Content

• Sensors/Transducers – Definition, Principles, Classifications, Types, Characteristics and Specifications

• Actuators -– Definition, Principles, Classifications, Types, Characteristics and Specifications
• Smart Object – Definition, Characteristics and Trends
• Sensor Networks – Architecture of Wireless Sensor Network, Network Topologies
• Enabling IoT Technologies - Radio Frequency Identification Technology, Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems
(MEMS), NFC (Near Field Communication), Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE), LTE-A (LTE Advanced), IEEE
802.15.4– Standardization and Alliances, ZigBee
Sensors/Transducers
• Sensors:
• Sensor senses it’s surrounding. A sensor measures some physical quantity and converts that measurement
reading into a digital representation.
• That digital representation is typically passed to another device for transformation into useful data that can
be consumed by intelligent devices or humans.
• Sensors are not limited to human-like sensory data. They can measure anything worth measuring. In fact,
they are able to provide an extremely wide spectrum of rich and diverse measurement data with far greater
precision than human senses; sensors provide superhuman sensory capabilities.
• Sensors can be readily embedded in any physical objects that are easily connected to the Internet by wired or
wireless networks.
• Because these connected host physical objects with multidimensional sensing capabilities communicate with
each other and external systems, they can interpret their environment and make intelligent decisions.
Sensors/Transducers
• Sensors Working Principles:
• Ampere’s Law: A current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field experiences a force (e.g. galvanometer).
• Curie-Weiss Law: There is a transition temperature at which ferromagnetic materials exhibit paramagnetic
behaviors.
• Faraday’s Law of Induction: A coil resist a change in the magnetic field by generating an opposing
voltage/current (e.g. transformer).
• Photoconductive Effect: When light strikes certain semiconductor materials, the resistance of the material
decreases (e.g. photoresistor).
• Hall Effect: In a Hall sensor, a current is applied to a thin strip of metal. In the presence of a magnetic field
perpendicular to the direction of the current, the charge carriers are deflected by the Lorentz force,
producing a difference in electric potential (voltage) between the two sides of the strip.
Sensors/Transducers
• Sensors Working Principles:
• Wheatstone Bridge: Bridge Networks or Circuits are one of the most popular and popular electrical tools, often
used in measurement circuits, transducer circuits, switching circuits and also in oscillators.
• The Wheatstone Bridge is one of the most common and simplest bridge network / circuit, which can be used to
measure resistance very precisely.
• But often the Wheatstone Bridge is used with Transducers to measure physical quantities like Temperature,
Pressure, Strain etc.
• Wheatstone Bridge is used in applications where small changes in resistance are to be measured in sensors. This is
used to convert a change in resistance to a change in voltage of a transducer.
• The combination of this bridge with operational amplifier is used extensively in industries for various transducers
and sensors. For example, the resistance of a Thermistor changes when it is subjected to change in temperature.
Likewise, a strain gauge, when subjected to pressure, force or displacement, its resistance changes. Depending on
the type of application, the Wheatstone Bridge can be operated either in a Balanced condition or an Unbalanced
condition.
Sensors/Transducers
• Sensors: Classification:
• There are a number of ways to group, classify and cluster sensors into different categories, including the following:
• Active or passive: Sensors can be categorized based on whether they produce an energy output and typically require an external
power supply (active) or whether they simply receive energy and typically require no external power supply (passive).
• Invasive or non-invasive: Sensors can be categorized based on whether a sensor is part of the environment it is measuring
(invasive) or external to it (non-invasive).
• Contact or no-contact: Sensors can be categorized based on whether they require physical contact with what they are
measuring (contact) or not (no-contact).
• Absolute or relative: Sensors can be categorized based on whether they measure on an absolute scale (absolute) or based on a
difference with a fixed or variable reference value (relative).
• Area of application: Sensors can be categorized based on the specific industry or vertical where they are being used.
• How sensors measure: Sensors can be categorized based on the physical mechanism used to measure sensory input (for
example, thermoelectric, electrochemical, piezoresistive, optic, electric, fluid mechanic, photoelastic).
• What sensors measure: Sensors can be categorized based on their applications or what physical variables they measure.
Sensors/Transducers
• Sensors: Types:
Sensor Type Description Example

