ECE1005

SENSORS & INSTRUMENTATION

MODULE 1 & 2
 Significance Of Measurement :

Importance of Measurement is simply expressed in the

following statement of famous physicist Lord Kelvin:
“ I often say that when you can measure what you are
speaking about and can express it in numbers, you
know something about it; when you cannot express
in it numbers your knowledge is of meager and
unsatisfactory kind ”
Measurand:
The physical quantity or the characteristic
condition which is the object of mesurement in
an instrumentation system is variously termed as
measurand,Measurement
variable,instrumentation variable or process
variable
The measurand may be:
-fundamental quantity(Length, mass, time, temperature,
electric current, amount of substance.)
-derived quantity(force, density, volume, momentum)
The word measurand is used to designate the
particular physical parameter being observed and
quantified.
 SENSORS & TRANSDUCERS
• A transducer is a device which converts one form
of energy into anther form.
• A sensor is a device which detects a physical
quantity and produces an electric signal based on
the strength of the quantity measured.
• A sensor merely measures a quantity and cannot,
by itself, give feedback to the system.
• Since transducers can convert between any forms
of energy, they can be used to provide feedback
to the system.
• Output from a sensor may or may not be meaningful i.e most of the
times it needs to be conditioned and converted into various other
forms.
• The transducer output is always meaningful.
• The output of a motor is meaningful.
• The output of a loudspeaker is meaningful. They are transducers.
• A sensor is nothing but just a primary element which senses any
physical phenomenon or it gives an indication in any
change of the physical phenomenon.

We can say that Every transducer is also(or has) a sensor but every
sensor need not be a transducer.
• Sometimes in a sensor, there is no conversion at all. Ex.
Thermometer, where the temperature is sensed and is
directly measured.
• In a transducer there is always a conversion i.e
transduction. Ex. RTD, Thermocouple etc where the
temperature is sensed and the measurement is made
in terms of voltage.
Thus you can say that a SENSOR may or may not have a
conversion and it only senses. A TRANSDUCER always
involves a conversion and also has signal conditioning
involved.
 Our definitions:
Sensor
• A device that responds to a physical stimulus.

Transducer
• A device that converts energy of one form into energy of
another form.

Actuator
• A device or mechanism capable of performing a physical
action
 SENSORS & TRANSDUCERS

Signal conditioners
Are electronic circuits performing any of following functions: amplification, level shifting,
filtering, impedance matching, modulation, and demodulation.
Sensors used to measure:
• Temperature

• Pressure

• Flow

• Gases and Chemicals

• Motion detector

• Light

• Image sensor
 Daily Life Examples

Where are all are SENSORS commonly used?

• Mobiles?
• At home?
• In cars?
• In markets?
• In Hospitals?
• Traffic and Environment monitoring?
 Multiple sensors,
Advanced safety Cars actuators, and
warning signals are
parts of the
advanced safety
vehicle

advanced safety vehicle

Washing Machine

Two Important Sensors:

Temperature Sensors-
THERMISTOR- Made of solid Semiconducting
material showing
• Shows positive temperature coefficient &
negative temperature coefficient
• High Sensistivity (~ 44,000 ppm/ C @ 25 C
• Small response time

Water level Sensor-

Based on switch to control how high tub fills…
Geysers
Thermostat is used as a control switch to
regulate the temperature of the water by adjusting
the heating duration of the element.

Principle: When the temperature is close to the set-

point on the thermostat, the element is switched off.

When the temperature of the geyser drops below

the set point, the element is switched on and the
water heated to the set point .
 ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE SENSORS
ABSOLUTE SENSORS
Detects a stimulus in reference to an absolute
physical scale that is independent of the measurement
SENSORS can be CLASSIFIED
conditions
(based on selection of Reference)
RELATIVE SENSORS
Produces a signal that relates to some special case
Examples:

TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Absolute sensor: THERMISTOR- ‘R’ directly relates to the absolute temperature scale of
Kelvin

Relative sensor: THERMOCOUPLE- Produces a ‘V’, which is a function of a temperature

gradient across the thermocouple wires

PRESSURE SENSOR
* Absolute pressure sensor produces signal in reference to vacuum – (an absolute
zero on a pressure scale.)

