IoT and Its Applications in

Electrical Engineering
(PEEE5053T)
Unit-I
Transducers, Sensors and Actuators
Introduction and classification of Transducers,
Sensors and Actuators, Types of Sensors: Motion
Detectors, Force Sensors, Temperature and Humidity
Sensors, Light Sensor, Level Sensor, Ultrasonic
Sensor, Current and voltage Sensor, Types of
Actuators, Solenoid, DC Motor, AC Motor and Stepper
motor.
Transducers
• A transducer is any device which converts one form of energy into another.
Examples of common transducers include the following:
1. A microphone converts sound into electrical impulses and a loudspeaker converts
electrical impulses into sound (i.e., sound energy to electrical energy and vice versa).
2. A solar cell converts light into electricity and a thermocouple converts thermal energy
into electrical energy.
3. An incandescent light bulb produces light by passing a current through a filament.
Thus, a light bulb is a transducer for converting electrical energy into optical energy.
4. An electric motor is a transducer for conversion of electricity into mechanical energy
or motion.
• An actuator is a device that actuates or moves something. An actuator uses
energy to provide motion. Therefore, an actuator is a specific type of a
transducer.
Basic Concepts of Transducers
• There are many variables which affect our everyday lives: the
speed of a car, the velocity of the wind, and the temperature in a
home.
• In most situations these variables are continuously monitored. It is
these variables that are the feedback that is used to control the
speed of a car, the operation of an air conditioner, heater levels,
and oven temperatures.
• The elements that sense these variables and convert them to a
usable output are transducers.
Definition
• A transducer is defined as a substance or a
device that converts (or transfers) an input
energy into a different output energy.
• Because of this broad definition, transducers
come in many varieties converting many
different types of energy.
Types of transducers
• Electrochemical Transducers
• pH probe – Converts chemical energy into an electrical energy
• Molecular electric transducer – Converts motion in an electrolytic solution into
electrical energy
• Battery – Converts chemical energy directly into electrical energy
• Fuel cell – Converts the energy from a reaction within a fuel cell to electrical energy
• Electroacoustic
• Loudspeaker – Converts an electrical signal into sound
• Microphone – Converts sound waves in air into an electrical signal
• Hydrophone - Converts sound waves in water into an electrical signal.
• Electromagnetic
• Magnetic cartridge – Converts motion in a magnetic field into an electrical energy
• Generator – Converts motion in a magnetic field into electrical energy
Types of transducers
• Electrostatic Transducers
• Electrometer – Converts static or energy from a vibrating reed into electricity
• Van de Graaf generator – Converts static into high voltage
Types of transducers
• Electromechanical Transducers
• Strain gauge – Converts the deformation (strain) of an object into electrical
resistance
• Galvanometer – Converts the electric current of a coil in a magnetic field into
movement
• Generators – Converts mechanical energy (motion) into electrical energy.
• Motor – Converts electrical energy into mechanical energy
• Photoelectric Transducers
• Cathode ray tube (CRT) –Converts electrical signals into light energy for a
visual output
• Light bulb –Converts electrical energy into visible light and heat (explained in
next section)
• Laser diode – Converts electrical energy into light energy
• Photodiode - Converts light energy into electrical energy
Types of transducers
• Thermoelectric Transducers
• Thermocouple – Converts heat energy into electrical energy
• Temperature sensitive resistor (Thermister) – a variable
resistor affected by temperature changes (heat energy to
electrical energy)
Sensor
• Sensors are fundamental building blocks of IoT networks.
• Sensors are the foundational elements found in smart objects—the
“things” in the Internet of Things
• The words sensors and transducers are widely used in association
with measurement systems. The sensor is an element that
produces signals relating to the quantity that is being measured.
• According to Instrument Society of America, “a sensor is a device
that provides usable output in response to a specified quantity
which is measured.” The word sensor is derived from the original
meaning ‘to perceive.’
• In simple terms, a sensor is a device that detects changes and
events in a physical stimulus and provides a corresponding output
signal that can be measured and/or recorded. Here, the output
signal can be any measurable signal and is generally an electrical
quantity.
• Sensors are devices that perform input function in a system as
they ‘sense’ the changes in a quantity. The best example of a sensor
is mercury thermometer. Here the quantity that is being measured
is heat or temperature. The measured temperature is converted to
a readable value on the calibrated glass tube, based on the
expansion and contraction of liquid mercury.
A sensor: It senses
• More specifically, a sensor measures some physical quantity and
converts that measurement reading into a digital representation.
• That digital representation is typically passed to another device
for transformation into useful data that can be consumed by
intelligent devices or humans
• Sensors are not limited to human-like sensory data.
• They are able to provide an extremely wide spectrum of rich and
diverse measurement data with far greater precision than human
senses
NEED FOR SENSORS
• Sensors are omnipresent. They embedded in our bodies,
automobiles, airplanes, cellular telephones, radios, chemical
plants, industrial plants and countless other applications.
• Sensors in industrial applications being used for process control,
monitoring, and safety, and in medicine being used for diagnostics,
There monitoring, critical care, and public health.
• Sensors can improve the world through diagnostics in medical
applications; improved performance of energy sources like fuel
cells and batteries and solar power; improved health and safety
and security for people; sensors for exploring space and improved
environmental monitoring
NEED FOR SENSORS
• Without the use of sensors, there would be no automation!
• In our day-to-day life we frequently use different types of sensors
in several applications.
• We can find different types of Sensors in our homes, offices, cars
etc. Working to make our lives easier by turning on the lights by
detecting our presence, adjusting the room temperature, detect
smoke or fire, make us delicious coffee and open garage doors as
soon as our car is near the door and many other tasks.
CHARACTERISTICS
1. Range It is the difference between the maximum and minimum
value of the sensed parameter. Temperature range of a
thermocouple is 25-225°C.
2. Resolution The smallest change the sensor can differentiate. It is
also frequently known as the least count of the sensor.
Resolution of an digital sensor is easily determined.
3. Sensitivity It is the ratio of change in output to a unit change of
the input. The sensitivity of digital sensors is closely related to
the resolution. The sensitivity of an analog sensor is the slope of
the output vs input line, or sensor exhibiting truly linear
behaviour has a constant sensitivity over the entire input range.
4. Error Error is the difference between the result of the measurement
and the true value of the quantity being measured. The classification of
errors are as follows:
• Bias errors (systematic errors)
• Precision (Random errors)
Bias errors are present in all measurement made with a given sensor
and cannot be detected (or) removed by statically means.
5. Accuracy It is the difference between measured value and true value.
The accuracy defines the closeness between the actual measured value
and a true value.
6. Precision Precision is the ability to reproduce repeatedly with a given
accuracy.
7. Repeatability The ability of a sensor to give same output for repeated
applications of same input value.
Repeatability = (maximum – minimum values given) X 100 ⁄ full range
8. Impedance It is the ratio of voltage and current flow for sensor. For a
resistive sensor, the impedance Z is same as the resistance R& its unit is
ohms.
ZR = V/I = R
9. Response time Response time is the amount of time required for a
sensor to respond completely to a change in input. It describes the speed
of change in the output on a step-wise change of the measurand.
10. Linearity Percentage of deviation from the best fit linear calibration
curve.
11. Non-Linearity
The nonlinearity
indicates the maximum
deviation of the actual
measured curve of a
sensor from the ideal
curve.
Nonlinearity (%) =
Maximum deviation in
input ⁄ Maximum full scale
input
11. Dead band/time The dead band or dead space of a transducer is
the range of input values for which there is no output. The dead
time of a sensor device is the time duration from the application of
an input until the output begins to respond or change.