Position A position sensor measures the position of an object; the position measurement can Potentiometer,
be either in absolute terms (absolute position sensor) or in relative terms inclinometer,
(displacement sensor). Position sensors can be linear, angular, or multi-axis. proximity sensor
Occupancy Occupancy sensors detect the presence of people and animals in a surveillance area, Electric eye, radar
and motion while motion sensors detect movement of people and objects. The difference Velocity and
between the two is that occupancy sensors generate a signal even when a person is acceleration
stationary, whereas motion sensors do not. Velocity
Velocity and Velocity (speed of motion) sensors may be linear or angular, indicating how fast an Accelerometer,
acceleration object moves along a straight line or how fast it rotates. Acceleration sensors Gyroscope
measure changes in velocity.
Force Force sensors detect whether a physical force is applied and whether the magnitude Force gauge,
of force is beyond a threshold. viscometer, tactile
sensor (touch
sensor)
Sensors/Transducers
• Sensors: Types:
Sensor Type Description Example

Pressure Pressure sensors are related to force sensors, measuring force applied by liquids or Barometer, Bourdon
gases. Pressure is measured in terms of force per unit area. gauge, piezometer

Flow Flow sensors detect the rate of fluid flow. They measure the volume (mass flow) or Anemometer, mass
rate (flow velocity) of fluid that has passed through a system in a given period of flow sensor, water
time. meter
Acoustic Acoustic sensors measure sound levels and convert that information into digital or Microphone,geopho
analog data signals. ne, Hydrophone

Humidity Humidity sensors detect humidity (amount of water vapor) in the air or a mass. Hygrometer,
Humidity levels can be measured in various ways: absolute humidity, relative humistor, soil
humidity, mass ratio, and so on. moisture sensor
Light Light sensors detect the presence of light (visible or invisible). Infrared sensor,
photodetector,
flame detector
Sensors/Transducers
• Sensors: Types:
Sensor Type Description Example

Radiation Radiation sensors detect radiation in the environment. Radiation can be sensed by Geiger-Müller
scintillating or ionization detection. counter, scintillator,
neutron detector
Temperature Temperature sensors measure the amount of heat or cold that is present in a system. Thermometer,
They can be broadly of two types: contact and non-contact. Contact temperature calorimeter,
sensors need to be in physical contact with the object being sensed. Non-contact temperature
sensors do not need physical contact, as they measure temperature through gauge
convection and radiation.
Chemical Chemical sensors measure the concentration of chemicals in a system. When Breathalyzer,
subjected to a mix of chemicals, chemical sensors are typically selective for a target olfactometer, smoke
type of chemical. detector
Biosensors Biosensors detect various biological elements, such as organisms, tissues, cells, Blood glucose
enzymes, antibodies, and nucleic acid. biosensor,
pulse oximetry,
electrocardiograph
Sensors/Transducers
• Sensors: Characteristics and Specifications:
• Sensors characteristics :
• Static
• Dynamic
1. Static characteristics :
• It is about how the output of a sensor changes in response to an input change after steady state condition.
• Accuracy –
• Accuracy is the capability of measuring instruments to give a result close to the true value of the measured
quantity. It measures errors. It is measured by absolute and relative errors. Express the correctness of the
output compared to a higher prior system. Absolute error = Measured value – True value
• Relative error = Measured value/True value
Sensors/Transducers
• Sensors: Characteristics and Specifications:
• Range –
• Gives the highest and the lowest value of the physical quantity within which the sensor can actually sense. Beyond these values,
there is no sense or no kind of response.
• e.g. RTD for measurement of temperature has a range of -200`c to 800`c.
• Resolution –
• Resolution is an important specification towards selection of sensors. The higher the resolution, better the precision. When the
accretion is zero to, it is called threshold.
• Provide the smallest changes in the input that a sensor is able to sense.
• Precision –
• It is the capacity of a measuring instrument to give the same reading when repetitively measuring the same quantity under the
same prescribed conditions.
• It implies agreement between successive readings, NOT closeness to the true value.
Sensors/Transducers
• Sensors: Characteristics and Specifications:
• Sensitivity –
• Sensitivity indicates the ratio of incremental change in the response of the system with respect to incremental change in input
parameters. It can be found from the slope of the output characteristics curve of a sensor. It is the smallest amount of difference
in quantity that will change the instrument’s reading.
• Linearity –
• The deviation of the sensor value curve from a particular straight line. Linearity is determined by the calibration curve. The static
calibration curve plots the output amplitude versus the input amplitude under static conditions.
• A curve’s slope resemblance to a straight line describes the linearity.
• Drift –
• The difference in the measurement of the sensor from a specific reading when kept at that value for a long period of time.
• Repeatability –
• The deviation between measurements in a sequence under the same conditions. The measurements have to be made under a
short enough time duration so as not to allow significant long-term drift.
Sensors/Transducers
• Sensors: Characteristics and Specifications:
• Dynamic Characteristics :
• Zero-order system –
• The output shows a response to the input signal with no delay. It does not include energy-storing elements.
• Ex. potentiometer measure, linear and rotary displacements.
• First-order system –
• When the output approaches its final value gradually.
• Consists of an energy storage and dissipation element.
• Second-order system –
• Complex output response. The output response of the sensor oscillates before steady state.
Sensors/Transducers
• Transducers:
Sensors/Transducers
• Transducers:
• A transducer converts a signal from one physical structure to another. It converts one type of energy into
another type.
• So, in the case of a sensor, the transducer converts some physical phenomenon into an electrical impulse
that can then be interpreted to determine a reading. A microphone is a sensor that takes vibrational energy
(sound waves) and converts it to electrical energy in a useful way for other components in the system to
correlate back to the original sound.
• Another type of transducer that you will encounter in many IoT systems is an actuator. In simple terms, an
actuator operates in the reverse direction of a sensor. It takes an electrical input and turns it into physical
action. For instance, an electric motor, a hydraulic system, and a pneumatic system are all different types of
actuators.
Actuators
• Actuators are natural complements to sensors. Sensors are designed to sense and measure practically any
measurable variable in the physical world. They convert their measurements (typically analog) into electric
signals or digital representations that can be consumed by an intelligent agent (a device or a human).
Actuators, on the others hand, receive some type of control signal (commonly an electric signal or digital
command) that triggers a physical effect, usually some type of motion, force, and so on.
• Figure below demonstrates the symmetry and complementary nature of these two types of devices.
Actuators