* Relative pressure sensor produces signal with respect to a selected baseline that is not
zero pressure, for example, to the atmospheric pressure.
 Active and passive sensor
• According to the need of power supply
• Modulating (active) or self-generating (passive)
• Active : - output signal power comes from power
source
- output power comes from input
- require more wires
- presence of power source increase the
danger of explosion
• Passive : output comes from input
 Analog and Digital
• According to the output
• Analog : -output changes continuously
- Amplitude is the information
• Digital : -output is discrete or digital
 Different Types of Sensors

• Temperature Sensor
• Proximity Sensor
• Accelerometer
• IR Sensor (Infrared Sensor)
• Pressure Sensor
• Light Sensor
• Ultrasonic Sensor
• Smoke, Gas and Alcohol Sensor
• Touch Sensor
• Humidity Sensor
• Tilt Sensor
• Flow and Level Sensor
 PIR Sensor
• All objects with a temperature above absolute zero
emit heat energy in the form of radiation. Usually this
radiation isn't visible to the human eye because it
radiates at infrared wavelengths, but it can be detected
by electronic devices designed for such a purpose.
• A PIR-based motion detector is used to sense
movement of people, animals, or other objects. They
are commonly used in burglar alarms and
automatically-activated lighting systems. They are
commonly called simply "PIR", or sometimes "PID", for
"passive infrared detector".
 Ultrasonic sensors
• As the name indicates, ultrasonic sensors
measure distance by using ultrasonic waves.
The sensor head emits an ultrasonic wave and
receives the wave reflected back from the
target. Ultrasonic Sensors measure the
distance to the target by measuring the time
between the emission and reception.
 Pressure Sensors
• A pressure sensor is a device for pressure
measurement of gases or liquids. Pressure is
an expression of the force required to stop a
fluid from expanding, and is usually stated in
terms of force per unit area. A pressure sensor
usually acts as a transducer; it generates a
signal as a function of the pressure imposed.
 Light Sensors
• The light sensor is a passive devices that
convert this “light energy” whether visible or
in the infra-red parts of the spectrum into an
electrical signal output. Light sensors are
more commonly known as “Photoelectric
Devices” or “Photo Sensors” because the
convert light energy (photons) into electricity
(electrons).
 Touch sensor
• A touch sensor is a type of equipment that
captures and records physical touch or embrace
on a device and/or object. It enables a device or
object to detech touch, typically by a human user
or operator. A touch sensor may also be called a
touch detector. For example, when navigating
through a smartphone or using an application,
the touch sensor captures the human touches or
the applied pressure across the screen. Each
interaction with the user across the screen might
have a different meaning for the device and/or
the application.
 TILT SENSORS
• Digital Tilt Motion Sensor. The 507M Digital Tilt Sensor
from Directed is ideal for protecting a vehicle from
theft by detecting when the vehicle is being raised by a
tow truck or lifted using a jack, in an attempt to
remove the wheels or tow the vehicle.
• A tilt sensor can measure the tilting in often two axes
of a reference plane in two axes. In contrast, a full
motion would use at least three axes and often
additional sensors. One way to measure tilt angle with
reference to the earth's ground plane, is to use an
accelerometer.
 Flow and Level Sensors
• A level sensor is a device for determining the
level or amount of fluids, liquids or other
substances that flow in an open or closed system.
There are two types of level measurements,
namely, continuous and point level
measurements.
• Continuous level sensors are used for measuring
levels to a specific limit, but they provide
accurate results. Point level sensors, on the other
hand, only determine if the liquid level is high or
low.
 Proximity Sensor

The main function of this proximity sensor is to detect how close

your smartphone's screen is to your body. When you use your
smartphone, it detects the position of ear with respect to screen
and turns off the light of screen and saves battery. Also proximity
sensor stops the accidental touch, unwanted input during talk. This
sensor also detects the signal strength, interference sources and
amplify or filter by use of Beam Forming Technique. Thus, in a
nutshell, proximity sensor detect the presence of body like cheek,
face or ear and stops the web surfing, music or video during
talk/calling and save the battery. After the conversation, it resumes
the same function which was stopped earlier during talk.
 GPS (Global Positioning System)
sensor

GPS short form of Global Positioning System, originally

developed and setup for military operations and was
made available for everyone in 1980s by Government.
GPS is a system which tracks the target or 'navigate' the
things by map or picture with the help of GPS satellites.
Nowadays smartphones come with assisted GPS or A-
GPS which does the same work with the help of
intermediate server in case of disconnection with main
GPS satellite.
 Ambient Light Sensor