12. Backlash In engineering, backlash, sometimes called lash or play,

is a clearance or lost motion in a mechanism caused by gaps
between the parts.
Analog Sensors
• Analog Sensors produce a continuous output signal or voltage
which is generally proportional to the quantity being measured.
• Physical quantities such as Temperature, Speed, Pressure,
Displacement, Strain etc. are all analog quantities as they tend to
be continuous in nature.
• For example, the temperature of a liquid can be measured using a
thermometer or thermocouple (e.g. in geysers) which
continuously responds to temperature changes as the liquid is
heated up or cooled down.
Digital Sensors
• Digital Sensors produce discrete digital output signals or voltages
that are a digital representation of the quantity being measured.
• Digital sensors produce a binary output signal in the form of a
logic “1” or a logic “0”, (“ON” or “OFF”).
• Digital signal only produces discrete (non‐continuous) values,
which may be output as a single “bit” (serial transmission), or by
combining the bits to produce a single “byte” output (parallel
transmission).
Scalar Sensors
• Scalar Sensors produce output signal or voltage which is generally
proportional to the magnitude of the quantity being measured.
• Physical quantities such as temperature, color, pressure, strain, etc.
are all scalar quantities as only their magnitude is sufficient to
convey an information.
• For example, the temperature of a room can be measured using a
thermometer or thermocouple, which responds to temperature
changes irrespective of the orientation of the sensor or its
direction.
Vector Sensors
• Vector Sensors produce output signal or voltage which is generally
proportional to the magnitude, direction, as well as the orientation
of the quantity being measured.
• Physical quantities such as sound, image, velocity, acceleration,
orientation, etc. are all vector quantities, as only their magnitude is
not sufficient to convey the complete information.
• For example, the acceleration of a body can be measured using an
accelerometer, which gives the components of acceleration of the
body with respect to the x,y,z coordinate axes.
Types of Sensors
• Temperature sensors •Chemical sensors
• Pressure sensors
•Gas sensors
• Motion sensors
•Smoke sensors
• Level sensors
•Infrared (IR) sensors
• Image sensors
•Acceleration sensors
• Proximity sensors
• Water quality sensors •Gyroscopic sensors
• Occupancy Detectors •Humidity sensors
• Force Sensors •Optical sensors
• Strain Sensors
• https://nptel.ac.in/courses/106105195
 Motion Detectors
• A motion sensor (or motion detector) is an electronic device that is
designed to detect and measure movement. Motion sensors are used
primarily in home and business security systems, but they can also be
found in phones, paper towel dispensers, game consoles, and virtual
reality systems.
• Unlike many other types of sensors (which can be handheld and
isolated), motion sensors are typically embedded systems with three
major components: a sensor unit, an embedded computer, and
hardware (or the mechanical component).
• These three parts vary in size and configuration, as motion sensors can
be customized to perform highly specific functions. For example, motion
sensors can be used to activate floodlights, trigger audible alarms,
activate switches, and even alert the police.
• Motion detectors are classified based on how they detect motion. The two
divisions are listed below with a brief explanation of their operation:
• Active detectors – Also referred to as radar-based motion detectors,
activated sensors emit waves, i.e. radio waves, which reflect off nearby
objects and reflect back to a detector. The sensor looks for a Doppler
(frequency) shift in the wave when it returns to detector, which would
indicate that the wave has hit a moving object. If it detects a Doppler shift,
it activates to show it has detected motion.
• Passive detectors – Infrared (heat) energy levels are analysed by passive
detectors. The sensor can detect objects that vary from the ambient
temperature of the area being scanned; for example, a person will emit
between 9 and 10 µm of infrared energy. When this signal is received and
shown to be moving across the area, motion is detected.
PIR Sensor Working Principle
• PIR sensors allow you to sense motion. They are small,
inexpensive, low-power, easy to use and don't wear out. For that
reason they are commonly found in appliances and gadgets used
in homes or businesses.

What is a PIR Sensor?

• A passive infrared sensor is an electronic sensor that measures infrared light
radiating from objects. PIR sensors mostly used in PIR-based motion detectors. Also, it
used in security alarms and automatic lighting applications. The below image shows a
typical pin configuration of the PIR sensor, which is quite simple to understand the
pinouts. The PIR sensor consist of 3 pins,