Working Principle:
• IoT sensors are devices that sense and measure the physical world and (typically) signal their measurements
as electric signals sent to some type of microprocessor or microcontroller for additional processing.
• After processing the information processor decides on certain action to perform and then processor send an
electric signal to an actuator that translates the signal into some type of movement (linear, rotational, and so
on) or useful work that changes or has a measurable impact on the physical world.
• This interaction between sensors, actuators, and processors is the basis for various technical fields, including
robotics and biometrics.
Actuators
Classification:
• Actuators vary greatly in function, size, design, and so on. Some common ways that they can be classified
include the following:
• Type of motion: Actuators can be classified based on the type of motion they produce (for example, linear,
rotary, one/two/three-axes).
• Power: Actuators can be classified based on their power output (for example, high power, low power, micro
power)
• Binary or continuous: Actuators can be classified based on the number of stable-state outputs.
• Area of application: Actuators can be classified based on the specific industry or vertical where they are
used.
• Type of energy: Actuators can be classified based on their energy type.
Actuators
Classification:
• The most commonly used classification is based on energy type.
• Table below shows actuators classified by energy type and some examples for each type.
Actuators
Types:
Type Description Example
Electromagnetic An electromagnetic actuator uses electrical energy, is usually Electromagnet, linear
actuators actuated by a motor that converts electrical energy into mechanical solenoid
torque.
Hydraulic and A hydraulic actuator uses hydraulic power to perform a mechanical Hydraulic cylinder, pneumatic
pneumatic actuators operation. They are actuated by a cylinder or fluid motor. The cylinder, piston, pressure
mechanical motion is converted to rotary, linear, or oscillatory control valves, air motors
motion, according to the need of the IoT device.
A pneumatic actuator uses energy formed by vacuum or
compressed air at high pressure to convert into either linear or
rotary motion.
Smart material These are actuated by thermal or mechanical energy. Shape Shape memory alloy (SMA),
actuators (includes Memory Alloys (SMAs) or Magnetic Shape‐Memory Alloys (MSMAs) ion exchange fluid,
thermal and magnetic are used by these actuators. magnetorestrictive material,
actuators) bimetallic strip, piezoelectric
bimorph
Micro- and These actuators related to micro/nano-electro-mechanical Electrostatic motor,
nanoactuators integrated devices fabricated by the extension of microelectronic microvalve, comb drive
fabrication technology, with high accuracy and high throughput.
Actuators
Characteristics & Specifications:

• Electrical signaling – Actuators measure heat or motion energy in order to determine the resulting action.
• Conversion direction – An actuator converts an electrical signal to a physical action.
• Inputs and outputs – Actuators track the outputs of machines and systems from the environment.
Smart Objects

Definition:
• Smart objects are the building blocks of IoT. They are what transform everyday objects into a network of
intelligent objects that are able to learn from and interact with their environment in a meaningful way.
• smart objects in IoT are more impactful when they are being networked together rather than being isolated
as standalone objects.
• This ability to communicate over a network has a multiplicative effect and allows for very sophisticated
correlation and interaction between disparate smart objects.
Smart Objects
Characteristics:
• A smart object is a device that has, at a minimum, the following four defining characteristics:
• Processing unit: A smart object has some type of processing unit for acquiring data, processing and analyzing
sensing information received by the sensor(s), coordinating control signals to any actuators, and controlling a
variety of functions on the smart object, including the communication and power systems. The specific type of
processing unit that is used can vary greatly, depending on the specific processing needs of different applications.
The most common is a microcontroller because of its small form factor, flexibility, programming simplicity, ubiquity,
low power consumption, and low cost.
• Sensor(s) and/or actuator(s): A smart object is capable of interacting with the physical world through sensors and
actuators. As described in the previous sections, a sensor learns and measures its environment, whereas an
actuator is able to produce some change in the physical world. A smart object does not need to contain both
sensors and actuators. In fact, a smart object can contain one or multiple sensors and/or actuators, depending
upon the application.
Smart Objects
Characteristics:
• Communication device: The communication unit is responsible for connecting a smart object with other smart
objects and the outside world (via the network). Communication devices for smart objects can be either wired or
wireless. Overwhelmingly, in IoT networks smart objects are wirelessly interconnected for a number of reasons,
including cost, limited infrastructure availability, and ease of deployment. There are myriad different
communication protocols for smart objects.
• Power source: Smart objects have components that need to be powered. Interestingly, the most significant power
consumption usually comes from the communication unit of a smart object. As with the other three smart object
building blocks, the power requirements also vary greatly from application to application. Typically, smart objects
are limited in power, are deployed for a very long time, and are not easily accessible. This combination, especially
when the smart object relies on battery power, implies that power efficiency, judicious power management, sleep
modes, ultra-low power consumption hardware, and so on are critical design elements. For long-term deployments
where smart objects are, for all practical purposes, inaccessible, power is commonly obtained from scavenger
sources (solar, piezoelectric, and so on) or is obtained in a hybridized manner, also tapping into infrastructure
power.
Smart Objects
Characteristics:
Smart Objects
Trends:
• Broad generalizations and trends of smart object which are impacting IoT are:
• Size is decreasing: There is a clear trend of ever-decreasing size. Some smart objects are so small they are not even visible to the
naked eye. This reduced size makes smart objects easier to embed in everyday objects.
• Power consumption is decreasing: The different hardware components of a smart object continually consume less power. This is
especially true for sensors, many of which are completely passive. Some battery-powered sensors last 10 or more years without
battery replacement.
• Processing power is increasing: Processors are continually getting more powerful and smaller. This is a key advancement for
smart objects, as they become increasingly complex and connected.
• Communication capabilities are improving: It’s no big surprise that wireless speeds are continually increasing, but they are also
increasing in range. IoT is driving the development of more and more specialized communication protocols covering a greater
diversity of use cases and environments.
• Communication is being increasingly standardized: There is a strong push in the industry to develop open standards for IoT
communication protocols. In addition, there are more and more open source efforts to advance IoT.
Sensor Networks

