Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers Dept. of E&TC Engg.

, RD’s, SCSCOE

Unit 1- Introduction to Sensors & Transducers

Concept of Sensor:
● A sensor is a device that detects and responds to some type of input
from the physical environment. The specific input could be light, heat,
motion, moisture, pressure, or any one of a great number of other
environmental phenomena. The output is generally a signal that is
converted to human-readable display at the sensor location or
transmitted electronically over a network for reading or further
processing.
● Here are a few examples of the many different types of sensors:
● In a mercury-based glass thermometer, the input is temperature. The
liquid contained expands and contracts in response, causing the level to
be higher or lower on the marked gauge, which is human-readable.
● An oxygen sensor in a car's emission control system detects the
gasoline/oxygen ratio, usually through a chemical reaction that
generates a voltage. A computer in the engine reads the voltage and, if
the mixture is not optimal, readjusts the balance.
● Motion sensors in various systems including home security lights,
automatic doors and bathroom fixtures typically send out some type of
energy, such as microwaves, ultrasonic waves or light beams and detect
when the flow of energy is interrupted by something entering its path.
● A photo sensor detects the presence of visible light, infrared
transmission (IR), and/or ultraviolet (UV) energy.

Concept of Transducer
● A device which converts a physical quantity into the proportional
electrical signal is called a transducer. The electrical signal produced
may be a voltage, current or frequency. A transducer uses many effects
to produce such conversion. The process of transforming signal from
one form to other is called transduction. A transducer is also called pick
up. The transduction element transforms the output of the sensor to an
electrical output, as shown in the Fig.
Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers Dept. of E&TC Engg., RD’s, SCSCOE

● A transducer will have basically two main components. They are

● 1. Sensing Element: The physical quantity or its rate of change is
sensed and responded to by this part of the transistor.
● 2. Transduction Element The output of the sensing element is passed
on to the transduction element. This element is responsible for
converting the non-electrical signal into its proportional electrical
signal.
● There may be cases when the transduction element performs the
action of both transduction and sensing. The best example of such a
transducer is a thermocouple. A thermocouple is used to generate a
voltage corresponding to the heat that is generated at the junction of
two dissimilar metals.

Comparison between Sensors & Transducer

Transducer Sensor

● It helps in converting one form of ● It senses physical quantities and

energy into another form. converts into signals which are read
by an instrument.

● It converts electricity to ● It senses physical quantity and

electromagnetic waves. converts into analog quantity.

● The antenna is one type of ● One type of Sensor is LED. Sensors

transducer. Microphones and used in automobiles to detect
loudspeakers are also of one type. touch and activate the siren.

● It converts the measured quantity ● It is used to measure voltage,

into a standard electrical signal like capacitance, inductance, ohmic
-10 to +10V DC resistance.

● Examples: Strain gauge, ● Examples: Temperature sensor,

piezoelectric transducer, linear thermistor, proximity sensor, and
transducer, and microphone. pressure switch.
Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers Dept. of E&TC Engg., RD’s, SCSCOE

Role of Sensors in Automation:

Sensors used in automation
The industry 4.0 revolution has been through a lot of technical progress. It has
seen many sensing technologies in the past. But the current technology can
accurately respond to the needs of the modern manufacturing process. It has
increased the production capacity with wireless and cloud-based
connectivity. It has made possible the use of robotics and new IIoT devices
across smart manufacturing facilities. There are a vast number of automation
sensors being used such as tilt sensing, warehouse inventory management to
vibration sensing and analysis of moving parts, and thermal detection.
Let’s see what are the applications of automation sensors first!
Sensors are used to distinguish among the properties and features of objects.
Such as position, and proximity. There are some other intrinsic detections
such as temperature or color.
Although there are numerous sensors used today still there are some more
often and useful. The below-mentioned automation sensors are some of the
most common.
Broad Classiffication of Sensors and Transducers
Presence Detection Sensors
Presence detectors use non-touch technology to check the presence or
absence. It can detect any item and record the results to the controller. It
transforms the readings into an electrical signal. Because those sensors are
noncontact, they reduce the risk. They put on to the devices on test and to
the sensor itself.
The situations and the environment of the software lead the particular
technology choice. Key elements for these recommendations are
temperature, ambient light, moisture. The airborne particulates, shock and
vibration, and other contaminants are also kept in mind.
In addition, some of these sensor technologies need to be put on with a metal
target to operate properly.
Photo-optical Sensors
In many goods, color is as important as function. Color sensors offer a
quantitative approach for identifying the color in the whole thing. It detects
from labels to textiles to paints. Color sensors examine the content material of
the mild contemplated from a surface. These work by evaluating it to an inner
connection with the higher result. The color of light used for illumination is
especially vital in those applications. It is needed due to the mirrored image
spectrum and it is most effective as a subset of the incident mild.
Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers Dept. of E&TC Engg., RD’s, SCSCOE

Monitoring Sensors
Modern production emphasizes maximizing operational equipment
effectiveness (OEE). It helps with downtime. Automation sensors are needed
for reaching this goal. Condition information gives the perception of the
items. The quality, operation, and overall performance of devices. It monitors
facilities or even the products under the manufacturing process.
This commonly consists of entities such as temperature, pressure, humidity,
vibration, and current voltage. The increase in the temperature of a machine
might impact it. It can suggest lubricant breakdown, for example.
The increase in the vibration frequency can indicate an erosion of the object.
The increased current means worn-out gears. With this kind of insight,
automation sensors play a vital role in industrial processes. The preservation
groups can troubleshoot faults efficaciously.
Proximity measuring sensors
Time-of-flight measurements are used to trip within the space of an item.
Initially, optical time-of-flight measurements required laser-based sensors.
More recently, innovators have evolved LED-based structures that trip on.
These techniques diffuse the light back to the distance to the actual source.
Time-of-flight measurements also can be taken with the usage of ultrasonic
sensors.
Data Sensors
In the commercial area, we see some applications that require data to be
transferred into the way goods are being manufactured. On an assembly line,
the information sensors use to find out the faults. It is done so that the order
coming down the assembly line receives the proper alternatives. The proper
color of the upholstery. Data sensors provide the information and are also
used for preservation purposes.
Data sensors are inbuilt with barcodes, QR codes, and RFID tags. The
information is studied and stored. From storage, the information is sent to the
processing unit. It is then used for production operations, or correlated with
sensor information for export purposes. The data sensor can be a terrific
example of an automation sensor for industry 4.0.

Several criteria are adopted for the classification of sensors. Some of these
include
● Based on the principle of operation (transduction principle)
● Based on energy requirements
Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers Dept. of E&TC Engg., RD’s, SCSCOE

● Based on material and technology used

● Application-based classification
● Property-based classification

● Based on transduction principles

The transduction principle is the basic criteria that should be followed for a
systematic approach to classification. This classification is based on the
method used in the process of converting measurand into usable output.
Active/Passive Transducers
Based on the energy requirements of a transducer, they are classified as
active transducers and passive transducers.
Active transducers do not need any external power supply to operate and
hence it is also called self-generating transducers.
Eg: Thermocouple
Transducers that require an external power source to operate is called Passive
transducers.
Eg: LVDT
● Based on material and technology
Another classification is based on the material and technology that have
acquired more importance lately. The following table shows the emerging
sensor technologies with its applications.

Sensor Image Sensor Motion Bio Sensors Acceleromet

detectors ers

Techno CMOS Based IR, ultrasonic, Electrochemical MEMS based

logy microwave,rada
r

Applica Traffic and Obstruction Food testing Patient

tions security detection Water testing monitoring
surveillance Llight activation Medical care Vehicle
Video Security device dynamic
conferencing detection Biological system
Blindspot Toilet activation warfare agent
detection detection
Biometrics
Consumer
electronics
Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers Dept. of E&TC Engg., RD’s, SCSCOE

● Application based classiffication

Application based classification of sensors are represented as

● Property based classiffication

A much more elaborate classification is based on the properties like pressure,
displacement, temperature …etc. It is subdivided in technology scale. Pressure
property is used in technologies such as manometer and piezoelectricity.
Semiconductors and thermal conductance use gas and chemical properties.