•Pin1 corresponds to the drain terminal of

the device, which connected to the positive
supply 5V DC.
•Pin2 corresponds to the source terminal of
the device, which connects to the ground
terminal via a 100K or 47K resistor. The Pin2
is the output pin of the sensor. The pin 2 of
the sensor carries the detected IR signal to an
amplifier from the
•Pin3 of the sensor connected to the ground.
What does a PIR Sensor detect?
• PIR sensor can detect
animal/human movement
in a requirement range. PIR
is made of a pyroelectric
sensor, which is able to
detect different levels of
infrared radiation. The
detector itself does not emit
any energy but passively
receives it.
• It detects infrared radiation from the environment. Once there is infrared radiation from the human
body particle with temperature, focusing on the optical system causes the pyroelectric device to
generate a sudden electrical signal.
• Simply, when a human body or any animal passes by, then it intercepts the first slot of the PIR sensor.
This causes a positive differential change between the two bisects. When a human body leaves the
sensing area,the sensor generates a negative differential change between the two bisects.
PIR Sensor Working Principle
• The passive infrared sensor does not radiate energy to space. It receives
the infrared radiation from the human body to make an alarm. Any object with
temperature is constantly radiating infrared rays to the outside world.
• The surface temperature of the human body is between 36° C - 27 ° C and most
of its radiant energy concentrated in the wavelength range of 8 um-12 um.
• Passive infrared alarms classified into infrared detectors (infrared probes)
and alarm control sections. The most widely used infrared detector is a
pyroelectric detector. It uses as a sensor for converting human infrared
radiation into electricity.
• If the human infrared radiation is directly irradiated on the detector, it will, of
course, cause a temperature change to output a signal. But in doing all this, the
detection distance will not be more.
• In order to lengthen the detection distance of the detector, an optical
system must be added to collect the infrared radiation. Usually, plastic optical
reflection system or plastic Fresnel lens used as a focusing system for infrared
radiation.
Range of PIR Sensor
• Indoor passive infrared: Detection distances range from 25 cm to
20 m.
• Indoor curtain type: The detection distance ranges from 25 cm to
20 m.
• Outdoor passive infrared: The detection distance ranges from 10
meters to 150 meters.
• Outdoor passive infrared curtain detector: distance from 10
meters to 150 meters
Active Detectors
• Active Detectors are also known as Radar-based motion sensors.
The active detector sensors emit the radio waves/ microwaves
across a room or other place, which strike on nearby objects and
reflect it back to the sensor detector.
• When an object moves in a motion sensor-controlled area at this
time, the sensor looks for a Doppler (frequency) shift in the wave
when it returns to the sensor detector, which would indicate that
the wave has hit a moving object. The Motion sensor is able to
understand these changes and send an electrical signal to the
alarm system, light, or other types of device that is connected to
the motion sensor.
• When an object moves in a motion sensor-controlled area at this
time, the sensor looks for a Doppler (frequency) shift in the wave
when it returns to the sensor detector, which would indicate that
the wave has hit a moving object.
• The Motion sensor is able to
understand these changes and
send an electrical signal to the
alarm system, light, or other
types of device that is connected
to the motion sensor.
• Active sensors that use microwaves for movement detection are
mostly used in such applications as automatic doors in shopping
malls and similar applications, but can also be found in house
security alarm systems and are used for indoor lighting systems.
• Active motion sensors are not best suitable for outdoor lighting or
similar applications as a movement of random objects such as
windblown things, smaller animals and, even larger insects can be
detected by the active sensor and lightning will be triggered.
Force Sensors
• Force sensors, are devices that are designed to translate applied
mechanical forces, such as tensile and compressive forces, into
output signals whose value can be used to reflect the magnitude of
the force.
• The signals may be sent to indicators, controllers, or computers to
inform operators or serve as inputs to provide control over
machinery and processes.
Types of Force Sensors
• Several different types of force sensors exist, each of which makes
use of different technologies to sense the magnitude of a given
force and create an output signal.
• The most common types of force sensors include
• Load Cells,
• Strain Gages,
• Force Sensing Resistors (FSRs).
Load Cells
• Load cells (sometimes spelled as loadcells) are a type of force
sensor/force transducer that converts an applied force into an
output signal that can be used to measure forces such as
compressive forces, most commonly weight.
• Pneumatic load cells
• Hydraulic load cells
• Strain gage load cells
 Pneumatic load cells
• Pneumatic load cell is used to measure force up to 20000N.
• Pneumatic load cell consists of a chamber with nozzle and covered with
elastic diaphragm as shown in fig. Initially, pressurized air is supplied through
a pipe to the chamber.
• As force or load(P) acts on the diaphragm, it deflects and the gap between
diaphragm and nozzle decreases, while pressure Pc in the chamber increases.
Rise in pressure Pc applies outward force on the diaphragm opposite the
force or load p.
• For any force ‘P’, the diaphragm attains equilibrium under the impact of two
equal and opposite forces. At this state, chamber pressure is noted using
pressure guage, which can also be directly calibrated in terms of force or load.
 Hydraulic load cells
• Hydraulic load cell be used to measure force of very high magnitude (of
the order of millions of Newtons).
• Hydraulic load cell consists of a closed container filled with oil and
covered with diaphragm as shown in fig. A pressure measuring device,
such as, Bourdon tube pressure guage is connected to the container.
• When load(P) acts on the diaphragm, it gets deflected and transmits
force to the oil. Due to this, pressure is developed in the oil.
• The magnitude of pressure developed is indicated by the pressure gauge,
which can be convered into force. The pressure guage can also be
directly calibrated in units of force.
Strain Gauge Load Cells
• This is the most popular style of the load cell.
• A strain gauge load cell is a transducer that changes in electrical
resistance when under stress or strain.
• The electrical resistance is proportional to the stress or strain
placed on the cell making it easy to calibrate into an accurate
measurement.
• The electrical resistance from the strain gauge is linear therefore it
can be converted into a force and then a weight if needed.
• A strain gauge load cell is made up of 4 strain gauges in a “Wheatstone”
bridge configuration.
• A Wheatstone bridge is an electrical circuit that measures unknown
electrical resistance by balancing two legs of a bridge circuit, one of the legs
contains the unknown component.
• The “Wheatstone bridge” circuit provides incredibly accurate
measurements. The strain gauges that are in the Wheatstone bridge are
bonded onto a beam which deforms when weight is applied.
Force Sensing Resistor (FSR)
• Force sensing resistor can be defined as a special type of resistor
whose resistance can be varied by varying the force or pressure
applied to it.
• The FSR sensor technology was invented & patented by Franklin
Eventoff in 1977. The FSR sensors are made of a conductive
polymer which has a property of changing its resistance based on
the force applied to its surface.
• These are termed as FSR sensors, the force-sensing resistor is a
combination of resistor and sensor technology.
• The force sensing resistor is generally supplied as a polymer sheet or ink
which is applied as screen printing. Both the electrically conducting and
non-conducting particles are present in this sensing film.
• These particles are generally sub-micrometer sizes which are formulated
for reducing the temperature dependence and also for improving
mechanical properties, increasing surface durability.
• If force is applied to a surface of sensing film, then the particles touch the
conducting electrodes and thus the resistance of the film changes.
• There are several resistive based sensors but force-sensing resistors
operate satisfactorily in difficult environments and also require a simple
interface compared to other resistive based sensors.
• Force sensing resistors are called (PTF) polymer thick film devices. The
resistance of FSR sensors decreases with an increase in pressure applied to
its surface.
How are Force Sensing Resistors Made?
Force sensing resistors consist of a semi-conductive material – or, semi-conductive ink – contained between two thin
substrates.

