Unit I

Introduction to Sensors &Transducers

Syllabus
1. Concept of Sensor, Concept of Transducer, Comparison between Sensors
and Transducers , Role of Sensors in Automation, Broad Classification of
Sensors and Transducers, Role of Transducer in measurement Systems,
Block Diagram Measurement system,
2. Study of Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Measurement Systems:
Accuracy, Precision, Reproducibility, Linearity, repeatability, resolution,
Sensitivity, Range, Span, Dead Zone, Hysteresis, Backlash,
3. Dynamic Characteristics: Fidelity, Time response and frequency response,
Classification of errors – Error analysis.
4. Concept and Basic Principle of working of Resistive, Capacitive and
Inductive sensors.
Concept of Sensor

•Definition of Sensor
A device that detects and responds to physical environmental inputs like
light, heat, motion, moisture, or pressure.

•Output of Sensors
Outputs signals that can be displayed in human-readable form or transmitted
electronically for further processing.
•Example: Thermometer
A mercury-based thermometer detects temperature and displays it through
the expansion or contraction of liquid on a marked gauge.

•Example: Oxygen Sensor

Detects the gasoline/oxygen ratio in cars through a chemical reaction
generating voltage, helping optimize engine performance.

•Example: Motion Sensors

Used in security lights, automatic doors, and fixtures, they detect energy
interruptions caused by objects entering their path.

•Example: Photo Sensor

Detects visible light, infrared (IR), and ultraviolet (UV) energy for various
applications.
Concept of Transducer
•Definition of Transducer
A device that converts a physical quantity into a proportional electrical signal (voltage,
current, or frequency).

•Transduction Process
The transformation of a signal from one form to another is called transduction.

•Components of a Transducer
Sensing Element: Detects and responds to the physical quantity.
Transduction Element: Converts the sensing element's output into an electrical signal.

•Combination of Sensing and Transduction

In some transducers, the transduction element performs both sensing and signal
conversion.
•Example: Thermocouple
A thermocouple generates voltage proportional to the heat at the
junction of two dissimilar metals.

•Purpose of a Transducer
Enables accurate measurement and further processing of
physical quantities in electrical form.

•Applications of Transducers
Widely used in measurement, monitoring, and control systems.

•Alternate Name
A transducer is sometimes referred to as a "pickup."
 Comparison between Sensors &
Transducer
Basis of Transducer Sensor
Comparison
It helps in converting one form of energy It senses physical quantities and converts into
Definition into another form readable quantity

It converts electricity to It senses physical quantity and

Function electromagnetic waves converts into analog quantity

Components Sensor plus Signal conditioning Sensor itself

Can not give feedback to the system

Feedback Can give feedback to the system

Thermistor, Thermocouple, Strain Temperature sensor, proximity sensor,

Examples gauge, piezoelectric transducer, linear Magnetic Sensor, Light Sensor and pressure
transducer, and microphone switch.
 Role of Sensors in Automation
Sensors play a key role in modern manufacturing by enabling
accurate, real-time detection and response.

•Impact of Industry 4.0

Advanced sensing technologies support wireless and cloud-based
connectivity, boosting production capacity and enabling IIoT and
robotics.

•Applications of Automation Sensors

Used for tasks like tilt sensing, warehouse inventory management,
vibration sensing, moving part analysis, and thermal detection.
•Object Detection
Sensors help distinguish properties and features of objects,
including position, proximity, temperature, and color.

•Commonly Used Sensors

Many types of sensors are utilized in automation, with some
being especially popular and versatile for industrial needs.

•Smart Manufacturing
Automation sensors are integral to smart manufacturing
facilities, enabling seamless operations and enhanced
efficiency.
 Broad Classification of Sensors
• Based on the principle of operation (transduction
principle)
• Based on Power Supply
• Application-based classification
• Property-based classification
Based on the principle of operation
(Transduction Principle)
• Temperature Sensor: • Flow Sensor:
Thermocouple
Ultrasonic Flow Sensor
RTD (Resistance Temperature
Turbine Flow Sensor
Detector
Coriolis Flow Sensor
Thermistor

• Pressure Sensor: • Others:

Proximity Sensor
Piezoelectric Pressure Sensor
Humidity Sensor
Capacitive Pressure Sensor
Accelerometer
Strain Gauge Pressure Sensor
Gas Sensor

• Displacement Sensor:
LVDT (Linear Variable Differential
Transformer)
Capacitive Displacement Sensor
Laser Displacement Sensor
Based on Power supply
• Active Sensors
Active sensors are a type of sensor that generate and emit their own signal or energy (such as light,
sound, or electromagnetic waves) and then measure the interaction of that emitted energy with the
target or object.
The mechanism of active sensors involves two primary steps:
1. Emission of Energy or Signal
2. Interaction with the Target and Detection of Reflected or Refracted Energy

3. Examples:
Radar Sensor
Lidar (Light Detection and Ranging)
Ultrasonic Sensor
Active Infrared Sensor
Doppler Radar
Key Advantages of Active Sensors:
• Independence from Ambient Light: Since they emit their own energy, active sensors
can operate in low or no ambient light conditions (e.g., night, fog, or dust).
• High Sensitivity and Accuracy: They can measure distances or properties with high
precision, especially in controlled environments.
• Versatility: Active sensors can be used in various environmental conditions, such as
underwater, in space, or in extreme weather conditions.

