BEEE412L

SENSORS AND ACTUATORS

Contents-Module 1

• Difference between sensor, transmitter and transducer,

• Sensor Principles, Classification, Parameters,
• Characteristics: Range; resolution, Sensitivity, error, repeatability,
linearity and accuracy, impedance, backlash, Response time, Dead
band, Environmental Parameters (EP),
• Sensor Characterization.

Measurement System

A system is a combination of two or more elements,

subsystems, and parts necessary to carry out one or
more functions
Measurement System
Measurand:
The physical quantity or the characteristic condition which is the object of
measurement in an instrumentation system is variously termed as
measurand, Measurement variable, instrumentation variable or process
variable
The measurand may be:
-fundamental quantity(Length, mass, time, temperature, electric
current, amount of substance.)
-derived quantity(force, density, volume, momentum)
The word measurand is used to designate the particular physical parameter
being observed and quantified.
• Sensor or transducer is an input device convert the quantity under
measurement into a detectable signal form: electrical, mechanical, optical
etc.
• Signal conditioning modifies the transducer signal into a desired form e.g.
amplification, noise reduction.
• Output State provides an indication of the value of the measurement
(readout device or recording)

Example of Measurement System

 Signal Domains with example

SENSOR AND TRANSDUCER-DEFINITIONS

• Transducer
– a device that converts a primary form of energy into a
corresponding signal with a different energy form
• Primary Energy Forms: mechanical, thermal,
electromagnetic, optical, chemical, etc.
– take form of a sensor or an actuator
• Sensor (e.g., thermometer)
– a device that detects/measures a signal or stimulus
–acquires information from the “real world”
• Actuator (e.g., heater)
– a device that generates a signal or stimulus
sensor intelligent
real
feedback
world actuator system
• Transducer a device which converts a signal from one
physical form to a corresponding signal having a
different physical form. (energy converter).
• Since transducers can convert between any forms of
energy, they can be used to provide feedback to the
system.

• Sensor (input transducer) a device converts the

physical or non-physical signal which is to be
measured into an electrical signal which can be
processed or transmitted electronically. (physical
signal/electrical signal).
• A sensor merely measures a quantity and cannot, by
itself, give feedback to the system.
• produces an electric signal based on the strength of
the quantity measured

• Output from a sensor may or may not be meaningful

i.e most of the times it needs to be conditioned and
converted into various other forms.

• The transducer output is always meaningful.

• The output of a motor is meaningful.
• The output of a loudspeaker is meaningful. They are
transducers.

• A sensor is nothing but just a primary element which

senses any physical phenomenon or it gives an
indication in any change of the physical phenomenon.
• Every transducer is also(or has) a sensor but every
sensor need not be a transducer.
 • Sometimes in a sensor, there is no conversion at all.
Ex. Thermometer, where the temperature is sensed
and is directly measured.
• In a transducer there is always a conversion i.e
transduction. Ex. RTD, Thermocouple etc., where the
temperature is sensed and the measurement is made
in terms of voltage.

Thus a SENSOR may or may not have a conversion and

it only senses. A TRANSDUCER always involves a
conversion and also has signal conditioning involved at
times.

SENSOR SYSTEMS
electronic sensor
– convert desired parameter into electrically measurable signal
• General Electronic Sensor
– primary transducer: changes “real world” parameter into electrical signal
– secondary transducer: converts electrical signal into analog or digital values

real primary analog secondary usable

world transducer transducer values
sseings
noalr

• Typical Electronic Sensor System

input
signal sensor data microcontroller network
(measurand)
sensor signal processing display
analog/digital
communication
TRANSMITTER-DEFINITION
• A sensor that conveys data over long distances
• A Transmitter is a device that transmits a standard instrumentation
signal representing a physical variable being measured.
• The standard electrical signals are 1-5 V or 4-20 mA which represents
0-100% of the physical variables being measured. This transmitted
signal is detected by a Receiver such as an Analog Input on a PLC or a
DCS.

Transducer vs. Sensor vs. Transmitter

• Transducer is an instrument that measures pressure, load, force, or

other states, and converts the reading into an electronic signal. A
transmitter also converts a reading into an electronic signal, but it
then amplifies, modifies, and sends that signal to a receiver.
• A sensor performs the initial measurement. If necessary, a transducer
converts this initial measurement into an electrical signal that is then
amplified and standardized by the transmitter.
 Block Diagram-Basic Transducer

Signal conditioners
Are electronic circuits performing any of following functions: amplification, level shifting,
filtering, impedance matching, modulation, and demodulation.