• A sensor/actuator network (SANET), as the name suggests, is a network of sensors that sense and measure
their environment and/or actuators that act on their environment.
• The sensors and/or actuators in a SANET are capable of communicating and cooperating in a productive
manner.
• Effective and well-coordinated communication and cooperation is a prominent challenge, primarily because
the sensors and actuators in SANETs are diverse, heterogeneous, and resource-constrained.
• SANETs offer highly coordinated sensing and actuation capabilities.
• Smart homes are a type of SANET that display this coordination between distributed sensors and actuators.
Sensor Networks
• Wireless Sensor Network:
• Wireless sensor networks are made up of wirelessly connected smart objects, which are sometimes referred
to as motes.
• Wireless Sensor Network is an infrastructure-less wireless network that is deployed in a large number of
wireless sensors in an ad-hoc manner that is used to monitor the system, physical or environmental
conditions.
• Sensor nodes are used in WSN with the onboard processor that manages and monitors the environment in a
particular area. They are connected to the Base Station which acts as a processing unit in the WSN System.
• Base Station in a WSN System is connected through the Internet to share data.
• WSN can be used for processing, analysis, storage, and mining of the data.
Sensor Networks
• Wireless Sensor Network Architecture:
Sensor Networks
Wireless Sensor Network Architecture Components:
• Sensors:
• Sensors in WSN are used to capture the environmental variables and which is used for data acquisition. Sensor
signals are converted into electrical signals.
• Radio Nodes:
• It is used to receive the data produced by the Sensors and sends it to the WLAN access point. It consists of a
microcontroller, transceiver, external memory, and power source.
• WLAN Access Point:
• It receives the data which is sent by the Radio nodes wirelessly, generally through the internet.
• Evaluation Software:
• The data received by the WLAN Access Point is processed by a software called as Evaluation Software for
presenting the report to the users for further processing of the data which can be used for processing, analysis,
storage, and mining of the data.
Sensor Networks
Network Topologies:
• For connecting IoT devices, three main topology schemes are dominant: star, mesh, and peer-to-peer.
• Peer-to-peer:
• Peer-to-peer topologies allow any device to communicate with any other device as long as they are in range
of each other. Obviously, peer-to-peer topologies rely on multiple full-function devices. Peer-to-peer
topologies enable more complex formations, such as a mesh networking topology.
• The advantage of point-to-point network topology is that it is much simpler than mesh or star, because the
topology simply tunnels a flow of data either unidirectionally or bidirectionally between two points.
• The disadvantage is that point-to-point networks are not very useful for IoT. They are still used in some
SCADA systems, traffic data systems, or in point-to-point broadcast systems (like police or fire radios), but it
rarely makes sense in IoT to have a receiver talk to a single node instead of multiple nodes.
Sensor Networks
Network Topologies:
• Mesh Topology:
• Mesh topology is a type of networking where all nodes cooperate to distribute data in a network. This
topology is typically used for things like home automation, smart HVAC control, and smart buildings. The
industry standards that rely on mesh network topology include Zigbee, Z-Wave, and Thread.
• The primary advantage of mesh topology is that it has low transmit power and shorter links (< 100 ft), which
allows for a fairly long battery life and enables you to move a lot of data around the network.
• The primary disadvantage of mesh topology is that the range between two mesh nodes is quite limited. This
means you may have to add additional nodes into your network that aren’t strictly necessary—like an extra
IoT-enabled thermostat that you don’t actually need for temperature—just so you can keep your mesh
connected. Additionally, because of the interconnected nature of a mesh network, if one node goes down in
a “choke point,” an entire piece of the network can fail.
Sensor Networks
Network Topologies:
• Star Topology:
• Mesh networks are not the only way to solve low power network needs for IoT applications. In fact, a majority of
low power, wide-area network (LPWAN) technologies, in addition to WiFi and cellular networks, use a star network
topology. A star network has a router or access point in the middle that connects to all the terminals or nodes.
• The advantage of star topology is that all the complexity in the network is driven to a central node, so all the other
nodes only need to communicate in their time or frequency slot. How they communicate depends on whether
wireless multiplexing is done through frequency-division multiple access (FDMA), time-division multiple access
(TMA), or code-division multiple access (CDMA).
• The primary disadvantage of star topology is that the radio link between the gateway and the end node or terminal
can be very long, which means the further a node is away from the gateway, the more energy it has to expend
relaying a message. But unlike a mesh node that has to be constantly “awake,” star nodes are able to rest between
message transmissions, helping conserve the total amount of energy expended by each node.
Sensor Networks
Network Topologies:
Radio Frequency Identification Technology
• Radio frequency identification system (RFID) is an automatic technology and aids machines or computers to
identify objects, record metadata or control individual target through radio waves.
• Connecting RFID reader to the terminal of Internet, the readers can identify, track and monitor the objects
attached with tags globally, automatically, and in real time, if needed. This is the Internet of Things (IoT). RFID
is often seen as a prerequisite for the IoT.
• RFID, or Radio Frequency Identification, is the technology that uses radio waves to enable communication
and data transmission between a reader system and the object that has a special tag attached or carved-in.
• In short, the tags reflect the energy emitted by the reader and, thus, identifies the object it’s attached to and
communicates certain information such as location.
Radio Frequency Identification Technology (Cont…)
• Working of RFID:
• Every RFID system consists of three components: a scanning antenna, a transceiver and a transponder. When the scanning
antenna and transceiver are combined, they are referred to as an RFID reader or interrogator.