Measurement Systems
● System of measurement refers to the process of associating numbers
with physical quantities and phenomena.
● It is more like a collection of units of measurement and rules relating
them to each other. The whole world revolves around measuring things!
Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers Dept. of E&TC Engg., RD’s, SCSCOE

Everything is measured: the milk you buy, the gas you fill for the vehicle,
the steps you walk.
● Even our productivity is measured in terms of productivity indexes on
how productively we work. System of measurement is very important
and define and express the different quantities of length, area, volume,
weight, in our day-to-day communications.
● The system of measurement is based on two important foundation
pillars of defining the basic unit of measurement, and the measure of
conversion from the basic unit to other related units.

● In the old days, we used body parts for informal measurement systems
like foot length, cubit, handspan, etc. which were not so accurate and
vary from person to person.
● So, there was a need to regularize the measurements. A system of
measurement like the International System of Units called the SI units
( the modern form of the metric system), Imperial system, and US
customary units were standardized across the world.
● This term measurement system includes all components in a chain of
hardware and software that leads from the measured variable to
processed data.

● In a modern automobile there are as many as 40 – 50 sensors

Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers Dept. of E&TC Engg., RD’s, SCSCOE

(measuring devices) used in implementing various functions necessary

to the operation of the car.
● Knowledge of the instruments available for various measurements, how
they operate, and how they interface with other parts of the system is
essential for every engineer.
● Modern engineering systems rely heavily on a multitude of sensors for
monitoring and control to achieve optimum operation.

Types of Applications of Measurement Instrumentation

● Every application of measurement, including those not yet invented,
can be put into one of these three categories or some combination of
them:
1. Monitoring of processes and operations
2. Control of processes and operations
3. Experimental engineering analysis
1. Monitoring of Processes and Operations
● Here the measuring device is being used to keep track of some quantity
● Certain applications of measuring instruments may be characterized as
having essentially a monitoring function
● e.g., thermometers, barometers, and water, gas, and electric meters,
automotive speedometer and fuel gauge, and compass.

2. Control of Processes and Operations

● One of the most important classes of measurement application.
● Sensors are used in feedback-control systems and many measurement
systems themselves use feedback principles
○ in their operation.
● Sensors are used in feedback systems and feedback systems are used
in sensors. So an instrument can serve as a component of a control
system.
● To control any variable in a feedback control system, it is first necessary
to measure it. Every feedback-control system will have at least one
measuring device as a vital component.
● A single control system may require information from many measuring
instruments, e.g., industrial machine and process controllers, aircraft
control systems, automotive control systems (speed control, antilock
braking, coolant temperature regulating, air conditioning, engine
pollution, etc.).
Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers Dept. of E&TC Engg., RD’s, SCSCOE

Fig. Feedback Control System

3. Experimental Engineering Analysis

● In solving engineering problems, two general methods are available:
theoretical and experimental. Many problems require the application of
both methods and theory and experiment should be thought of as
complimenting each other.

Features of Theoretical Methods

● Often gives results that are of general use rather than for restricted
application.
● Invariably requires the application of simplifying assumptions. The
theoretically predicted behavior is always different from the real
behavior, as a simplified physical/mathematical model is studied rather
than the actual physical system.
● In some cases, it may lead to complicated mathematical problems.
● Require only pencil, paper, computers, etc. Extensive laboratory facilities
are not required.
Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers Dept. of E&TC Engg., RD’s, SCSCOE

Block Diagram of Measurement System

Primary Sensing Element

● This is the element that first receives energy from the measured
medium and produces an output depending in some way on the
measured quantity (measurand). The output is some physical variable,
e.g., displacement or voltage.
● An instrument always extracts some energy from the measured
medium. The measured quantity is always disturbed by the act of
measurement, which makes a perfect measurement theoretically
impossible. Good instruments are designed to minimize this loading
effect.
●
Variable-Conversion Element
● It may be necessary to convert the output signal of the primary sensing
element to another more suitable variable while preserving the
information content of the original signal. This element performs this
function.