Signal Conditioning

• Signal conditioners are measuring system elements that start with an

electric sensor output signal and then yield a signal suitable for
transmission, display, or recording, or that better meet the
requirements of a subsequent standard equipment or device.
• They normally consist of electronic circuits performing any of the
following functions:
• amplification,
• level shifting, filtering,
• impedance matching,
• modulation, and
• demodulation.
• Some standards call the sensor plus signal conditioner subsystem a
transmitter.
Applications of Sensors

Sensors used to measure:

•Temperature
•Pressure
•Flow
•Gases and Chemicals
•Motion detector
•Light
•Image sensor

USE CASES OF SENSORS

Where are all are SENSORS commonly used?

• Mobiles?
• At home?
• In cars?
• In markets?
• In Hospitals?
• Traffic and Environment monitoring?
 Multiple sensors,
Advanced safety Cars actuators, and
warning signals are
parts of the
advanced safety
vehicle

Washing Machine

Two Important Sensors:

Temperature Sensors-
THERMISTOR- Made of solid Semiconducting
material showing
• Shows positive temperature coefficient &
negative temperature coefficient
• High Sensistivity (~ 44,000 ppm/ C @ 25 C
• Small response time

Water level Sensor-

Based on switch to control how high tub fills…
Geysers
Thermostat is used as a control switch to
regulate the temperature of the water by adjusting
the heating duration of the element.

Principle: When the temperature is close to the set-

point on the thermostat, the element is switched off.

When the temperature of the geyser drops below

the set point, the element is switched on and the
water heated to the set point .
 SENSOR CLASSIFICATION

• Modulating (active) or self-generating (passive)

• Absolute and Relative Sensors
• Analog and Digital
• Deflection and Null type

SENSOR CLASSIFICATION
According to the need of power supply
• • Modulating (active) or self-generating (passive)
Passive
•

Doesn’t
• need any additional energy source
Directly generate an electric signal in response to an
external
• stimuli
Listens
•
to what is happening
Active
•
Require
•
external power called excitation signal
Sensor
•
modify excitation signal to provide output
 Modulating (active) or self-generating (passive)

(based on selection of Reference)

Absolute and Relative Sensors
ABSOLUTE SENSORS
Detects a stimulus in reference to an absolute
physical scale that is independent of the measurement
SENSORS can be CLASSIFIED
conditions
(based on selection of Reference)
RELATIVE SENSORS
Examples: Produces a signal that relates to some special case

TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Absolute sensor: THERMISTOR- ‘R’ directly relates to the absolute temperature scale of
Kelvin

Relative sensor: THERMOCOUPLE- Produces a ‘V’, which is a function of a temperature

gradient across the thermocouple wires

PRESSURE SENSOR
* Absolute pressure sensor produces signal in reference to vacuum – (an absolute
zero on a pressure scale.)

* Relative pressure sensor produces signal with respect to a selected baseline that is not
zero pressure, for example, to the atmospheric pressure.
According to the output: Analog and Digital
• Analog : -output changes continuously
-This continuous output signal produced by
the analog sensors is proportional to the
measurand.

• Digital : -output is discrete steps or states (binary)

- do not require an ADC
- output is easier to transmit
- more repeatable and reliable and oftenmore
accurate.
- cannot measure many physical quantities
- Digital sensor consists of sensor itself, cable
and a transmitter.

According to output mode: Deflection and

Null type
Deflection-type:
• The measured quantity produced some physical effects that
causes a similar but opposing effect in some part of the
instrument. The opposing effect increases until a balance is
achieved, at which point the “deflection” is measured. Eg.,
moving coil voltmeter

Null-type Method:
• An unknown component is inserted into the bridge and the
values of the others are altered to achieve balance condition.
Ex., At balance, no current flows through the galvanometer G.
Deflection and Null type

Signal Classification
 Different Types of Sensors

• Temperature Sensor
• Proximity Sensor
• Accelerometer
• IR Sensor (Infrared Sensor)
• Pressure Sensor
• Light Sensor
• Ultrasonic Sensor
• Smoke, Gas and Alcohol Sensor
• Touch Sensor
• Humidity Sensor
• Tilt Sensor
• Flow and Level Sensor