Limitations of Active Sensors:

• Energy Consumption: Since they emit energy, active sensors typically consume more
power than passive sensors.
• Environmental Interference: The emitted signal may be affected by environmental
factors, such as noise, interference, or obstacles, which can reduce the accuracy of
measurements.
• Complexity: Some active sensors, like LiDAR or radar, can be more complex and
expensive compared to passive sensors.
• Passive Sensors
Passive sensors rely on external energy sources (like sunlight, heat, or
ambient energy) and do not emit energy of their own.
Examples:
• Photodiode
• Pressure Sensor
• PIR (Passive Infrared) Sensor
• Microphones
• Thermometers, Thermocouples
Key Advantages of Passive Sensors:
• No Power Required for Emission: Passive sensors do not require energy to emit a signal,
which makes them more power-efficient and suitable for long-term or remote
applications.
• Simpler Design: These sensors tend to have simpler designs compared to active sensors
since they only rely on detection rather than emission.
• Non-invasive: Passive sensors are typically non-invasive, meaning they do not interfere
with or alter the environment or target being measured.
• Low Energy Consumption: Since they only detect existing energy (rather than emitting
their own), passive sensors tend to consume less energy.

Limitations of Passive Sensors:

• Dependence on External Conditions: Passive sensors depend on the presence of energy
from external sources (e.g., light or heat), so they can be ineffective in environments with
low or no available energy (e.g., dark rooms or cold environments).
• Lower Sensitivity: Passive sensors may have lower sensitivity compared to active sensors,
especially if the signal from the target is weak or distant.
Based on Application
Based on
Property
Classification of Transducers
• Depending on quantity to be measured
• Depending on principle of operation
• Depending on application area
• Depending on External source
Depending on Quantity to Be
Measured
• Temperature: Thermocouple, Thermistor
• Pressure: Bourdon Tube, Strain Gauge
• Displacement: LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer),
Potentiometer
• Force: Piezoelectric Transducer, Load Cell
• Flow: Ultrasonic Flow Meter, Turbine Flow Meter
Depending on Principle of Operation

•Resistive Transducer: Strain Gauge, Potentiometer

•Capacitive Transducer: Capacitive Pressure Sensor, Capacitive Level Sensor
•Inductive Transducer: LVDT, Eddy Current Sensor
•Piezoelectric Transducer: Used for force, pressure, and vibration measurement.
•Optical Transducer: Photodiode, Photovoltaic Cell
Depending on Application Area

•Medical: Ultrasound Transducer, ECG Electrodes

•Industrial: Load Cell (for weighing systems), Pressure Transmitter
•Automotive: Oxygen Sensor, Crankshaft Position Sensor
•Aerospace: Gyroscopes, Altimeters
•Consumer Electronics: Microphones, Touch Screen Sensors
Depending on External Source

•Active Transducers:
•Thermocouple: Converts temperature into voltage.
•Piezoelectric Sensor: Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
•Passive Transducers:
•Strain Gauge: Detects strain by measuring resistance changes.
•RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector): Measures temperature using resistance changes.
 Static Characteristics of Measurement Systems
1. Accuracy
•Closeness of instrument reading to the true value.
•Expressed in multiple ways:
•Point Accuracy: e.g., scale readable within 0.2 mm.
•Percentage of True Value: Accurate to a percentage of actual value.
•Percentage of Scale Range: Accurate to a percentage of the
instrument span.
•Indicates conformity to truth.

2. Precision
•Degree of exactness designed into the instrument.
•Consist of:
•Conformity
•Significant Figures: More figures = greater precision.
•Errors arise from limitations in estimating scale readings (e.g., precision error).
3. Repeatability:
• Closeness of output readings when the same input is measured repeatedly
under the same conditions.
• Same instrument, location, observer, and conditions.

4. Reproducibility:
• Closeness of output readings when measurement conditions vary (e.g.,
different instruments, observers, or locations).
• Perfect reproducibility = no drift.
• Drift: Variation in measured values over time.
5. Linearity
• Indicates how closely the sensors
output corresponds to a straight line
when plotted against input.
• Non-linearity: Deviation from the
straight line.
• Linearity: Maximum deviation from
a straight line.
Linearity is expressed in many different ways:
1. Independent Linearity: a measure of how much
a sensor's output deviates from an ideal straight
line.
2. Zero based linearity: a way to measure how
well a sensor's performance approximates a straight
line over a given range.
3. Terminal based linearity: It is the maximum
deviation from the straight line joining both the end
points of the curve.
6. Resolution
• Smallest measurable quantity detectable by the instrument.
• Minimum input change required to produce a detectable output change.
• Example: The smallest part of a signal that can be observed. For example, a
pressure sensor with a resolution of 0.1 psi can measure a change in
pressure from 30 psi to 29.8 psi.

