its way towards the sprue or riser.
 Progressive (parallel) solidification: solidification that starts at

the wall of the casting and progresses perpendicularly from that
surface. Excessive progressive solidification leads to shrinkage defects.
117 Mar-23
 There are few methods by which damages due to shrinkage can be minimized. they are directional
solidification methods.
 Method 1: providing risers: molten metal will continually be available from the risers to prevent
shrinkage voids during freezing.
 Method 2: providing chills: chills can be provided at appropriate locations in order to have rapid
solidification at those points. internal and external chills can be provided.
 Internal chills: small metal parts are placed inside the mold cavity before pouring so that the molten metal will solidify
first around these parts.
 External chills: they are metal inserts kept in mold walls that can extract heat from the molten metal more rapidly than
the surrounding sand in order to promote localized solidification. they are mainly used in sections of the casting that are
difficult to supply with molten metal
118 Mar-23
Feeding system
Directional solidification resulting from a gradual variation of thickness helps
avoiding porosity.
Thickness changes (and resulting thermal gradient) should be enough to prevent

porosity, although not too high that solid shrinkage could cause problems.
119 Mar-23
Feeding system
Types of Risers
1. Top risers (open)- are the most common and most efficient risers
provided on castings where hot-spots are accessible from the top directly.
They are easy to mold, fettle and act efficiently by gravitational force.
They also help to exhaust mold gases and indicate filling of mold cavity
with metal forming complete casting.
2. Side risers (open)- are provided on casting having hot spots not
accessible for direct top risers. They help in reducing excess metal of
padding and reduce fettling cost.
3. Blind risers- are used to feed localized hot-spots which are below
parting line and not accessible for top as well as side risers. Some times,
when a casting shape has a profile with different heights, the higher spots
are feed by open top risers and lowers spots by blind risers.
120 Mar-23
Feeding system
Feeding system design includes:
choice of riser(s) location;
choice of riser(s) number;
choice of riser type;
dimensioning of each riser;
dimensioning of each riser neck(connection between the riser to the casting).
121
Figure: Types of Risers
Feeding system
Procedure of Riser design:
Ø Dividing the casting into suitable zones for feeding depending on its geometry.
Ø Calculating the modulus of each zone
Ø Deciding the size of riser
Ø Deciding the number of risers from feeding distance data.
Ø Cross check feed metal availability from risers decided against feed metal
required from volumetric shrinkage- to correct if needed.
122 Mar-23
Methods of Riser Design:
1. Caine’s method
2. Modulus method
3. Naval Research Laboratory method (NRLM)
1. Caine’s Method:
Ø J.B.Caine in 1949 conducted extensive experiments on risering. he
examined the presence and absence of shrinkage defects in various castings.

Ø He developed a term called ‘freezing ratio’, which is defined as:
123
Mar-23
Caine’s method
 Based on freezing ratio values he has given an idea to identify a shrinkage
defects in the castings.
 The graph plotted by Caine predicts whether the casting would be a sound or
defective one.
Another definition for freezing ratio by
Caine’s:
where:
Ø x is freezing ratio,
Ø Y is volume of riser/volume of casting
Ø a,b,c are constants depends on material
Material a b c
Steel 0.1 0.03 1.0
Aluminum 0.1 0.06 1.08
Cast iron, brass 0.04 0.017 1.0
Gray cast iron 0.33 0.03 1.0
Mar-23
silicon bronze 0.24 0.017 1.0
cont..
 Limitations of Caine’s method:
Ø For each material the constants (a, b, c) keep changing
Ø Calculation of freezing ratio is difficult, if the surface of the casting is complex
Ø The solution is to be obtained by trial and error method and hence the method is tedious.
2. Modulus Method:
Ø Nicolas Chvorinov (1939) found that solidification time was directly related to a casting’s
volume to surface area. Chvorinov volume to surface area ratio is termed as solidification
modulus or modulus. It became the basis for the modulus method.
where:TST is total solidification time,V- volume of the casting, A- surface area of the casting, n - exponent usually taken as 2 and 𝐶 is a constant
which depends on mold material
125 Mar-23
Modulus method
 A casting with a higher modulus (V/SA) cools and solidifies more slowly than the one with
a lower modulus
 To feed molten metal to the casting, TST of the riser must be greater than TST of the
casting.
 Since the mold constants of the riser and cast will be equal, riser should be designed to have
a larger modulus so that the main casting solidifies first.
 NB: Ideal shape of a riser is a sphere, but in actual case a sphere shape is complex and mostly cylindrical shape of a riser is widely adopted.
 Requirements of the riser to feed the casting:
MR and MC are modulus of riser and casting respectively.
126 Mar-23
Feeding system
Let us evaluate the modules of elementary shapes:
Thus, a sphere with radius R and a cube of side 2R have the same modulus.
NOTE: anyway, they do not have THE SAME VOLUME!
127 Mar-23
Feeding system
For a plate:
§ Plate with thickness T:
§ For an infinitely broad plate (heat exchange on the sides is