• There are two types of RFID readers -- fixed readers and mobile readers. The RFID reader is a network-connected device that
can be portable or permanently attached. It uses radio waves to transmit signals that activate the tag. Once activated, the tag
sends a wave back to the antenna, where it is translated into data.
• The transponder is in the RFID tag itself. The read range for RFID tags varies based on factors including the type of tag, type of
reader, RFID frequency and interference in the surrounding environment or from other RFID tags and readers. Tags that have a
stronger power source also have a longer read range.
• RFID tags are made up of an integrated circuit (IC), an antenna and a substrate. The part of an RFID tag that encodes identifying
information is called the RFID inlay.
• There are two main types of RFID tags:
• Active RFID: An active RFID tag has its own power source, often a battery.
• Passive RFID: A passive RFID tag receives its power from the reading antenna, whose electromagnetic wave induces a current in
the RFID tag's antenna.
Radio Frequency Identification Technology (Cont…)
• Types of RFID System:
• There are three main types of RFID systems: low frequency (LF), high frequency (HF) and ultra-high frequency
(UHF). Microwave RFID is also available. Frequencies vary greatly by country and region.
• Low-frequency RFID systems: These range from 30 KHzto 500 KHz, though the typical frequency is 125 KHz.
LF RFID has short transmission ranges, generally anywhere from a few inches to less than six feet.
• High-frequency RFID system: These range from 3 MHzto 30 MHz, with the typical HF frequency being 13.56
MHz. The standard range is anywhere from a few inches to several feet.
• UHF RFID systems: These range from 300 MHz to 960 MHz, with the typical frequency of 433 MHz and can
generally be read from 25-plus feet away.
• Microwave RFID systems: These run at 2.45 Ghzand can be read from 30-plus feet away.
• The frequency used will depend on the RFID application, with actual obtained distances sometimes varying
from what is expected.
Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS)
• Micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS), also known as micro-machines, can integrate and combine electric and
mechanical elements, such as sensors and actuators, on a very small (millimeter or less) scale.
• Key characteristic of this technique is microfabrication which allows mass production at very low costs. The
combination of tiny size, low cost, and the ability to mass produce makes MEMS an attractive option for a huge
number of IoT applications.
• MEMS devices have already been widely used in a variety of different applications and can be found in very
familiar everyday devices. For example, inkjet printers use micropump MEMS. Smart phones also use MEMS
technologies for things like accelerometers and gyroscopes. In fact, automobiles were among the first to
commercially introduce MEMS into the mass market, with airbag accelerometers.
• Micro-scale sensors and actuators are immensely embeddable in everyday objects, which is a defining
characteristic of IoT. For this reason, it is expected that IoT will trigger significant advances in MEMS technology,
and manufacturing and will make them pervasive across all industries and verticals as they become broadly
commercialized.
Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) (Cont…)
• MEMS components:
• MEMS consist of any combination of mechanical (levers, springs, membranes, combs, channels) and electrical
(resistors, capacitors, inductors, etc.) components to work as sensors or actuators.
• In their most general form, MEMS consist of four elements: mechanical microstructures, microsensors, micro-
actuators and micro-electronics, all integrated onto the same chip.
• MEMS can act as sensors, receiving information from their environment and providing an electrical output signal,
or as actuators, devices that convert an electrical signal into an action as required by a decision from the control
system. Both sensors and actuators are transducers, devices that transforms one form of signal or energy into
another form.
• A MEMS device typically contains a microelectromechanical sensor or actuator element packaged together with an
integrated circuit (IC). The IC provides an electrical interface to the sensor or actuator, signal processing /
compensation, and an analog or digital output.
• Whereas the IC exploits the electrical properties of silicon, MEMS takes advantage of other material properties like
optical, mechanical, thermal, magnetic, chemical, etc.
Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) (Cont…)
MEMS components:
Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) (Cont…)
MEMS Fabrication:
• Fabrication means manipulation of components to make machines and structures. The fabrication of
microelectromechanical systems uses some of the same processes and tools used to fabricate integrated circuits.
• MEMS technology has altered or enhanced some of these techniques, as well as added new processes, in order to
build mechanical devices such as microfluidic channels, gears, cantilevers, micro motors, comb drives and
gyroscopes.
• These adopted techniques for MEMS fabrication are also called micromachining:
• Bulk micromachining etches into a substrate to form 3D mechanical elements such as channels, chambers and
valves.
• Surface micromachining constructs microscale mechanical components and systems on the surface of a substrate
by alternately depositing, patterning and etching thin films.
• High-aspect-ratio micromachining (HARM), which includes technology such as LIGA, combines collimated x-ray
lithography with electroplating and molding techniques to create high aspect ratio (tall and thin) structures or deep
cavities needed for certain types of MEMS devices.
Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE)
• Bluetooth Low Energy (Bluetooth LE, colloquially BLE, formerly marketed as Bluetooth Smart) is a wireless
personal area network technology designed and marketed by the Bluetooth Special Interest Group
(Bluetooth SIG) aimed at novel applications in the healthcare, fitness, beacons, security, and home
entertainment industries.
• Bluetooth Low Energy or Bluetooth 4.0 hit the market in 2011.
• It is independent of classic Bluetooth and has no compatibility, but BR/EDR and LE can coexist.
• Comparing Bluetooth Low Energy vs. Bluetooth, the key difference is with Bluetooth LE’s low energy
consumption capability. With low-energy consumption, applications can run on a small battery for a longer
amount of time.
• Although this is not ideal for talking on the phone, it is vital for applications that periodically exchange small
amounts of data.
Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) (Cont…)