This sensor optimize the light of screen when it

exposed to normal light with different intensity.
Ultimate function of ambient light sensor is to
adjust the display brightness, which at the end
saves the battery power and life too. Ambient
light sensor senses and adjust the light based on
principle of "superposition". They contains photo
diodes which are sensitive to different spectrum
of light and combined mathematical effect
adjusts the gain and output changes of the light
intensity on the screen.
 Accelerometer

• The main function of accelerometer is to sense the changes in the

orientation of smartphone with respect to datum and adjust the
orientation to suits the viewing angle of operator. For example,
when you are looking for web-page with increased width, you can
get this landscape view from changing the orientation of phone to
horizontal. Similarly camera mode also changes the portrait to
landscape or landscape to portrait mode when we change the
orientation of phone/camera. Ultimately this accelerometer sensor
sense the change in orientation by 3D (X,Y & Z axis) measurement
of acceleration of the device with respect to free fall. One can
better use this feature/sensor while playing racing games where
he/she can steer the car in the desired direction by leaning the
phone in that direction.
 Thermometer
• Some folks might remember that the Samsung Galaxy S4
bragged with a thermometer for measuring ambient
temperature. However, there's a thermometer in pretty
much any smartphone, and some handsets might have
more than one of them. The difference is that they're used
to monitor the temperature inside the device and its
battery. If a component is detected to be overheating, the
system shuts itself down to prevent damage. And speaking
of the Galaxy S4, it pioneered the use of an air humidity
sensor in a smartphone. Data provided by it was used in
the S Health application to tell whether or not the user was
in their "Comfort Zone" – one with optimal air temperature
and humidity.
Static Characteristics
 Accuracy
– Accuracy is the ability of an instrument to show the exact
reading.
– Always related to the extent of the wrong reading/non
accuracy.
– Normally shown in percentage of error which of the full
scale reading percentage.
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Example :
A pressure gauge with a range between 0-1 bar with an
accuracy of ± 5% fs (full-scale) has a maximum error of:
5 x 1 bar = ± 0.05 bar
100
Notes: It is essential to choose an equipment which has a
suitable operating range.
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Example :
A pressure gauge with a range between 0 - 10 bar
is found to have an error of ± 0.15 bar when
calibrated by the manufacturer.
Calculate :
a. The error percentage of the gauge.
b. The error percentage when the
reading obtained is 2.0 bar.
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
Answer :
a. Error Percentage = ± 0.15 bar x 100 = ± 1.5%
10.0 bar
b. Error Percentage = ± 0.15 bar x 100 = ± 7.5 %
2.0 bar

• The gauge is not suitable for use for low range reading.
• Alternative : use gauge with a suitable range.
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS
Example :
Two pressure gauges (pressure gauge A and B) have a full scale accuracy of ±
5%. Sensor A has a range of 0-1 bar and Sensor B 0-10 bar. Which gauge is
more suitable to be used if the reading is 0.9 bar?

Answer :
Sensor A :
Equipment max error = ± 5 x 1 bar = ± 0.05 bar
100
Equipment accuracy
@ 0.9 bar ( in %) = ± 0.05 bar x 100 = ± 5.6%
0.9 bar
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Sensor B :
Equipment max error = ± 5 x 10 bar = ± 0.5 bar
100
Equipment accuracy
@ 0.9 bar ( in %) = ± 0.5 bar x 100 = ± 55%
0.9 bar
Conclusion :
Sensor A is more suitable to use at a reading of 0.9 bar because the error
percentage (± 5.6%) is smaller compared to the percentage error of Sensor
B (± 55%).
 Precision
• An equipment which is precise is not
necessarily accurate.
• Defined as the capability of an instrument to
show the same reading when used each time
(reproducibility of the instrument).
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Example : XXX
XXX
X : result
Centre circle : true value