Displacement, Position & Proximity

• Displacement sensors are concerned with the
measurement of the amount by which some
object has been moved.
• Position sensors are concerned with the
determination of the position of some object in
relation to some reference point.
• Proximity sensors are a form of position sensor and
are used to determine when an object has moved
to within some particular critical distance of the
sensor. They are essentially devices which give
on/off outputs.
PIR Sensor

• All objects with a temperature above absolute zero emit

heat energy in the form of radiation. Usually this radiation
isn't visible to the human eye because it radiates at infrared
wavelengths, but it can be detected by electronic devices
designed for such a purpose.
• A PIR-based motion detector is used to sense movement of
people, animals, or other objects.
• They are commonly used in burglar alarms and
automatically-activated lighting systems.
• They are commonly called simply "PIR", or sometimes "PID",
for "passive infrared detector".

Ultrasonic sensors

• As the name indicates, ultrasonic sensors measure distance

by using ultrasonic waves.
• The sensor head emits an ultrasonic wave and receives the
wave reflected back from the target.
• Ultrasonic Sensors measure the distance to the target by
measuring the time between the emission and reception.
Pressure Sensors

• A pressure sensor is a device for pressure measurement of

gases or liquids.
• Pressure is an expression of the force required to stop a fluid
from expanding, and is usually stated in terms of force per
unit area.
• A pressure sensor usually acts as a transducer; it generates a
signal as a function of the pressure imposed.

Light Sensors

• The light sensor is a passive devices that convert this “light

energy” whether visible or in the infra-red parts of the
spectrum into an electrical signal output.
• Light sensors are more commonly known as “Photoelectric
Devices” or “Photo Sensors” because the convert light
energy (photons) into electricity (electrons).
Touch sensor

• A touch sensor is a type of equipment that captures and

records physical touch or embrace on a device and/or
object.
• It enables a device or object to detect touch, typically by a
human user or operator.
• A touch sensor may also be called a touch detector.
• For example, when navigating through a smartphone or
using an application, the touch sensor captures the human
touches or the applied pressure across the screen.
• Each interaction with the user across the screen might have
a different meaning for the device and/or the application.

Tilt Sensors

• A tilt sensor can measure the tilting in often two axes of a

reference plane in two axes.
• In contrast, a full motion would use at least three axes and
often additional sensors.
• Example
• Digital Tilt Motion Sensor.
• The 507M Digital Tilt Sensor is ideal for protecting a
vehicle from theft by detecting when the vehicle is being
raised by a tow truck or lifted using a jack, in an attempt
to remove the wheels or tow the vehicle.
Flow and Level Sensors

• A level sensor is a device for determining the level or

amount of fluids, liquids or other substances that flow in an
open or closed system.
• There are two types of level measurements, namely,
continuous and point level measurements.
• Continuous level sensors are used for measuring levels to a
specific limit, but they provide accurate results.
• Point level sensors, on the other hand, only determine if the
liquid level is high or low.

GPS (Global Positioning System) sensor

• GPS is a system which tracks the target or 'navigate' the

things by map or picture with the help of GPS satellites.
• Nowadays smartphones come with assisted GPS or A-GPS
which does the same work with the help of intermediate
server in case of disconnection with main GPS satellite.
Accelerometer
• Accelerometer sensor senses the change in orientation by
3D (X,Y & Z axis) measurement of acceleration of the device
with respect to free fall.
• For example, when working on a web-page with increased
width, the landscape view can be obtained from changing
the orientation of phone to horizontal.
• Similarly camera mode also changes the portrait to
landscape or landscape to portrait mode when we change
the orientation of phone/camera.
• The main function of accelerometer is to sense the changes
in the orientation with respect to datum and adjust the
orientation to suit the viewing angle of operator.

Characteristics of Sensors
What are Static Characteristics?
• Static characteristics of a sensor refer to the
characteristics of the system when the input is either
held constant or varying very slowly. Some of them
are broadly classified as:
• Non Linearity
• Sensitivity
• Resolution
• Accuracy
• Precision
• Hysterisis
• Repeatability
• Range or Span or Full Scale Input

ACCURACY and PRECISION

• Accuracy indicates the closeness of the measured

value with the actual or true value, and is expressed
in the form of the maximum error (= measured
value – true value) as a percentage of full scale
reading.
• Precision indicates the repeatability or
reproducibility of a sensor. If a sensor is used to
measure the same input, but at different instants,
the output from the sensor should be same.
 ACCURACY Vs PRECISION
Example :
X : result and Centre circle : true value