Variable-Manipulation Element
● An instrument may require that a signal represented by some physical
variable be manipulated in some way. By manipulation we mean
specifically a change in numerical value according to some definite rule
Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers Dept. of E&TC Engg., RD’s, SCSCOE

but a preservation of the physical nature of the variable. This element

performs such a function.

Data-Transmission Element
● When functional elements of an instrument are actually physically
separated, it becomes necessary to transmit the data from one to
another. This element performs this function.

Data-Presentation Element
● If the information about the measured quantity is to be communicated
to a human being for monitoring, control, or analysis purposes, it must
be put into a form recognizable by one of the human senses.
● This element performs this “translation” function.

Data Storage/Playback Element

● Some applications require a distinct data storage/playback which can

easily recreate the stored data upon command

Static Characteristics of Measurement Systems

1. Accuracy:
● Accuracy is the closeness with which an instrument reading
approaches the true value of the quantity being measured.
● Thus accuracy of a measurement means conformity to truth. The
accuracy of an instrument may be expressed in many ways.
● The accuracy may be expressed as point accuracy, percent of true value
or percent of scale range.
● Point accuracy is stated for one or more points in the range, for
example, the scale of length may be read with in 0.2 mm.
● Another common way is to specify that the instrument is accurate to
within x percent of instrument span at all points on the scale.
● Another way of expressing accuracy is based upon instrument range

2. Precision:
Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers Dept. of E&TC Engg., RD’s, SCSCOE

● Precision is the degree of exactness for which the instrument is

designed.
● It composed of two characteristics: conformity and significant figures.
● More significant figures, estimated precision is more. For example two
resistors for values of 1792 ohms and 1710 ohms. A person even repeated
measurement it indicates 1.7 K ohms. The reader can not read the true
value from the scale.
● He estimates from the scale reading consistently yield a value of 1.5 M
ohms. This is as close to the true scale as he can read the scale by
estimation although there are no deviations from the observed value,
the error created by the limitation of the error is called precision error.

3. Reproducibility & Repeatability:

● Repeatability is the degree of closeness with which a given value may
be repeatedly measured.
● It is the closeness of output readings when the same input is applied
repetitively over a short period of time.
● The measurement is made on the same instrument, at the same
location, by the same observer and under the same measurement
conditions. It may be specified in terms of units for a given period of
time.
● Reproducibility relates to the closeness of output readings for the same
input when there are changes in the method of measurement,
observer, measuring instrument location, conditions of use and time of
measurement.
● Perfect reproducibility means that the instrument has no drift. Drift
means that with a given input the measured values vary with time.

4. Linearity:
● When the input-output points of the instrument are plotted on the
calibration curve and resulting curve may not be linear.
● This would be only if the output is proportional to input. Linearity is the
measure of maximum deviation of these points from the straight line
(Fig.).
● The departure from the straight line relationship is non-linearity, but it is
expressed as linearity of the instrument.
Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers Dept. of E&TC Engg., RD’s, SCSCOE

Linearity is expressed in many different ways:

1. Independent Linearity: It is the maximum deviation from the straight
line so placed as to minimize the maximum deviation (Fig.).
2. Zero based linearity: It is the maximum deviation from the straight line
joining the origin and so placed as to minimize the maximum deviation.
3. Terminal based linearity: It is the maximum deviation from the straight
line joining both the end points of the curve.
5. Resolution:
● It is the smallest quantity being measured which can be detected with
certainty by an instrument.
● If a non zero input quantity is slowly increased, the output reading
won’t increase until some minimum change in the input takes place.
The minimum change which causes the change in output is termed
resolution.
6. Sensitivity:
● Sensitivity can also be derived as for the smallest changes in the
measured variable for which the instrument responds.
● Sensitivity can be defined as the ratio of a change in output to change
in input which causes it, in steady-state conditions.
● The usage of this term is generally limited to linear devices, where the
plot of output to input magnitude is straight.
Sensitivity = Change in output / Change in input
● Sensitivity can also be derived as for smallest changes in the measured
Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers Dept. of E&TC Engg., RD’s, SCSCOE

variable instrument responds.

● The term sensitivity is sometimes used to describe the maximum
change in an input signal that will not initiate on the output.
● Note: The sensitivity of the instrument should be high.
7. Range & Span
● In an analogue indicating instrument, the measured value of a variable
is indicated on a scale by a pointer.
● The choice of proper range of instruments is important in
measurement. The region between the limits within which an
instrument is designed to operate for measuring, indicating or
recording a physical quantity is called the range of the instruments.
● The Scale Range of an instrument is thus defined as the difference
between the largest and the smallest reading of the instrument.
Supposing the highest point of calibration is Xmax units while the
lowest is Xmin units and the calibration is continuous between the two
points, then the instrument range is between Xmin and Xmax .
● Many times it is also said that the instrument range is Xmax. The
instrument span is the difference between highest and the lowest point
of calibration.
● Thus Span = Xmax - Xmin
8. Dead Zone
● Dead Zone: for the largest range of values of a measured variable, to
which the instrument does not respond.
● The dead zone occurs more often due to static friction in indicating an
instrument.
● A practical example is: Due to static friction, a Control valve does not
open even for a large opening signal from the controller.
Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers Dept. of E&TC Engg., RD’s, SCSCOE

9. Hysteresis
● Hysteresis: Hysteresis: Hysteresis is a phenomenon that illustrates the
different output effects when loading and unloading.
● Many times, for the increasing values of input an instrument, may
indicate one set of output values. For the decreasing values of the input,
the same instrument may indicate its different set of output values.
When output values are plotted against input the following kind of
graph is obtained.

Dynamic Characteristics of Measurement Systems

1. Fidelity
● Fidelity of a system is defined as the ability of the system to reproduce
the output in the same form as the input.
● It is the degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in
the measured quantity without any dynamic error.
Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers Dept. of E&TC Engg., RD’s, SCSCOE

● Supposing if a linearly varying quantity is applied to a system and if the

output is also a linearly varying quantity the system is said to have 100
percent fidelity.
● Ideally a system should have 100 percent fidelity and the output should
appear in the same form as that of input and there is no distortion
produced in the signal by the system.
● In the definition of fidelity any time lag or phase difference between
output and input is not included.
2. Time Response & Frequency Response
● Speed(Freq.) of Response is defined as the rapidity with which an
instrument or measurement system responds to changes in measured
quantity.
● Response Time is the time required by instrument or system to settle to
its final steady position after the application of the input.
● For a step input function, the response time may be defined as the time
taken by the instrument to settle to a specified percentage of the
quantity being measured, after the application of the input.
● This percentage may be 90 to 99 percent depending upon the
instrument. For portable instruments it is the time taken by the pointer
to come to rest within +-0.3 percent of final scale length and for switch
board (panel) type of instruments it is the time taken by the pointer to
come to rest within 1 percent of its final scale length.