negligible)
128 Mar-23
For other geometries:
Long bars:
cylinder with radius R and height H:
Only when BOTH base surfaces are effective

(very often at least one is adiabatic…).
Hollow cylinder
129 Mar-23
Feeding system
Let us check some properties of the modulus:
Ø if we ideally detach a small cube from a large plate
Thus, a subset part (a fraction of a whole) has the same modulus

of the whole part.
130 Mar-23
Feeding system
As an example, let us consider a casting having this shape:
Let us find a correct riser(s) position.
131 Mar-23
Feeding system
Let us decompose the casting into three elementary parts A, B
and C, then evaluate the modulus of each single part (take care of
adiabatic surfaces).
132 Mar-23
Feeding system
Assuming the following part dimensions, we have the following

modules:
L = 200 mm
RA = RB = 50mm MA = 23.5 mm
HA = 400mm MB = 35.7 mm
HB = 150mm MC = 21.4 mm
Since: MB > MA > MC

we can conclude that solidification takes place first in C,
then in A and last in B.
133 Mar-23
Feeding system
Take care not to overestimate the accuracy of Chvorinov’s law.
Remember the assumption underlying this empirical rule:
constant heat flux on all surfaces (e.g., in some cases surfaces

exchanging towards cores are fictitiously reduced to take into account
a lower heat flux, due to core overheating);
perfectly adiabatic (ideal) surfaces of contacting parts;
the effect of chills (or other thermally affecting devices) is neglected;
Dendritic solidification (affecting metal flow) is neglected;
In practice, we can reasonably assume that part A will solidify after

part B(for neighboring parts, this means that A will feed B during
solidification) if its modulus is at least 10% larger:
MA ≥ 1.1*MB
134 Mar-23
Feeding system
Thus, by dividing the casting into parts and evaluating part modulus, we can
follow casting solidification.
During solidification, “slower” parts can feed the neighboring “fast” parts,
supplying molten metal and compensating solidification shrinkage, that is,
they act as risers.
The slowest casting part must be fed by the riser. To be sure in general, it is
required that:
MR ≥ 1.2*MP
135 Mar-23
Feeding system
136 Mar-23
Feeding system
137 Mar-23
Feeding system
138 Mar-23
Feeding system
• This solution works also for cubes with different size (after solidification of B, part C is no
longer able to feed A, no matter how much molten metal is still available over there):
139 Mar-23
Feeding system
The “fineness "of casting division (number of sub-parts) for modulus evaluation
should be enough to represent directional solidification, but not excessive
because too many sub-parts would not increase the amount of information
(while increasing the amount of computation).
As a general rule, it is better to chose parts with simple (elementary) geometry.
140 Mar-23
cont...
 Advantages of modulus method:
Ø The method is independent of the material constants of the casting e.g. a,b, c
Ø The method is simple and not tedious like Cane’s method
• Disadvantages of Modulus method:
ü The modulus (V/SA) of the casting depends upon the surface area
ü Determination of the surface area of the complex geometry casting becomes difficult
3. Naval Research Laboratory Method (NRLM)

§ NRL method was developed by H.F.Bishop and his team at Naval Reasearch laboratory (US Navy) in 1955.
§ In this method, the Caine’s freezing ratio was replaced by a shape factor for the casting section to be feed.
Shape factor is defined as:
where: L is length, w- width and T is thickness, Note: L>W>T
141 Mar-23
NRL method
 Once the shape factor for the casting section is calculated, the riser size can be directly
determined through an empirical relation given by the NRL graph.