• Shunt mode force sensing resistors

are polymer thick-film devices
consisting of two membranes
separated by a thin air gap.
• One membrane has two sets of
interdigitated traces that are
electronically isolated from one
another, while the other membrane
is coated with a special textured,
resistive ink.
• Thru mode force sensing
resistors are flexible printed
circuits that utilize a polyester
film as its two outer substrates.
• Silver circles with traces are
positioned above and below a
pressure-sensitive layer,
followed by a conductive
polymer.
• An adhesive layer is used to
laminate the two layers of the
substrate together.
• https://youtu.be/G-ttZergFm0
 Temperature and Humidity Sensor
• Temperature sensors is an electronic device that measures the
temperature of its environment and converts the input data into
to record monitor or signal temperature changes.
• Temperature sensors measure the amount of heat or cold that is
present in a system. They can be broadly of two types: Contact
and non-contact.
• Contact sensors: This type of sensors requires direct physical contact
with the object or media that is being sensed. They supervise the
temperature of solids, liquids and gases over a wide range of
temperature.
• E.g. Thermostat, Thermocouple, Thermistors and RTD (Resistive
temperature detector).
Thermocouple:
• The thermocouple is a contact-type
temperature sensor, which consists of
two different types of metals joined
together at one end.
• When the junction of the two metals is
heated or cooled, a voltage is created
that can be correlated back to the
temperature.
• This happens on account of the
phenomena called the thermoelectric
effect.
• Thermocouples are generally
inexpensive, as their design and
materials are simple.
• The output of thermocouple depends
on the type of thermocouple. The
normal thermocouple categories Sr. Type Temperature
include Types J, K, T, E and N which are No. range
known as “Base Metal” thermocouples. 1. J 0° to 750°C
• The types R, S and B which are known 2. K -200° to
as “Noble Metal” thermocouples. Also 1250°C
the types C and D which are known as
the “Refractory Metal” thermocouples. 3. E -200° to 900°C
• The Temperature range of these 4. T -250° to 350°C
different sensors is as below:
5. N 0° to 1250°C
Thermistor
• Another accurate temperature sensor is a thermistor.
Thermistors are more precise than thermocouples, and they are
made of ceramics or polymers.
• The main working principle is, as the temperature changes its
resistance also changes.
• As per this principle it categories into PTC (Positive Temperature
coefficient) and NTC (Negative Temperature coefficient).
• In PTC, as temperature increases, the resistance of material also
increases.
• And same as in NTC, as temperature, decrease the resistance of a
material is also decreasing.
RTD (Resistive Temperature Detector)
• Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD) are essentially the metal
counterpart of thermistors, and they are the most precise and
expensive type of temperature sensors.
• These are made from high purity conducting metal such as platinum,
copper or nickel wound into a coil; and whose electrical resistance
changes as a function of temperature, similar to that of the thermistor.
• Resistive temperature detectors have positive temperature coefficients (PTC)
but unlike the thermistor; their output is extremely linear producing very
accurate measurements of temperature.
• The more common types of RTD’s are made from platinum and are
called Platinum Resistance Thermometer or PRT‘s. T
• he most commonly available of them all the Pt100 sensor, which has a
standard resistance value of 100Ω at 00C.
Thermostat
• The Thermostat is a contact type electro-
mechanical temperature sensor or switch; that
basically consists of two different metals such as
nickel, copper, tungsten or aluminium etc. that
are bonded together to form a Bi-metallic strip.
• The different linear expansion rates of the two
dissimilar metals produce a mechanical bending
movement when the strip is subjected to heat.
• The bimetallic strip can be used itself as an
electrical switch or as a mechanical way of
operating an electrical switch in thermostatic
controls.
• The extensive use is to control hot water heating
elements in boilers, furnaces; hot water storage
tanks as well as in-vehicle radiator cooling
systems, In Iron to regulate temperature as per
cloths.
• Non-Contact sensors : This type of sensor does not require any
physical contact with the object or media that is being sensed. They
supervise non-reflective solids and liquids but are not useful for gases
due to natural transparency. This sensors use Plank’s Law to measure
temperature. This law deals with the heat radiated from the source of
heat to measure the temperature.
Advantages of Non Contact Measurement
•Measurement of moving, hard-to-reach, or very hot objects
•Very short measurement and response times
•Non-destructive measurement
•Longevity of measuring point; no wear and tear
•Option of measuring even at high voltages, electromagnetic fields or aggressive
materials
Humidity Sensor
• A humidity sensor senses, measures and reports both moisture and air
temperature. The ratio of moisture in the air to the highest amount of
moisture at a particular air temperature is called relative humidity.

• Relative humidity becomes an important factor when looking for

comfort. Humidity sensors work by detecting changes that alter
electrical current or temperature in the air.
Types of humidity sensors
• Capacitive : A Capacitive humidity sensor measures relative
humidity by placing a thin strip of metal oxide between two
electrodes. The metal oxide’s electrical capacity changes with
the atmosphere’s relative humidity. Weather, commercial and
industrial are the major applications areas.
• Resistive: Resistive humidity sensors utilize ions in salts to
measure the electrical impedance of atoms. As humidity
changes, so do the resistance of the electrodes on either side of
the salt medium.
• Thermal: Two thermal sensors conduct electricity based upon
the humidity of the surrounding air. One sensor is encased in
dry nitrogen while the other measures ambient air. The
difference between the two measures the humidity.
DHT11 and DHT22
• The casing is in two parts so to get inside it is just a matter of
getting a sharp knife and splitting the case apart.
• Inside the case, on the sensing side, there is a humidity sensing
component along with a NTC temperature sensor (or thermistor)
• Humidity sensing component is used, of course to measure humidity,
which has two electrodes with moisture holding substrate (usually a
salt or conductive plastic polymer) sandwiched between them.
• The ions are released by the substrate as water vapor is absorbed by it,
which in turn increases the conductivity between the electrodes.
• The change in resistance between the two electrodes is proportional to
the relative humidity.
• Higher relative humidity decreases the resistance between the
electrodes, while lower relative humidity increases the resistance
between the electrodes.