3. Dynamic Error
● The dynamic error is the difference between the true value of the
quantity changing with time and the value indicated by the instrument
if no static error is assumed.
● However, the total dynamic error of the instrument is the combination
of its fidelity and the time lag or phase difference between input and
output of the system.
● Overshoot- Moving parts of instruments have mass and thus possess
inertia. When an input is applied to instruments, the pointer does not
immediately come to rest at its steady state (or final deflected) position
but goes beyond it or in other words overshoots its steady position. The
overshoot is evaluated as the maximum amount by which moving
system moves beyond the steady state position. In many instruments,
especially galvanometers it is desirable to have a little overshoot but an
excessive overshoot is undesirable.
● Fidelity: It is defined as the degree to which a measuring instrument is
capable of faithfully reproducing the changes in input, without any
dynamic error.
Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers Dept. of E&TC Engg., RD’s, SCSCOE

● Lag: Every system takes at least some time to respond, whatever time it
may be to the changes in the measured variable.
● For Example Lag occurs in temperature measurement by temperature
sensors such as Thermocouple or RTD or dial thermometer due to scale
formation on thermowell due to process liquid.
● Retardation lag: the response of the measurement begins immediately
after the change in measured quantity has occurred.
● Time delay lag: in this case after the application of input, the response
of the measurement system begins with some dead times.

Concept and Basic Principle of working of Resistive, Capacitive

and Inductive sensors.

1. HOW RESISTIVE SENSORS WORK:

A resistive sensor is a transducer or electromechanical device that converts a

mechanical change such as displacement into an electrical signal that can be
monitored after conditioning. Thermistors, photoresistors, and
potentiometers are some examples of common resistive sensors.
FACTORS AFFECTING RESISTANCE
The resistance of a material depends on four factors:
● Cross-sectional area or thickness
● Length
● Temperature
Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers Dept. of E&TC Engg., RD’s, SCSCOE

● Conductivity

Based on the principle of resistive sensors, the conductor length is directly

proportional to the resistance of the conductor and is inversely related to the
area of the conductor. L is denominated for conductor length, A for the area
of the conductor, and R for the resistance of the conductor. ρ is the resistivity
and it is constant for the material used in conductor construction. Thus, it is
represented by the equation below:

R is the resistance of the conductor,

A is the area of the conductor,
l is the conductor’s length, and
ρ is the resistivity of the conductor.

If you need to change the resistance of a material, you should change the
value of the above factors. When the length is modified, the change in
resistance is direct. Doubling the material’s length will double the resistance
as well. However, if you double the cross-sectional area of the wire, its
resistivity will be cut in half. Changing the conductivity and temperature will
not affect the resistivity.

DETECTING RESISTANCE CHANGES WITH RESISTIVE SENSORS

Resistive sensors detect changes in resistance. There are different sensors
Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers Dept. of E&TC Engg., RD’s, SCSCOE

available in the market which consider different factors in detecting

resistance.
Examples of some basic resistive sensors:
● Thermistors
● Flex sensors
● Force sensing resistors
● Light dependent resistors (photoresistors)

2. HOW CAPACITIVE SENSORS WORK:

What is a capacitive sensor?
Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers Dept. of E&TC Engg., RD’s, SCSCOE

● A capacitive sensor is an electronic device that can detect solid or liquid

targets without physical contact.
● To detect these targets, capacitive sensors emit an electrical field from
the sensing end of the sensor. Any target that can disrupt this electrical
field can be detected by a capacitive sensor.

Types of materials capacitive sensors can detect:

● Some examples of the solid materials a capacitive sensor can detect are
all types of metal, all types of plastic, wood, paper, glass, and cloth.

● Capacitive sensors can also detect liquids like water, oil, and paint.

● Some capacitive sensors can be used to detect material inside a

nonmetallic container. The capacitive sensors used to do this have an
adjustable sensing range. We will explain how to adjust these types of
capacitive sensors with an example in just a bit.
Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers Dept. of E&TC Engg., RD’s, SCSCOE

Capacitive sensor main parts

● Capacitive sensors have four main parts, the sensor’s body, the sensing
face, the indicator light, and the cable or cable connection end.

1) Sensor’s body
Inside the sensor’s body is where the circuitry is that makes the sensor work.