• Characteristics of Bluetooth Low Energy:

• Energy Saving: The ultra-low power consumption of Bluetooth LE makes it ideal for connected and wearable
devices, such as asset tracking tags. Its efficiency keeps battery size down, which reduces device cost, size,
and weight.
• Affordability: the energy-saving benefit reduces the number of times the tags’ batteries need to be replaced,
thus driving down costs.
• Accuracy: BLE technology communicates using location beacons. The more location beacons on site, the
better accuracy it will have – this is known as proximity-based location accuracy. In a location such as a
hospital or hotel, this solution can be upscaled or downscaled based on the need to track equipment or
personnel. Accuracy is generally +/- one location beacon.
Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) (Cont…)
Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) (Cont…)

Advantages:
• Low power consumption
• Low bandwidth – perfect for collecting data from sensor devices
• Proliferation in smartphones
• Relatively simple development process
• No fees to access the core spec
• Low development and module costs
• No outrageous licensing costs compared to other low power wireless technologies
Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE) (Cont…)

Disadvantages:
• Every technology has its disadvantages and BLE is no exception. The main ones are:
• Low bandwidth – not suitable for large data transfer applications
• Limited range (typically 30 -100 m, but steadily increasing with each iteration of the spec)
• Requires a gateway device to connect the end devices to the Internet (smartphones, dedicated gateway
devices)
• Interference and noise from other protocols in the 2.4 GHz spectrum (WiFi, Bluetooth classic, ZigBee..etc)
LTE-A (LTE Advanced)

• LTE stands for Long Term Evolution and it was started as a project in 2004 by telecommunication body known
as the Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP).
• Long Term Evolution-Advanced (LTE-Advanced) is a cellular networking standard that offers higher
throughput than its predecessor, the Long Term Evolution (LTE) standard.
• Long Term Evolution-Advanced networks can deliver up to 1 GB per second of data.
• LTE-Advanced networks use multiple-input, multiple-output (MIMO) technology to deliver data faster via
more than one signal. MIMO requires multiple antennas to receive those signals, which can limit its use in
compact mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets.
LTE-A (LTE Advanced) (Cont…)
Advantages of LTE:
• High throughput: High data rates can be achieved in both downlink as well as uplink. This causes high throughput.
• Low latency: Time required to connect to the network is in range of a few hundred milliseconds and power saving
states can now be entered and exited very quickly.
• FDD and TDD in the same platform: Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) and Time Division Duplex (TDD), both
schemes can be used on same platform.
• Superior end-user experience: Optimized signaling for connection establishment and other air interface and
mobility management procedures have further improved the user experience. Reduced latency (to 10 ms) for
better user experience.
• Seamless Connection: LTE will also support seamless connection to existing networks such as GSM, CDMA and
WCDMA.
• Plug and play: The user does not have to manually install drivers for the device. Instead system automatically
recognizes the device, loads new drivers for the hardware if needed, and begins to work with the newly connected
device.