 This method is applicable for carbon steel (low, medium and high carbon steel) and low alloy steel.
Figure: NRL graph Figure: NRL Riser selection chart

NRL Method
Figure: NRL Riser selection chart

143 Mar-23
Parasitic volume in NRL method
 The casting is a plate like castings with an additional branch on the right (left) side.
This is known as parasitic volume.
 For the calculation purpose first the parasitic volume will be ignored and the shape
factor will be obtained. then for final riser volume 30% of the parasitic volume will
be added on the riser volume without parasitic part.
𝐅𝐢𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐑𝐢𝐬𝐞𝐫 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 = 𝐑𝐢𝐬𝐞𝐫 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 (𝐰𝐢𝐭𝐡𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐚𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞) + 𝟑𝟎% 𝐨𝐟 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐚𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞
Parasitic part
144 Mar-23
cont...
 Advantages of NRL method:
Ø The freezing ratio and surface area of the casting need not to be calculated
Ø Most of the results can be obtained from the graph, needs very less calculation
Ø The riser dimensions can be selected in different combinations of diameter and
height. NB: H/D ratio needs to be within 0.5 to 1 range

Ø Flexibility for dimension selection based on the mold box size and convenience
• Limitations of NRL method:
ü The method is applicable only for carbon steels and low alloy steels
145 Mar-23
cont...
4. Risering of alloys other than carbon and low alloy steels:
 J.Varga and his team (Battele memorial institute, USA, 1958) carried out investigations on
the risering of alloys other than carbon and low alloy steels, i.e. high alloy steels
 They begun their investigations with the shape factor concept, proposed by NRL method.
 High alloy steel investigated by this team are: HF, HH, HT, CF-8, CA-15
 J.Varga and his team developed three empirical charts, similar with NRL graph.
Table: High alloy steel

Alloy Chemical Composition by weight percent
C Mn Si P S Mo Cr Ni Fe
HF 0.2 - 0.4 2.0 2.0 0.04 0.04 0.5 18 -23 8 - 12 Balanced
HH 0.2 - 0.5 2.0 2.0 0.04 0.04 0.5 24 - 28 11 - 14 Bal.
HT 0.35 - 0.75 2.0 2.5 0.04 0.04 0.5 15 - 19 33 - 37 Bal.
CF-8 0.09 - 0.09 1.5 2.0 0.04 0.04 - 19 9 Bal.
146 CA-15 0.12 - 0.18 1.0 1.5 - - - 12.5 10 Bal.
cont...
Risering of alloys other than carbon and low alloy steels:
 This graph can be used to design top blind risers for the high alloy steels.
147 Mar-23
Figure: J.Varga Empirical chart
cont...
 Advantages:
Ø No need of calculation for finding the freezing ratio and surface area of the
casting
Ø method is easy due to the use of shape factor
§ Disadvantage:
Ø Applicable only for few high alloy steels (HF, HH, HT, CF-8, CA-15 alloys)
Ø only blind top risers can be designed
Ø riser dimensions cann’t be selected in different combinations of diameter and height. Dr= Hr
148 Mar-23
Feed metal Volume
 The riser should take care of the casting shrinkage as well as its own
shrinkage.
 some volume of liquid metal from the riser solidifies during the
process of feeding. hence, the entire volume of the riser will not be
available for the purpose of feeding.
 The feeder must compensate solidification shrinkage.
where: α is percentage of volumetric shrinkage of cast metal, is riser effeciency.
o Riser effeciency: is the ratio of total feed metal available to the total volume of riser.
Ø Riser effeciency can be improved by achieving directional solidification and modifying its design.
Ø Open cylindrical risers have a low effeciency (less than 15%), so it needs exothermic cover and sleeve
to increase its effeciency upto 70% or more.
Mar-23
149
Metal or Alloy % of Volumetric Shrinkage
Pure Aluminium 6.6
Aluminium- 12% Si alloy 3.8
Aluminium - 4.5% Cu alloy 6.3
Gray Cast iron 0 - 1.8
White Iron 4 - 5.5
Plain Carbon steel 2.5 - 4
Copper 4.5
Tin Bronze 5.5
Aluminium Bronze 4.0
Magnesium 4.2
Zinc 6.5
Lead 3.2
150 Gold 5.5 Mar-23
Method of Improving Riser Efficiency
1. Directional Solidification
Ø Using insulating sleeves
Ø using Chills
Ø using exothermic materials
2. Blind Risers
3. Modification of Design
ü Multiple risering
ü Bottle risering
ü Safety margin
ü Riser necking
ü Tapering
151 Mar-23
Feeding system
A directional solidification may be achieved by modifying the heat flux

(rather than the geometry).
It is possible:
to increase heat flux where a fast cooling is desired (chills)
to decrease heat flux where a slow cooling is desired (insulating pads and
sleeves). This solution is more often used on risers than on castings.
152 Mar-23
Feeding system
Chills may be of several kinds:

§ blocks and plates embedded in the mold sand (or in the core);
§ heat conductive blocks in contact with molten metal;
153 Mar-23
Feeding system
q Feeding aids used in riser design: feeding aids are widely used by the
foundry to increase casting soundness and to reduce the cost of casting
manufacture.
q Feeding aids reduce the rate of heat transfer from the riser to the molding
medium and to the atmosphere. In riser design, three types of feeding aids are
commonly used:
Ø Riser sleeves or panels: used to insulate the riser sidewall or riser top from the mold
Ø Topping compounds are used to insulate the top of open risers from the atmosphere
Ø Breaker cores are used between the riser and the casting to facilitate the removal of the
riser from the casting
154 Mar-23
Feeding system
Fig. Application of feeding aids
155 Mar-23
Feeding system
Fig. effect of riser aids on the solidification time of various alloys
156 Mar-23
using exothermic materials for riser efficiency
 Exothermic compounds are mixtures of metallic oxide (oxides of Ni,
Co, Cu, Mn, Fe , etc) and aluminium.
 they are placed on the top of the riser, then an exothermic rxn will
result on the top of a riser.
It will take longer time for the solidification.
2. Blind Riser: heat loss is minimium (the molten metal will stay
longer time), which will facilitate directional solidification
157 Mar-23
cont...
3. Modification of Design:
a) Multiple risering: a riser can feed the casting only upto a certain distance. this distance
is known as feeding distance. based on the feeding distance, multiple risers have to be
incorporated, if required.
§ The feeding distance of a riser needs to be calculated before finalizing the number of risers.
§ Feeding distance: the distance upto which a riser can feed the casting during solidification.
§ Feeding distance has two components: End effect and Riser effect
§ End effect: The ends of the casting has no shrinkage, this is due to the rapid solidification at
the end and feeding from the inner portion of the casting, this is because of end effect. End
effect promotes a distance of where: T is the tickness of the section.
§ Riser Effect: feeding distance covered by the riser. Riser effect promotes a distance of .
§ Total Feeding distance due to end effect and riser effect =
Mar-23
158
Feeding System
Riser
There are several empirical rules to estimate the range of effect of a riser:
§ Metals Handbook: plates having thickness T(and width > 3·T)
159 Mar-23
Feeding system
Metals Handbook: bars (square cross section, side T)
160 Mar-23
Feeding system
Giusti Santochi:
with
k= 3.5 –5 for steel
k= 5 for iron
k= 5 –8 for bronze
k= 5 –7 for aluminum alloys
161 Mar-23
Feeding distance
§ The Feeding distance is always measured from the edges of the riser to the furthest point in the casting section to
be feed by that riser.
RZL: Riser zone length

EZL: End zone length
FD: Feeding distance
FL: Feeding length
FD= RZL + EZL
If the value of FL> FD then it

results shrinkage porosity
162
Mar-23
163 Mar-23
Feeding System
 Feeding length greater than feeding distance results centerline shrinkage.
 Ways to increase the feeding distance: Chills
Fig. effect of chills on feeding distance relationships in steel bar

Fig. feeding distance relationships in steel plates
164 Mar-23
Cont...
b) Bottle Riser:
§ A primary shrinkage hole (pipe) created quickly in a riser can feed metal into the casting
effectively.
§ If the liquid metal in the riser is not open to the atmosphere (skins over), the riser will not
function. Atmospheric pressure is necessary to push metal into the casting.
§ A bottle riser (Heine riser) has such a small area at the top diameter that it will begin
to pipe very quickly. So, inorder to have sufficient feed metal volume these risers must be
taller than classical designs. The height to diameter ratios will be 1.5 : 1
Riser top diameter
165
Formula for bottle riser
 𝒔
 Casting feed metal required = 4% of casting weight
 Riser feed volume is determined by riser top diameter and height to diameter ratio.
Use tallest riser possible for flask size.
 Riser height = H/D ratio * Riser top diameter
Table: Feed metal for bottle riser