XXX
XXX X X
XXX
XXXX X
XXX
x x

High accuracy, high precision Low accuracy, high precision Low accuracy, low precision

The difference between precision and accuracy needs to be understood carefully. Precision
means repetition of successive readings, but it does not guarantee accuracy; successive
readings may be close to each other, but far from the true value. On the other hand, an
accurate instrument has to be precise also, since successive readings must be close to the
true value.
 NUMERICAL
Example :
Two pressure gauges (pressure gauge A and B) have a full
scale accuracy of ± 5%. Sensor A has a range of 0-1 bar
and Sensor B 0-10 bar. Which gauge is more suitable to be
used if the reading is 0.9 bar?

Answer :
Sensor A :
Equipment max error = ± 5 x 1 bar = ± 0.05 bar
100
Equipment accuracy
@ 0.9 bar ( in %) = ± 0.05 bar x 100 = ± 5.6%
0.9 bar

Sensor B :
Equipment max error = ± 5 x 10 bar = ± 0.5 bar
100
Equipment accuracy
@ 0.9 bar ( in %) = ± 0.5 bar x 100 = ± 55%
0.9 bar
Conclusion :

Sensor A is more suitable to use at a reading of 0.9 bar because

the error percentage (± 5.6%) is smaller compared to the
percentage error of Sensor B (± 55%).
 NONLINEARITY

• The Nonlinearity is defined as the

maximum deviation from the linear
characteristics as a percentage of the full
scale output.

RESOLUTION

• Resolution indicates the minimum change in input

variable that is detectable (or) Resolution describes
the smallest increments of stimulus which can be
sensed by a sensor.
 SENSITIVITY
• It can be defined as the ratio of the incremental
output and the incremental input. While defining the
sensitivity, we assume that the input-output
characteristic of the instrument is approximately
linear in the range.
• Example: sensitivity of a spring balance can be expressed as 25 mm/kg
(say),indicating additional load of 1 kg will cause additional displacement of
the spring by 25mm.
REPEATABLITY

• Repeatability error of a sensor is its inability to

represent the same value under identical
conditions. It is expressed as the maximum
difference between output readings as determined
by two measurement cycles.
δr = [Δ/FS *100%],
where ,
FS=Full scale of sensor

HYSTERESIS

• It is the difference between output readings for the

same measurand, when approached while
increasing from the minimum value and the other
while decreasing from the peak value.
RANGE or FULL SCALE INPUT

• A dynamic range of stimuli which may be converted

by a sensor is called Span of Full Scale.
• It represents the highest possible input value that
can be applied to a sensor without causing an
unacceptably large inaccuracy.
• It defines the maximum and minimum values of the
inputs or the outputs for which the instrument is
recommended to use.
• Full scale output
• algebraic difference between the electrical output
signals measured with maximum input stimulus
and the lowest input stimulus applied
• E.g. LM35

• Output impedance
– The output impedance Z is important to know to
out

better interface a sensor with the electronic circuit

– For a current generating sensor should have an
output impedance as high as possible and the
circuit’s input impedance should be low
– For the voltage connection, a sensor is preferable
with lower Z and the circuit should have Z as high
out in

as practical
Measurement Errors

• Measurement errors are commonly classified into two types: systematic

errors and random errors.
• Systematic Errors: These mistakes are repeatable and consistent. Biases that
are built into the system or defective tools or methods can introduce them.
A scale with a systematic inaccuracy, for example, would always register 5
grams of weight. The benefit of systematic errors is that they may be
calibrated out or fixed if they are found.
• Random Errors: These mistakes fluctuate randomly and are unpredictable.
They may result from manual measurement methods, electrical noise, or
erratic changes in the surroundings. By taking additional measurements and
averaging them, or by expanding the sample size, random errors can be
minimized.
• In conclusion, it is critical to comprehend and maximize sensor accuracy and
precision. It is imperative to differentiate between the many sorts of errors
that impact measurements, as correcting them calls for different strategies.
 Deadband
• Dead band is the insensitivity of the sensor to a range of input signals.
• For eg, in a pressure switch, deadband is a region of pressure produces
no change in measurement output