2) Sensing face
The sensing face is the part of the sensor that is used to detect the targets.
3) Indicator light
The indicator light is on the other end of the sensor from the sensing face.
This light turns on when a target is within the sensors sensing range and
turns off when the target is out of sensing range.
Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers Dept. of E&TC Engg., RD’s, SCSCOE

Sensing range
The sensing range of a capacitive sensor is the max distance a target can be
detected from the sensor sensing face.

An example of being within the sensors sensing range would be if the target
is six millimeters away from the sensing face and the sensors sensing range is
twelve millimeters.

3. HOW INDUCTIVE SENSORS WORK:

● An inductive sensor is an electronic device that can detect ferrous
metal targets without physical contact.
● Inductive sensors will also detect non-ferrous metal targets like
aluminum, brass, and copper. But using non-ferrous metal targets
decreases an inductive sensor’s sensing range.
Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers Dept. of E&TC Engg., RD’s, SCSCOE

Sensing range
● The sensing range of an inductive sensor is the distance from the
sensor’s face to the maximum distance the sensor can detect a metal
target.
● The sensing distance can be found on the sensor’s datasheet.
● The datasheet will also show some correction factors when you want to
detect a non-ferrous metal.
● Non-ferrous metal is a type of metal that does not have a significant
amount of iron in it. Brass, aluminum, and copper are examples of non-
ferrous metals. This means these metals do not have a significant
amount of iron within them.
● Here for this inductive sensor, the datasheet shows the sensing
distance as 12 mm. This works only when the object is steel which has a
Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers Dept. of E&TC Engg., RD’s, SCSCOE

significant amount of iron in it.

Correction factor
● If the object is a non-ferrous metal, meaning it does not have a
significant amount of iron within it, you need to consider a simple
correction factor when defining the sensing distance.

For example, here it says if the object is made of brass, you simply need to
multiply the normal sensing distance for the sensor by 0.5.

● So, if we multiply 12 mm by 0.5, we will end up with 6 mm as the

sensing distance for a brass object.
● This means if we want to sense an object that is made of brass, the
distance between the sensor and the object should not be more than 6
mm for this sensor to be able to sense the object.
● The same goes for other non-ferrous metals as well. For example, if we
have an object that is made of aluminum, the sensing distance for this
inductive sensor is 12 mm multiplied by 0.4. This gives us a sensing
distance of 4.8 mm.

● For a copper object, the sensing distance will be 12 mm multiplied by

Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers Dept. of E&TC Engg., RD’s, SCSCOE

0.3 which is equal to 3.6 mm.

● As you can see, here it shows the correction factor for steel as 1. Steel is a
ferrous metal as it has a significant amount of iron in it. So, the sensing
distance for an object that is made out of steel is 12 mm multiplied by 1
which is equal to 12 mm.

● If you need the sensor datasheet and cannot find it, you can go to the
sensor manufacturer’s website to get it.

Inductive sensor parts

● The four major external parts of an inductive sensor are the body of the
sensor, the sensor’s face, the indicator light, and the cable end or cable
connector end.

Inside the sensor’s body is where the circuitry that makes the sensor work is
located.
Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers Dept. of E&TC Engg., RD’s, SCSCOE

The face is the part of the sensor that detects the targets.

The indicator light is usually near where the cable gets connected to the
sensor. The indicator light turns on when the target is within the sensors
sensing range.
The sensor’s cable has three different colored wires in it, brown, blue, and
black.

These sensors are available with a cable that is already attached or they can
have a connector that the cable screws on to.

How does an inductive sensor work?

How inductive sensors work is the sensor creates an electromagnetic field
that emits from the sensor’s face. Putting a metal target near the sensor’s
face will disrupt the electromagnetic field, causing the sensor’s output and
indicator light to turn on.

Types of inductive sensors

Inductive sensors are available in a lot of different configurations. They can be

● AC or DC,
Unit 1: Introduction to Sensors & Transducers Dept. of E&TC Engg., RD’s, SCSCOE

● shielded or unshielded,
● normally open or normally closed,
● NPN or PNP, just to name a few.