DHT11/DHT22
• Besides, they consist of a NTC temperature sensor/Thermistor to
measure temperature. A thermistor is a thermal resistor – a resistor that
changes its resistance with temperature. Technically, all resistors are
thermistors – their resistance changes slightly with temperature – but the
change is usually very very small and difficult to measure.
• Thermistors are made so that the resistance changes drastically with
temperature so that it can be 100 ohms or more of change per degree!
The term “NTC” means “Negative Temperature Coefficient”, which means
that the resistance decreases with increase of the temperature.
• On the other side, there is a small PCB
with an 8-bit SOIC-14 packaged IC. This
IC measures and processes the analog
signal with stored calibration
coefficients, does analog to digital
conversion and spits out a digital signal
with the temperature and humidity.
DHT11 and DHT22 Pinout
Light Sensor
• The light sensor is a passive device that converts the light energy into
an electrical signal output.
• Light sensors are electronic devices that indicates the intensity of
daylight or artificial light.
• Light intensity and full field vision are two important measurements
used in many control applications.
• Phototransistors and photodiodes are some of the more common type
of light intensity sensors.
• A common photoresistor is made of cadmium sulphide whose
resistance is maximum when the sensor is in dark.
• When the photoresistor is exposed to light, its resistance drops in
proportion to the intensity of light.
• Light sensors have several uses in industrial and everyday consumer
applications.
• Light is often measured in Lumens, a which describes how much light is
emitted from a source, and Lux which describe light intensity measured
over a specific area.
• Visible light exists on the electromagnetic radiation spectrum an has a
specific range of wavelengths between about 400-700 nanometers (nm)
long.
• On the smaller end of the spectrum is ultraviolet light (down to about
300nm) and on the longer end of the spectrum is infrared light(up to
about nm).
• Light sensors often detect the intensity of light across a specific range of
wavelengths.
• Sensors that detect the full spectrum of visible light measure light
intensities across all wavelengths between 300-1000 nm.
Types of Light sensors
• Photovoltaic cells:
• Photovoltaic cells, like the name suggests, follows the principle of the
photovoltaic effect for converting light energy directly into electrical
energy.
• These cells produce an electromotive force proportional to the radiant
energy received. The most popular single-junction silicon cells generate a
maximum open-circuit voltage of about 0.5 to 0.6 Volts. Solar cells use
selenium as a photovoltaic material.
• Apart from generating and storing electrical energy, photovoltaic cells also
act as photodetectors. Photo-conductive cells and photo-emissive cells
also provide a similar function.
• Photodiodes:
• Photodiode light sensors are diodes that change light energy into a flow of
electrons. Photodiodes are comparable to the common P-N junction
diodes, but instead of an opaque casing, these diodes have a transparent
lens for focusing light on the P-N junction.
• These diodes are more sensitive towards the light with longer
wavelengths i.e. light belonging to the red and infra-red spectrum than
the visible or ultraviolet spectrum. Silicon and germanium are the most
commonly used materials in such diodes. Since photodiodes are sensitive
to infrared light, they offer a lot of applications in medicine.
• Photo-transistors:
• Photo-transistors can be referred to as photodiodes with amplification.
• Photo-transistors have a reverse biased collector-base P-N junction that
is exposed to the radiant light energy source.
• Photo-transistors are much more (about 50 to 100 times) sensitive
compared to photo-diodes because of amplification.
• Photo-transistors have bipolar NPN transistors with the base region
electrically unconnected.
• The radiant light energy is focused on the base junction by a
transparent lens. Photo-transistors are widely used in mobile phones
and automobiles.
Light Dependent Resistor or photoresistor
• As its name implies, the Light Dependent
Resistor (LDR) is made from a piece of exposed
semiconductor material such as cadmium sulphide
that changes its electrical resistance from several
thousand Ohms in the dark to only a few hundred
Ohms when light falls upon it by creating hole-
electron pairs in the material.
• The net effect is an improvement in its conductivity
with a decrease in resistance for an increase in
illumination.
• Photoresistive cells have a long response time
requiring many seconds to respond to a change in
the light intensity.
• Materials used as the semiconductor substrate include, lead sulphide
(PbS), lead selenide (PbSe), indium antimonide (InSb) which detect light
in the infra-red range with the most commonly used of all photoresistive
light sensors being Cadmium Sulphide (Cds).
• Cadmium sulphide is used in the manufacture of photoconductive cells
because its spectral response curve closely matches that of the human eye
and can even be controlled using a simple torch as a light source.
• Typically then, it has a peak sensitivity wavelength (λp) of about 560nm
to 600nm in the visible spectral range.
The Light Dependent Resistor Cell
• The most commonly used photoresistive light sensor is
the ORP12 Cadmium Sulphide photoconductive cell.
• This light dependent resistor has a spectral response of
about 610nm in the yellow to orange region of light. The
resistance of the cell when unilluminated (dark
resistance) is very high at about 10MΩ’s which falls to
about 100Ω’s when fully illuminated (lit resistance).
• To increase the dark resistance and therefore reduce the
dark current, the resistive path forms a zigzag pattern
across the ceramic substrate.
• The CdS photocell is a very low cost device often used in
auto dimming, darkness or twilight detection for turning
the street lights “ON” and “OFF”, and for photographic
exposure meter type applications.
• Connecting a light dependant resistor in series with a
standard resistor like this across a single DC supply voltage
has one major advantage, a different voltage will appear at
their junction for different levels of light.
• The amount of voltage drop across series resistor, R2 is
determined by the resistive value of the light dependant
resistor, RLDR.
• This ability to generate different voltages produces a very
handy circuit called a “Potential Divider” or Voltage
Divider Network.
• The current through a series circuit is common and as the
LDR changes its resistive value due to the light intensity,
the voltage present at VOUT will be determined by the
voltage divider formula.
• An LDR’s resistance, RLDR can vary from about 100Ω in the
sun light, to over 10MΩ in absolute darkness with this
variation of resistance being converted into a voltage
variation at VOUT as shown.
Level Sensors
• Level sensors is a device that is designed to monitor, maintain and
measure liquid levels.
• Once the liquid level is detected, the sensor converts the perceived
data into an electrical signal.
• Level sensor are used primarily in the manufacturing and
automotive industries, but they can be found in many household
appliances as well, such as ice makers in refrigerators.