Low accuracy, high precision

XXX
XXXX
XXX
X X

High accuracy, high precision x x

Low accuracy, low precision

 Sensitivity
• Defined as the ratio of change in output
towards the change in input at a steady state
condition.
• Sensitivity (K) = Δθο
Δθi
Δθο : change in output; Δθi : change in input
Linearity:
The ability to reproduce the input characteristics
symmetrically is called linearity. It can be expressed by the
straight line equation.
Resolution
• Resolution is the smallest change in the
measured value to which the instrument can
respond.
• It is the smallest change the instrument can
measure.
• For example, a 100 V voltmeter may not be able
to measure 100 mV. Only when the minimum
input is 0.5 V, the needle may deflect or the
reading changes from 0. Any input or change in
input less than 0.5 V may have no effect on the
instrument. Therefore, the resolution for that
particular instrument is 0.5 V.
• The smallest change in input reading that can be
traced accurately.
Dead Zone
 Tolerance

• Closely related to accuracy of an equipment where the

accuracy of an equipment is sometimes referred to in
the form of tolerance limit.
• Defined as the maximum error expected in an
instrument.
 Range
• It can be defined as the measure of the
instrument between the lowest and highest
readings it can measure. A thermometer has a
scale from −40°C to 100°C. Thus the range
varies from −40°C to 100°C.
 Span
• It can be defined as the range of an
instrument from the minimum to maximum
scale value. In the case of a thermometer, its
scale goes from −40°C to 100°C. Thus its span
is 140°C. As said before accuracy is defined as
a percentage of span. It is actually a deviation
from true expressed as a percentage of the
span.
 BIAS

• Constant error which occurs during the measurement of an

instrument.
• This error is usually rectified through calibration.
Example :
A weighing scale always gives a bias reading. This
equipment always gives a reading of 1 kg even without any
load applied. Therefore, if A with a weight of 70 kg weighs
himself, the given reading would be 71 kg. This would
indicate that there is a constant bias of 1 kg to be corrected.
 Hysteresis
• The maximum differences in output at any
measured value within the specified range
when approaching the point first with
increasing and then with decreasing input may
be termed as hysteresis
• It is a phenomenon which shows different
output effects when loading and unloading.
 DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS
• Explains the behaviour of instruments when the
input signal is changed.
• Depends on a few standard input signals such as ‘step
input’, ‘ramp input’ and ‘sine-wave input’.
• The behaviour of the system when inputs vary with
time and so does the output is called dynamic
response.
The dynamic inputs are of two types:
1.Steady state periodic
2.Transient
Steady state periodic:
Magnitude has a definite repeating time
Transient:
magnitude does not repeat
The response of a measurement system can be
divided into two parts:
1.Steady state response:
the response when time reaches infinity
2.Transient response:
the part of response which goes to zero as
time becomes large
 Dynamic Characteristics
• Dynamic characteristics refer to the performance of the
instrument when the input variable is changing rapidly with
time.
• The dynamic performance of an instrument is normally
expressed by a differential equation relating the input and
output quantities.
• It is always convenient to express the input-output dynamic
characteristics in form of a linear differential equation.
• The dynamic characteristics are the dynamic error and speed of
response
 Dynamic characteristics
1.Speed of response:
rapidity with which a measurement system responds to
changes in the measured quantity.
2.Measuring lag:
delay in the response of a measurement system.
3.Fidelity:
degree to which a measurement system indicates changes
in the measured quantity without any dynamic error.
4.Dynamic error:
difference between the true value of the quantity
changing with time and the value indicated by the
measurement system if no static error is assumed.
 Mathematical Model: What is
Transfer Function?
• The transfer function represents the relation between stimulus s
and response electrical signal S produced by the sensor.
• Normally, stimulus s is unknown while the output signal S is
measured.
• An inverse f –1(S) of the transfer function is required to compute
the stimulus from the sensor’s response S.
 Steps to derive Transfer function:
• To determine the dynamic characteristics of a sensor, we must
apply a variable quantity to its input.
• This input can take many different forms, but it is usual to
study the response to transient inputs (impulse, step, ramp)
• To mathematically describe the behavior of a sensor, we
assume that its input and output are related through a
differential equation.
• Then the relation between sensor output and input can be
expressed in a simple form, by taking the Laplace transform of
each signal and the transfer function of the sensor .
 Zero Order Systems
• The output of a zero-order sensor is related to its input
through an equation of the type

• Its behavior is characterized by its static sensitivity k

and remains constant regardless of input frequency.
Hence, its dynamic error and its delay are both zero.
• An input-output relationship such as that in above
equation requires that the sensor does not include
any energy-storing element.
 First Order Systems
• In a first-order sensor there is an element that stores
energy and another one that dissipates it. The
relationship between the input x(t) and the output y(t) is
described by a differential equation with the form