7. Sensitivity
• The degree to which its output changes in response to a change in the input
quantity.
• Defined as:
Sensitivity = Change in Output / Change in Input
• Applies primarily to linear devices (straight line relationship between input
and output).
• High sensitivity is desirable for instruments.
8. Range & Span
Range:
• The limits within which an Sensor can operate (e.g., from Xmin to Xmax).
• Example: Thermometer with a range of -10°C to 50°C.
Span:
• Difference between the highest and lowest measurement points.
Span = Xmax – Xmin
9. Dead Zone
• a region where the sensor
is unable to detect
anything.
• caused by a number of
factors, including the
orientation of the sensor,
the type of signal being
used, or the type of defect
being detected.
10. Hysteresis
• Phenomenon where output
differs for the same input
during loading and unloading.
• For increasing input values, one
set of outputs is observed; for
decreasing inputs, a different
set is observed.
• Results in a loop when plotted
on a graph (hysteresis curve).
11.Backlash
What is Backlash?
• Lost motion in a mechanical component
of system when the direction of Impact:
movement is reversed. Decreased efficiency and precision in
Causes: mechanical systems.
• Manufacturing tolerances to prevent Solutions:
jamming. Enhanced manufacturing, maintenance, and
real-time detection technologies.
• Mechanical wear and tear.
Effects:
• Inaccurate sensor readings and
uncontrollable mechanisms.
• Vibrations and impaired positioning in
industrial robots.
Dynamic Characteristics of
Measurement Systems
1. Fidelity
• Ability of a system to reproduce output in the same form as input,
without dynamic error.
• 100% fidelity: Output matches input with no distortion.
• Excludes time lag or phase difference.
• Example: A linearly varying input produces a linearly varying output.
2. Dynamic Error
• Difference between the true value (changing with time) and the
indicated value, assuming no static error.
• Total dynamic error: Combination of fidelity, time lag, or phase
difference between input and output.
3. Lag
• Time delay in the system's response to changes in the measured
variable.
• Types of Lag:
• Retardation Lag: Response begins immediately after the input change but
takes time to reach the steady state.
• Time Delay Lag: Response begins only after a specific delay (dead time).
4. Time Response & Frequency Response

Speed (Frequency) of Response:

Rapidity with which a measuring system responds to changes in the
measured quantity.

Response Time:
Time taken by the system to settle to its final steady state after the
input is applied.

Step Input Function: Time required to settle to a specified

value after a sudden input change.
1. Resistive Sensor
Concept
• A resistive sensor is electromechanical device that converts a
mechanical change such as pressure, temperature, displacement into
an electrical signal that can be monitored after conditioning.
• Resistive sensors are among the most common in instrumentation.
• These Sensors do NOT generate electricity. Hence, they are
called passive devices.
• The simplest resistive sensor is the potentiometer.
• Other resistive sensors include strain gauges, thermocouples, photo-
resistors and thermistors.
 Basic Principle
Resistance = (Resistivity * Length)/Area

The resistance of a material depends on four factors:

• Length
𝜌𝑙
• Cross Sectional Area 𝑅=
• Composition 𝐴
• Temperature

• To change the resistance of a material, you must change the value of one of the above
factors.
• When length is modified the change in resistance is direct. If you double the material’s
length, it’s resistance doubles. When the cross sectional area is modified the change in
resistance has an inverse effect, i.e. R = k/A. If you double the cross-sectional area of
wire, its resistivity is cut in half.
• But, Changes in composition and temperature do not change the resistivity of a
material in such a simple way.
Examples of Resistive
Transducers
• Sliding contact devices
• Wire resistance strain gauge
• Thermistors
• Thermocouples
• Light Dependent Resistors (LDRs)
Device Action Application
Resistance falls with increasing
Light Dependent Resistor Light operated switches
light level

Resistance falls with increased

Thermistor Electronic thermometers
temperature

Strain gauge Resistance changes with force Sensor in an electronic balance

Moisture detector Resistance falls when wet Damp meter

Sliding contact devices

Construction of rotary and slider types

2. Inductive Sensors
• Concept:
Measure changes in inductance caused by variations in magnetic field or position
of an object.
• Basic Principle:
• Inductance (L) is given by:

​
N: Number of turns, μ: Permeability, A: Cross-sectional area, l: Length of coil.
• Change in magnetic field, core material, or position induces a change in inductance.
• Common Applications:
• Proximity sensors for metal objects.
• Position and displacement sensors.
• Eddy current sensors for non-contact measurements.
3. Capacitive Sensors
• Concept:
Measure changes in capacitance due to variations in the distance, area, or dielectric
material between plates.
• Basic Principle:
• Capacitance (C) is given by:

• ε: Permittivity, A: Area of plates, d: Distance between plates.

• Any change in ε, A, or d affects the capacitance.
• Common Applications:
• Proximity sensors.
• Liquid level sensing.
• Pressure measurement.
Capacitive Proximity sensor
• Detect changes in the capacitance between
the sensing object and the Sensor
• The amount of capacitance varies
depending on the size and distance of the
sensing object
• One of the plates is the object being
measured (with an imaginary ground), and
the other is the Sensor’s sensing surface