https://youtu.be/EMotg3BQjlI
• Level Sensors can be broken into two classifications;
• Point level measurement
• Continuous level measurement
• Point level measurement indicates when a product is present at a
certain point and continuous level measuring indicates the continuous
level of a product as it rises and falls.
• The sensors for point level indication are:
• Capacitance
• Optical
• Conductivity
• Vibrating (Tuning fork)
• Float Switch
• The sensors for continuous level measuring are:
• Ultrasonic
• Radar (Microwave)
Capacitance Level Sensor
• A capacitance level sensor is a proximity sensor that gives off an electrical field
and detects a level by the effect on its electrical field. These sensors are:
• Small
• Less expensive than other sensors
• Invasive to the product
• Accurate
• Have no moving parts
• However, they do have to be calibrated and will only detect certain liquids.
• Capacitance sensors can be used in liquid storage tanks. A water treatment facility
that has storage tanks would be an ideal use for a capacitance sensor.
Optical Level Sensor
• Optical sensors work by converting light rays into electrical signals which
measure a physical quantity of light then translate it into a measurement.
• These sensors have no moving parts
• They are not affected by high pressure or temperature
• They are small in size
• They can be used in liquid applications
• However, if the lens gets coated or dirty they would require cleaning.
• They can be used as low-level indicators to prevent run dry conditions
when using oil, coolant, or hydraulics.
Conductivity (Resistance) Level Sensor
• A conductivity or resistance sensor uses a probe to read conductivity. The probe
has a pair of electrodes and applies alternating current to them.
• When a liquid covers the probe its electrodes form a part on an electric circuit,
causing current to flow which signals a high or low level.
• The advantages of using a conductivity level sensor are:
• There are no moving parts
• They are low cost
• Fairly easy to use
• The disadvantages are:
• They are invasive (meaning they must touch the product being sensed)
• They only sense conductive liquids
• The probe will erode over time
• Appropriate use for these sensors would
be for signaling high or low levels.
Vibrating (Tuning Fork) Level Sensor
• Sensor use a fork-shaped sensing element with two tines. The fork vibrates
at its natural resonant frequency. As the level changes, the frequency of the
fork will change detecting the level. These sensors are:
• Cost effective and compact
• Invasive to the product, meaning they have to touch the material to sense the level
• Easy to install
• Essentially maintenance-free
• They have unlimited uses based on the material that they can sense. Mining,
food and beverage, and chemical processing industries use these sensors for
their applications.
Float Switch
• Float switches use a float, a device that will raise or lower when a product is applied or
removed, which will open or close a circuit as the level raises or lowers moving the float.
• The advantages of a float switch are:
• They are non powered device
• They provide a direct indication
• They are inexpensive
• The disadvantages are:
• They are invasive to the product
• They have moving parts
• They can be large in size
• Float switches will only give an indication for a high or low level, they cannot measure a
variable level. A great use for float switches is in liquid storage tanks for high or low-
level indication.
Continuous Level Measurement Sensors
• Ultrasonic level sensors work by emitting and receiving ultrasonic waves. The time it takes for the waves to
reflect back is how distance is measured.
• The advantage of using this type of sensor is that:
• These sensors have no moving parts
• They are compact
• They are reliable
• Non-invasive (Non-contact)
• Unaffected by the properties of the material they are sensing
• Self-cleaning because of the vibrations they give off
• The disadvantage of using this type of sensor is that:
• They can be expensive
• In some situations, the environment can have a negative effect on them
• An example application is a hot asphalt tank in a shingle manufacturing plant.
The ultrasonic sensor would be placed in the top of the tank away from the hot asphalt and used to
sense the level in order to send a fill request for the tank.
 Ultrasonic Sensor
• An ultrasonic sensor is an instrument that measures the
distance to an object using ultrasonic sound waves.
• An ultrasonic sensor uses a transducer to send and
receive ultrasonic pulses that relay back information
about an object’s proximity.
• High-frequency sound waves reflect from boundaries to
produce distinct echo patterns.
How Ultrasonic Sensors Work.
• Ultrasonic sensors emit short, high-frequency sound pulses at regular
intervals. These propagate in the air at the velocity of sound.
• If they strike an object, then they reflected back as an echo signal to the
sensor, which itself computes the distance to the target based on the time-
span between emitting the signal and receiving the echo.
• Ultrasonic sensor are excellent at suppressing background interference.
Virtually all materials which reflect sound can be detected, regardless of
their colour. Even transparent materials or thin foils represent no problem
for an ultrasonic sensor.
• Microsonic ultrasonic sensors are suitable for target distances from 20 mm
to 10 m and as they measure the time of flight they can ascertain a
measurement with pinpoint accuracy.
• Some of sensors can even resolve the signal to an accuracy of 0.025 mm.
• Ultrasonic sensors can see through dust-laden air and ink mists. Even thin
deposits on the sensor membrane do not impair its function.
Timing Diagram of Ultrasonic Sensor
1. First, need to transmit trigger pulse of at
least 10 us to the HC-SR04 Trig Pin.
2. Then the HC-SR04 automatically sends
Eight 40 kHz sound wave and wait for
rising edge output at Echo pin.
3. When the rising edge capture occurs at
Echo pin, start the Timer and wait for a
falling edge on Echo pin.
4. As soon as the falling edge captures at the
Echo pin, read the count of the Timer.
This time count is the time required by
the sensor to detect an object and return
back from an object.
 How to calculate Distance?
• If you need to measure the specific distance from your sensor, this
can be calculated based on this formula:
• We know that, Distance= Speed* Time/2.
• The speed of sound waves is 343 m/s.
So,
• Total Distance= (343 * Time of hight(Echo) pulse)/2
• Total distance is divided by 2 because the signal travels from HC-
SR04 to object and returns to the module HC-SR-04.

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https://wokwi.com/projects/345682622142218835
Current Sensor
• Hall Effect Sensors are transducer type components that can
convert magnetic information into electrical signals for
subsequent electronic circuit processing. Generally, current
sensors use the Hall Effect to convert current inputs into voltage
outputs.
• In the Hall effect, electrons from an electric current flow through a
magnetic field plate. The field then causes the electrons to "push"
to one side of the plate and produce a voltage difference between
the two sides. The difference in voltage from the side of the plate is
the output of the sensor.