• After applying a laplace transformation to the above

equation, we can transform it as:
• Time Constant
 Second Order Systems
• A second-order sensor contains two energy-storing
elements and one energy-dissipating element. Its input
x(t) and output y(t) are related by a second-order linear
differential equation of the form

• The above equation can be converted in a transfer

function after application of a laplace transform as below
• The values of the parameters are purely determined by the
constants a0,a1 and a2 , and are given below:

• The damping ratio, will determine how much the system

oscillates as the response decays toward steady state.

• The un-damped natural frequency, will determine how

fast the system oscillates during any transient response.
Types of Damping Oscillations
 Types of Damping Oscillations
• Consider a door that uses a spring to close the door once
open. This can lead to any of the above types of damping
depending on the strength of the damping.
- If the door is undamped it will swing back and forth forever
at a particular resonant frequency.
- If it is underdamped it will swing back and forth with
decreasing size of the swing until it comes to a stop.
- If it is critically damped then it will return to closed as quickly
as possible without oscillating.
- Finally, if it is overdamped it will return to closed without
oscillating but more slowly depending on how overdamped it
is.
ZERO ORDER SYSTEM, K=1.5
FIRST ORDER SYSTEM, K=1.5
SECOND ORDER SYSTEM , K=1
Error Analysis in Measurement Techniques
What is an error?

Some are due to

human error…

For example,
by not using the
equipment correctly

Let’s look at
some examples.
Human error

Example 1
Professor Messer
is trying to
measure the length of a
piece of wood:

Discuss what he is doing wrong.

How many mistakes
can you find? Six?
 Human error
Answers:
1. Measuring from 100 end
2. 95.4 is the wrong number
3. ‘mm’ is wrong unit (cm)
4. Gap between object & the rule
5. End of object not at the end of the rule
6. Eye is not at the end of the object (parallax)
7. He is on wrong side of the rule to see scale.

How many did you find?

Human error

Example 2 your
eye

Reading a scale:

Discuss the best position to

put your eye.
Human error
your
2 is best. eye

1 and 3 give the

wrong readings.
This is called a
parallax error.
 Anomalous results

When you are doing your practical work, you

may get an odd or inconsistent or ‘anomalous’
reading.
This may be due to a simple mistake in reading
a scale.
The best way to identify an anomalous result is
to draw a graph.
For example . . .
 Anomalous results

Look at this graph: x

x
x
Which result do you x
think may be x
anomalous?
x

A result like this should be taken again, to check it.

 ERRORS
If we are making physical measurements,
there is always error involved. The error is
notated by using the delta, Δ, symbol
followed by the variable representing the
quantity measured.
For example, if we are measuring volume,
the error in measuring the volume would be
symbolized ΔV.
 Calculating the Error

A simple way of looking at the error is as

the difference between the true value and
the approximate value.
i.e:
Error (e) = True value – Approximate
value
 Example:
x
Find the truncation error for at x= e if the
first 3 terms in the expansion are retained.

Sol: Error = True value

2 3
– Approx 2value
 x x   x
=1+x+ + +...1+x+ 
 2! 3!   2! 
x3 x4 x5
= + + +...
3! 4! 5!
 TYPE OF ERRORS

Type of errors
1) Gross error/human Errors
2) Random Errors Static
3) Systematic Errors(bias errors) Errors
4) Constant Errors
5) Absolute Errors
6) Relative Errors
7) Percentage Errors
 TYPES OF STATIC ERROR

1) Gross Error
 cause by human mistakes in reading/using instruments
 may also occur due to incorrect adjustment of the instrument
and the computational mistakes
 cannot be treated mathematically
 cannot eliminate but can minimize
 Eg: Improper use of an instrument.
 This error can be minimized by taking proper care in reading

and recording measurement parameter.

 Therefore, several readings (at three readings) must be taken
to minimize the effect of ambient condition changes.
2) Systematic Error
- due to shortcomings of the instrument (such as
defective or worn parts, ageing or effects of the
environment on the instrument)
 In general, systematic errors can be subdivided into static and
dynamic errors.
 Static – caused by limitations of the measuring device or the
physical laws governing its behavior.
 Dynamic – caused by the instrument not responding very fast
enough to follow the changes in a measured variable.
 What is systematic error?