H:D = 8:1 H:D = 6:1 H:D = 5:1
Top diameter Feed weight Top diameter Feed weight Top diameter Feed weight
(mm) (gram) (mm) (gram) (mm) (gram)
10 44 10 32 10 28
20 352 20 264 20 219
30 1186 30 890 30 741
40 2813 40 2110 40 1758
50 5495 50 4121 50 3434
166
Mar-23
cont...
c) Safety Margin (SM): is the distance from the riser casting contact
surface to the tip of the riser pipe.
Ø If the safety margin just touching the casting it will not have a problem
Ø If the SM is below the casting surface, then the riser pipe extends into the casting, in such a case,
shrinkage cavity will arise in the casting.
Ø If the SM is too much above the casting surface it means extra length of the riser is involved
(wastage of feed metal)
q SM should be minimum, it should not be zero and not be zero.
q The optimum values of SM is 2 to 5 cm.
Mar-23
167
Cont...
d) Riser Neck: To promote
directional solidification from the
casting into the riser
Figure: General design rules for riser necks

used in iron casting:
(a) Riser necks for general Riser designs
(b) Side riser for plates
(c) Top round riser
Where: D- diameter of riser,

T - Thickness of the cast
Hn - thickness of neck = 0.6 - 0.8T
Ln - radius of neck = D/3
Wn - Width of the neck
168
Feeding system
Riser necks and breaker cores
 To promote directional solidification from the casting into the riser,
the modulus of the riser neck, Mr, should be intermediate to the
modulus of the casting and riser. The general rule for riser modulus is
Mr = 1.2Mc
 The general rule for riser neck design is Mn =1.1 Mc
 Depending on the chemistry of the casting, riser necks for gray and
ductile irons can have modulus in the range of 0.67 to 1.1 times the
casting modulus.
169 Mar-23
Feeding system
Fig. general design rule for riser necks used in iron casting
170 Mar-23
Feeding system
Also riser insertion(riser neck), that is the channel connecting riser and
casting, needs to be dimensioned.
For directional solidification we need:
Depending on riser type, some results are available:
171 Mar-23
Cont...
e) Tapering: By tapering the casting it is possible to improve the
riser efficiency.
Figure: Taper in a plate with a top riser
172 Mar-23

2 - 2 Fundamentals of Casting

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Addis Ababa Institute of Technology

School of Mechanical & Industrial Engineering

 Types of Chiller: Internal chiller and External chiller

2. External Chills: placed outside the casting.

13. Gate cutter:

14. Bellows gun:

Closed molding boxes:

Closed molding boxes

 Green sand compositions:

Ingridient Proportion (wt. %)

Chemical composition of zircon sand:

Zircon sand Ferrous Oxide (Fe2O3) 0.04

Zircon sand is the better candidate for sound casting.

chemical composition of olivine sand(Magnesium iron silicate (MgFe)2SiO4):

Properties of chromite sand: Good thermal conductivity, good resistance to thermal

Aluminium silicate sand

Properties of molding sand

Silica sand Chromite sand Zircon sand Olivine sand

22 Illite clay Kaolinite

to the smectite group.

alteration of volcanic tuffs due to acid or alkaline rain.

1. Southern bentonite (calcium bentonite): also known as non-swelling

2. Western bentonite (sodium bentonite): also known as swelling bentonite.

offers better flow than sodium bentonite and lower deformation.

Ø To develop a smooth surface on the casting

Ø To prevent metal penetration defects (fins, projections)

Ø To prevent oxidation of the metal from the mold atmosphere

Ø To create a space between the sand grains to expand without deforming

Ø To improve the collapsibility of the mold

Ø To stabilize green sand properties e.g green strength.

ii. Dextrin: is an organic additive obtained by the hydrolysis of starch.

 At each sand circulation, a part of the sand grains is coated by this

dead clay, this is known as Oolitisation process

 dead clay reduces the expansion of the green sand

Proportion of the green sand for Steel casting

Optimum Metal to sand ratio

 Green sand preparation machine (muller)

 Pneumatic sand conveyor for mass production

iii. Grain distribution:

2. Clay content test

3. Grain fineness test

Ø The amount of acetylene gas produced depends on the amount of moisture.

A. Clay content test to determine the amount of dead clay:

U.S. Series Equivalent Sand Retained Multiplier Product

Where: v is volume of air (cc), H is height of specimen (cm), A is area of specimen

Figure: Green compression strength test machine setup

Figure: Dry compression strength test machine setup

§ Types of cores: Green sand and Dry sand cores

§ Ingredients of dry sand cores:

Cold box curing method 2:

Figure: Half core box

Figure: Dumb core box

Figure: Split core box

Ø helps to achieve better surface finish

Ø helps to reduce defects, particularly, surface defects and penetration defects

Table: Classification of core coatings

Figure: Two piece split pattern

Figure: Cope and drag pattern

67 Figure: Sweep pattern