https://youtu.be/32Vw40nUSwA https://youtu.be/RrQA_-YETJw
1. ACS712 is a current sensor that can operate on both AC and DC. This sensor operates
at 5V and produces an analog voltage output proportional to the measured current.
This tool consists of a series of precision Hall sensors with copper lines.
2. The output of this instrument has a positive slope when the current increases
through the copper primary conduction path (from pins 1 and 2 to pins 3 and 4). The
internal resistance of the conduction path is 1.2 mΩ
3. This sensor has an output voltage of Vcc x
0.5 = 2.5 at the input current 0A and a 5V
Vcc power supply. There are three types
based on the readable current range, ± 5A, ±
20A, and ± 30A with output sensitivity of
each type of 185mV / A, 100mV / A, and
66mV / A respectively.
• The output of this current
sensor is analog, so to read it, we
can directly measure the output
voltage using voltmeter or
measure it by using a
microcontroller like Arduino
through Analog Read pin or ADC
pin.
Applications
• The ACS712 sensor can be used in the different types of
application and they are,
• Inverters
• SMPS
• Battery Chargers
• Automotive Applications like Inverters
• Used in industrial, commercial and communication applications.
• Overcurrent fault protection circuit
Voltage Sensor
• Voltage sensor is used to monitor, calculate and determine the
voltage supply.
• This sensor can determine the AC or DC voltage level. The input of
this sensor can be the voltage whereas the output is the switches,
analog voltage signal, a current signal, an audible signal, etc.
• Some sensors provide sine waveforms or pulse waveforms like
output & others can generate outputs like AM (Amplitude
Modulation), PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) or FM (Frequency
Modulation).
• The measurement of these sensors can depend on the voltage
divider.
• This sensor includes input and output. The input side mainly includes two
pins namely positive and negative pins.
• The two pins of the device can be connected to the positive & negative pins
of the sensor.
• The device positive & negative pins can be connected to the positive &
negative pins of the sensor.
• The output of this sensor mainly includes supply voltage (Vcc), ground
(GND), analog o/p data
Pin Name Description
Positive terminal of the External voltage source (0-
VCC
25V)
GND Negative terminal of the External voltage source
S Analog pin connected to Analog pin of Arduino
+ Not Connected
- Ground Pin connected to GND of Arduino
Types of Voltage Sensors
• These sensors are classified into two types like a resistive type sensor and
capacitive type sensor.
1) Resistive Type Sensor
a. This sensor mainly includes two circuits a. The bridge circuit can be
like a voltage divider & bridge circuit. designed with four resistors.
b. The resistor in the circuit works as a One of these resistors can be
sensing element. subjected to the voltage
c. The voltage can be separated into two detector device.
resistors like a reference voltage & b. The change in voltage can be
variable resistor to make a circuit of the directly exhibited. This
voltage divider. Vout = (R1/R1 + R2) * Vin difference alone can be
d. A voltage supply is applied to this amplified but the difference
circuit. The output voltage can be within the voltage divider
decided by the resistance used in the circuit not only amplified.
circuit. So the voltage change can be
amplified.
• Capacitor Type Sensor
a. This type of sensor consists of an insulator and
two conductors within the center. As the
capacitor is power-driven with 5 Volt, then the
flow of current will be there in the capacitor.
b. This can create revulsion of electrons within the
capacitor.
c. The difference in capacitance indicates the
voltage and the capacitor can be connected
within the series.

Vout = (C1/C1 + C2) * Vin

Applications
• Detection of power failure
• Detecting of load
• Safety switching
• Controlling temperature
• Controlling of power demand
• Detection of fault
• Variation of load measurement of Temperature
Types of Actuators
• A device or mechanism capable of performing a physical action.
Actuators interact with the world. Sensors capture information from the
world.
• The interface between the microcontroller and the sensors or the
actuators is either analog or digital.
• An actuator requires a control signal and a source of energy. An actuator
is the mechanism by which a control system acts upon as environment.
The control system can be simple, software-based, a human, or any other
input.
• When the actuation is a motion, motor have to be used for rotational or
linear motion.
• The selection of the proper actuator is more complicated than selection
of the sensors, primarily due to their effect on the dynamic behaviour of
the overall system. Futhermore, the selection of the actuator dominates
the power needs and the coupling mechanisms of the entire system.
Definition of Actuators
• Actuators are the device used for converting hydraulic, pneumatic,
and electrical energy into mechanical energy.
• The mechanical energy used to get the work done. Actuators
perform functions just opposite to that of the pump.
• They can be used for lifting, tilting, clamping opening, closing,
metering, mixing and turning, and for many other operations.
Functions of actuation
1. Transformation of rotary motion into a translating motion as in the case of the cam and
follower mechanism where the rotational motion of the cam is changed into the
translational movement of the follower.
2. Transformation of rotary motion for a long distance which is not possible by using gears, as
in the case of belt drives.
3. Transformation of rotary motion for a medium distance without slipping which is not
possible by using belt drives, as in the case of belt drives.
4. Transformation of linear motion into rotational motion as in the case of rack and pinion
mechanism.
5. Locking of rotating elements as in the case of ratchet and pawl mechanism.
Electrical Actuators :
• An actuator obtaining electrical energy from the mechanical
system is called electric actuators. Electric actuators are generally
referred to ad being those where an electric motor drives the
robot links through some mechanical transmission i.e. gears.
• Electrical actuators comprise the following :
• 1. Drive system: DC motor, AC motor, Stepper motor
• 2. Switching Device:
• a. Mechanical switch: Solenoids, Relays
• b. Solid-state switch: Diodes, Thyristor, Transistors
Advantages of Electrical Actuators

• Hige power conversion efficiency.