 Systematic error is caused by any factors that systematically

affect measurement of the variable across the sample.
 For instance, if there is loud traffic going by just outside of a
classroom where students are taking a test, this noise is
liable to affect all of the children's scores -- in this case,
systematically lowering them.
 Unlike random error, systematic errors tend to be
consistently either positive or negative -- because of this,
systematic error is sometimes considered to be bias in
measurement.
- 3 types of systematic error :-
(i) Instrumental error
(ii) Environmental error
(iii) Observational error
(i) Instrumental error
- inherent while measuring instrument because of
their mechanical structure (eg: in a D’Arsonval meter,
friction in the bearings of various moving component,
irregular spring tension, stretching of spring, etc)
- error can be avoid by:
(a) selecting a suitable instrument for the particular
measurement application
(b) apply correction factor by determining
instrumental error
(c) calibrate the instrument against standard
 (ii) Environmental error
- due to external condition effecting the
measurement including surrounding area condition
such as change in temperature, humidity,
barometer pressure, etc
- to avoid the error :-
(a) use air conditioner
(b) sealing certain component in the instruments
(c) use magnetic shields

(iii) Observational error

- introduce by the observer
- most common : parallax error and estimation error (while reading the
scale)
- Eg: an observer who tend to hold his head too far to the left, while
reading the position of the needle on the scale.
 Systematic errors

These errors cause readings to be shifted one way

(or the other) from the true reading.

Your results will be systematically wrong.

Let’s look at some examples . . .

 Systematic errors

A particular type of systematic error

is called a zero error.

Here are some examples . . .

 Zero errors

Example
A spring balance:

Over a period of time,

the spring may weaken,
and so the pointer
does not point to zero:

What effect does this have on all the readings?

Zero errors

Example
Look at this
top-pan balance:

It has a zero error.

There is nothing on it,
but it is not reading zero.

What effect do you think this will have

on all the readings?
Zero errors

Example
Look at this
ammeter:

If you used it like this, what

effect would it have on your
results?
Zero errors

Example
Look at this
voltmeter:

What is the first thing to

do?

Use a screwdriver here

to adjust the pointer.
Zero errors

Example
Look at this
ammeter:

What can you say?

Is it a zero error?
Or is it parallax?
3) Random error
- due to unknown causes, occur when all systematic
error has accounted
- can be avoid by
(a) increasing number of reading
(b) use statistical means to obtain best approximation
of true value

Frequently they are introduced by external factors that cause a

scattering of the measured data.

• Vibration in mechanical devices produces random errors.

• In electronic devices, noise produces random errors.

Random errors

These may be due to

human error,
a faulty technique,
or faulty equipment.

To reduce the error,

take a lot of readings,
and then calculate the average (mean).
 Accuracy and Precision Errors
• Accuracy Error is • Precision error is
Inaccuracy or the random error.
Uncertainty.
• Accuracy error is the • Precision error is
measured value minus the reading minus
the true value. the average of
readings.
 Constant Error
• When the results of observation are in error
by the same amount, the error is said to be a
constant error. e.g. if a scale of 15 cm actually
measures 14.8 cm. Then it is measuring 0.2
cm more in every observation. This type of
error will be same in all measurements done
by the scale.
 LIMITING ERROR

 The accuracy of measuring instrument is guaranteed

within a certain percentage (%) of full scale reading
 E.g manufacturer may specify the instrument to be
accurate at 2 % with full scale deflection
 For reading less than full scale, the limiting error
increases
 LIMITING ERROR (cont)
Example

Given a 600 V voltmeter with accuracy 2% full scale.

Calculate limiting error when the instrument is used to measure a voltage
of 250V?

Solution

The magnitude of limiting error, 0.02 x 600 = 12V

Therefore, the limiting error for 250V = 12/250 x 100 = 4.8%
 PBL
• Electronic Nose in gas leakage
• Monitoring Room Temperature
• Pressure Monitoring
• Intruder detector and alarm system
• Reverse Car Parking System
• Automatic wipers for car
• Water Tank Level Control
• Humidity Measurement
• Air Quality Measurement
• Heart Beat Measurement
• Fall Detection System
• Soil Moisture detection system
THANK YOU