Backlash

• Backlash is defined as the play resulting from the clearance that exists between gears or
other mechanical elements of a gearbox, or the intentional gap between gear or bearing
pairs. This clearance is most commonly seen or experienced while changing the rotation
direction of the output shaft
• Backlash refers to the angle that the output shaft of a gearhead can rotate without the input
shaft moving. Backlash arises due to tolerance in manufacturing; the gear teeth need some
play to avoid jamming when they mesh. An inexpensive gearhead may have backlash of a
degree or more, while more expensive precision gearheads have nearly zero backlash.
Backlash typically increases with the number of gear stages.
• When gears are not correctly positioned, or are worn out by use, the phenomenon known
as backlash arises.
• In mechanics, the backlash is a clearance caused by gaps between mating parts.
 Environmental parameters

• Environmental parameters, such as temperature, pressure,

vibrations, humidity, and electromagnetic interference, can
significantly affect sensor performance. It’s important to
consider these factors when choosing a sensor.
• For any environmental parameter, the performance of the
transducer is studied in terms of its effect on static and
dynamic characteristics of the sensor.

What are Dynamic Characteristics?

• Dynamic characteristics refer to the performance of the
instrument when the input variable is changing rapidly with
time.
• The dynamic performance of an instrument is normally
expressed by a differential equation relating the input and
output quantities.
• It is always convenient to express the input-output dynamic
characteristics in form of a linear differential equation.
The dynamic characteristics of any measurement system are:
(i) Speed of response and Response time
Speed of Response is defined as the rapidity with which an instrument or
measurement system responds to changes in measured quantity.
Response Time is the time required by instrument or system to settle to
its final steady position after the application of the input.
(ii) Lag
An instrument does not react to a change in input immediately. The delay
in the response of an instrument to a change in the measured quantity is
known as measuring lag.
(iii) Fidelity
Fidelity of a system is defined as the ability of the system to reproduce the
output in the same form as the input.
(iv) Dynamic error
The dynamic error is the difference between the true value of the
quantity changing with time and the value indicated by the instrument if
no static error is assumed

• So, often a nonlinear mathematical model is linearised and

expressed in the form as below:

Where,
• Xo and Xi are output and input variables respectively.
• The above expression can also be expressed in terms of a
transfer function, as:

• Normally m<n and ‘n’ is called the order of the system.

Commonly available sensor characteristics can usually be
approximated as either zero-th order, first order or second
order dynamics.
• The order of the system is defined by the total number of
energy storage components in the system.
E.g. Energy-Storing Elements
Inertial Elements →Mass, Inductance,…
Capacitance Elements→ Electric, Thermal, Fluid

• It also has an influence on the speed of the response,

which is defined as , A delay between the applied input
and the corresponding output is irrelevant from the
measurement point of view.
• The dynamic error is the difference between the indicated
value and the true value for the measured quantity, when
the static error is zero. It describes the difference between
a sensor's response to the same input magnitude,
depending on whether the input is constant or variable
with time.

Response Parameters

Peak Overshoot
• Peak overshoot is defined as the deviation of the response at peak time
from the final value of response. It is also called the maximum overshoot.
Peak Time
• It is the time required for the response to reach the peak value for the first
time. It is demoted as tp
Rise Time
• It is the time required for the response to rise from 0% to 100% of its final
value. This is applicable for the under-damped systems. For the over-
damped systems, consider the duration from 10% to 90% of the final value.
Rise time is denoted by tr.
Settling time
• It is the time required for the response to reach the steady state and stay
within the specified tolerance bands around the final value. In general, the
tolerance bands are 2% and 5%.It is denoted by ts
 Characterization of Sensors

Characterization of Sensors

• Electrical Characterization
• Mechanical Characterization
• Optical Characterization
• Thermal Characterization
• Chemical Characterization
• Biological Characterization
 Electrical Characterization
• Evaluation of electrical parameters like
• Impedance, voltage and currents
• Breakdown voltages and fields
• Leakage currents
• Noise
• Cross talks

Breakdown voltages and fields

Electrical characterization-Continued
Mechanical and Thermal Characterization

• Mechanical and thermal properties related to overall reliability and

integrity
• Failure analysis is performed and mechanism of failure is identified
and eliminated.

Mechanical & Thermal characterization-

Continued
Optical characterization

Done by ascertaining
• Absorption coefficient
• Refractive index
• reflectivity

Chemical/biological characterization

• Testing the sensor w.r.t its resistance to chemical or corrosion in the

industrial as well as biological environment
• Sensors are tested against toxic or harmful effects in the prescribed
environment.