• The widespread availability of power supply.
• No pollution of the working environment.
• The basic drive element in an electric motor is usually lighter than
that for fluid power.
• Structural components can be lightweight.
• The drive system is well suited to electronic control.
Disadvantages of Electrical Actuators
1.A larger and heavier motor must be used which is costly.
2.Poor dynamics response.
3.Compliance and wear problems are causing inaccuracies.
4.Conventional gear-driven creates a backlash.
5.Electric motors are not intrinsically safe. They cannot, therefore, be used
in for explosive atmospheres.
Solenoids
• Solenoids are simple components that can be used for various
applications. The name solenoid is derived from the Greek word
“Solen” which means a channel or a pipe.
• Solenoids are used in both domestic and industrial equipments,
they are available in various designs, each of them has their own
specific applications.
• Although the application changes, their working principle always
remains the same.
 Solenoid Working Principle
• The solenoid simply works on the principle of “electromagnetism”. When
the current flow through the coil magnetic field is generated in it, if you
place a metal core inside the coil the magnetic lines of flux is
concentrated on the core which increases the induction of the coil as
compared to the air core.
• Most of the flux is concentrated only on the core, while
some of the flux appears at the ends of the coil and a
small amount of flux appears outside the coil.
• The magnetic strength of the solenoid can be increased
by increasing the density of the turns or by increasing
the current flow in the coil.
• Like all other magnets the activated solenoid has both
Positive and Negative poles, through which an object
can be attracted or repelled.
Electric Solenoid Actuator
• The coil is connected to an external current
supply. The spring rests on the armature to
force it downward. The armature moves
vertically inside the coil and transmits its
motion through the stem to the valve.
• When current flows through the coil, a
magnetic field forms around the coil. The
magnetic field attracts the armature toward
the center of the coil. As the armature moves
upward, the spring collapses and the valve
opens. When the circuit is opened and
current stops flowing to the coil, the
magnetic field collapses. This allows the
spring to expand and shut the valve.
https://instrumentationtools.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Solenoid-Valve-Working-Animation.gif
Motor
• There are three different type of motors −
• DC motor
• Servo motor
• Stepper motor
 DC motor
• DC Motor refers to a rotating electrical machine that converts direct current electrical energy into
mechanical energy. It is a motor that can convert electrical energy into mechanical energy in order to
run. Correspondingly, the motor that uses AC power is an AC motor
• When current is passed through, opposite polarity between the two magnetic fields inside the motor
causes it to spin continuously in one direction until the current stops.
• DC motors have no polarity (Unless marked with + or -), which means you can reverse the direction of
the motor by swapping the two wires.
• They consist of:
• Stator
• Armature
• Rotor
• Commutator with Brushes
• DC motors are still used commonly due to its high starting torque (Able to deal with high resistive
torques and absorb sudden rises in load effortlessly), simplicity, and also efficiency compared to
other motors.
Controlling a DC motor with an Arduino Motor
Shield
•The Motor Shield is a driver module for motors that allows you to
use Arduino to control the working speed and direction of the
motor.
•The working principle of the motor drive module is to control the
power electronic devices according to the signal from the Arduino to
control the work of the motor.
•The Motor Shield is based on the Dual Full-Bridge Drive Chip L298,
it is able to drive two DC motors or a step motor.
Servo Motor
•The Servo motor is a rotary actuator that allows for precise control of
angular position which makes them suitable for use in closed-loop
systems where precise position control is needed.
•Servo motors are part of a closed-loop system and they are a self-
contained electrical device that rotate parts of a machine with high
efficiency with great precision.
•Servo Motors are made up of:
• Control Circuit
• Small DC Motor
• Potentiometer
The working principle of servo motor
• Servo motors are attached by gears to the control wheel when the motor
rotates, the potentiometer resistance changes so the control circuit can
precisely regulate how much movement there is and in which direction.
• The motor is controlled with an electric signal, either analog or digital,
which determines the amount of movement which represents the final
command position for the shaft.
• With its closed-loop mechanism, it incorporates positional feedback to control
the rotational or linear speed and position.
• As Servo Motors are high in efficiency and power, they are used in many
applications like robots, airplanes and also in industrial and commercial
applications where precise position control is needed.
• A Servo Motor is a small device that has an output shaft. This shaft
can be positioned to specific angular positions by sending the servo a
coded signal.
• As long as the coded signal exists on the input line, the servo will
maintain the angular position of the shaft. If the coded signal
changes, the angular position of the shaft changes.
• In practice, servos are used in radio-controlled airplanes to position
control surfaces like the elevators and rudders. They are also used in
radio-controlled cars, puppets, and of course, robots.
• The servo motor has some control circuits and a potentiometer (a variable
resistor, aka pot) connected to the output shaft. In the picture above, the pot
can be seen on the right side of the circuit board. This pot allows the control
circuitry to monitor the current angle of the servo motor.
• If the shaft is at the correct angle, then the motor shuts off. If the circuit finds
that the angle is not correct, it will turn the motor until it is at a desired angle.
The output shaft of the servo is capable of traveling somewhere around 180
degrees.
• Usually, it is somewhere in the 210-degree range, however, it varies depending
on the manufacturer. A normal servo is used to control an angular motion of 0
to 180 degrees. It is mechanically not capable of turning any farther due to a
mechanical stop built on to the main output gear.
• The power applied to the motor is proportional to the distance it needs to
travel. So, if the shaft needs to turn a large distance, the motor will run at full
speed. If it needs to turn only a small amount, the motor will run at a slower
speed. This is called proportional control.
Communicate the Angle at Which the Servo
Should Turn
• The control wire is used to communicate the
angle. The angle is determined by the duration of
a pulse that is applied to the control wire. This is
called Pulse Coded Modulation.
• The servo expects to see a pulse every 20
milliseconds (.02 seconds). The length of the
pulse will determine how far the motor turns. A
1.5 millisecond pulse, for example, will make the
motor turn to the 90-degree position (often
called as the neutral position).
• If the pulse is shorter than 1.5 milliseconds, then
the motor will turn the shaft closer to 0 degrees.
If the pulse is longer than 1.5 milliseconds, the
shaft turns closer to 180 degrees.
Stepper Motor

• A Stepper Motor or a step motor is a brushless, synchronous motor, which

divides a full rotation into a number of steps. Unlike a brushless DC motor, which
rotates continuously when a fixed DC voltage is applied to it, a step motor rotates
in discrete step angles.
• The Stepper Motors therefore are manufactured with steps per revolution of 12,
24, 72, 144, 180, and 200, resulting in stepping angles of 30, 15, 5, 2.5, 2, and 1.8
degrees per step. The stepper motor can be controlled with or without feedback.
• Imagine a motor on an RC airplane. The motor spins very fast in one direction or
another. You can vary the speed with the amount of power given to the motor,
but you cannot tell the propeller to stop at a specific position.
• A stepper motor is a unique type of brushless DC
motor which position can be precisely controlled
even without any feedback.
• The working principle of a stepper motor is
based on magnetic fields. It has two main
components, a stator and a rotor. The rotor is
usually a permanent magnet and it’s surrounded
by some coils on the stator.
• When we energize or let current flow through
the coils, particular magnetic fields are
generated in the stator that either attract or
repel the rotor. By activating the coils, step by
step, one after another in a particular order, we
can achieve continues motion of rotor, but also,
we can make it stop at any position.
• So, that’s why these motors are called stepper
motors, they move in discrete steps.
• A typical stepper motor, a NEMA17
for example, has 50 stopping points
or steps on the rotor. On the other
hand, the stator can have several coils
organized in two phases which
provide four different magnetic field
orientations or positions.
• So, the 50 steps of the rotor
multiplied by the 4 different magnetic
field orientations, make total of 200
steps for completing a full rotation.
Or if we divide 360 degrees by 200
steps, that’s a resolution of 1.8
degrees per step.
https://howtomechatronics.com/tutorials/arduino/stepper-motors-and-arduino-the-ultimate-guide/