UNIT-2

 SENSORS NETWORKS:
Sensor networks typically include sensor nodes, actuator nodes, gateways, and clients.
Sensor nodes group inside the sensor field and form networks of different topologies. The
following process describes how sensor networks operate:
A sensor node monitors the data collected by the sensor and transmits this to other sensor
nodes.
During the transmission process, data may be handled by multiple nodes as it reaches a
gateway node.
The data is then transferred to the management node.
The management node is managed by the user and determines the monitoring required and
collects the monitored data.
 Sensor Nodes
There are many nodes in a sensor network. These nodes are the detection stations. There is
a sensor/transducer, microcontroller, transceiver, and power source:
A sensor senses the physical condition, and if there is any change, it generates electrical
signals.
The signals go to the microcontroller for processing.
A central processor sends commands to the transceiver and data is transmitted to a
computer.
Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) is an infrastructure-less wireless network that is
deployed in a large number of wireless sensors in an ad-hoc manner that is used to
monitor the system, physical or environmental conditions.

Sensor nodes are used in WSN with the onboard processor that manages and monitors the
environment in a particular area. They are connected to the Base Station which acts as a
processing unit in the WSN System.
Base Station in a WSN System is connected through the Internet to share data.


WSN can be used for processing, analysis, storage, and mining of the data.
Applications of WSN:
Internet of Things (IoT)
 Surveillance and Monitoring for security, threat detection
 Environmental temperature, humidity, and air pressure
 Noise Level of the surrounding
 Medical applications like patient monitoring
 Agriculture
 Landslide Detection

Sensors are used for sensing things and devices etc.

A device that provides a usable output in response to a specified measurement.
The sensor attains a physical parameter and converts it into a signal suitable for
processing (e.g. electrical, mechanical, optical) the characteristics of any device or
material to detect the presence of a particular physical quantity.
The output of the sensor is a signal which is converted to a human-readable form like
changes in characteristics, changes in resistance, capacitance, impedance, etc.
IOT HARDWARE
Transducer :
A transducer converts a signal from one physical structure to another.
It converts one type of energy into another type.
It might be used as actuator in various systems.
Sensors characteristics :
Static
Dynamic
1. Static characteristics :
It is about how the output of a sensor changes in response to an input change after steady
state condition.
Accuracy: Accuracy is the capability of measuring instruments to give a result close to
the true value of the measured quantity. It measures errors. It is measured by absolute
and relative errors. Express the correctness of the output compared to a higher prior
system. Absolute error = Measured value – True value
Relative error = Measured value/True value
Range: Gives the highest and the lowest value of the physical quantity within which the
sensor can actually sense. Beyond these values, there is no sense or no kind of response.
e.g. RTD for measurement of temperature has a range of -200`c to 800`c.
Resolution: Resolution is an important specification for selection of sensors. The higher
the resolution, better the precision. When the accretion is zero to, it is called the threshold.
Provide the smallest changes in the input that a sensor is able to sense.
Precision: It is the capacity of a measuring instrument to give the same reading when
repetitively measuring the same quantity under the same prescribed conditions.
It implies agreement between successive readings, NOT closeness to the true value.
It is related to the variance of a set of measurements.
It is a necessary but not sufficient condition for accuracy.
Sensitivity: Sensitivity indicates the ratio of incremental change in the response of the
system with respect to incremental change in input parameters. It can be found from the
slope of the output characteristics curve of a sensor. It is the smallest amount of difference
in quantity that will change the instrument’s reading.
Linearity: The deviation of the sensor value curve from a particularly straight line.
Linearity is determined by the calibration curve. The static calibration curve plots the
output amplitude versus the input amplitude under static conditions.
A curve’s slope resemblance to a straight line describes linearity.
Drift: The difference in the measurement of the sensor from a specific reading when kept
at that value for a long period of time.
Repeatability: The deviation between measurements in a sequence under the same
conditions. The measurements have to be made under a short enough time duration so as
not to allow significant long-term drift.
Dynamic Characteristics :
Properties of the systems
Zero-order system: The output shows a response to the input signal with no delay. It
does not include energy-storing elements.
Ex. potentiometer measure, linear and rotary displacements.
First-order system: When the output approaches its final value gradually.
Consists of an energy storage and dissipation element.
Second-order system: Complex output response. The output response of the sensor
oscillates before steady state.
 Sensor Classification :
Passive & Active
Analog & digital
Scalar & vector
Passive Sensor –
Can not independently sense the input. Ex- Accelerometer, soil moisture, water level and
temperature sensors.
Active Sensor –
Independently sense the input. Example- Radar, sounder and laser altimeter sensors.
Analog Sensor –
The response or output of the sensor is some continuous function of its input parameter.
Ex- Temperature sensor, LDR, analog pressure sensor and analog hall effect.
Digital sensor –
Response in binary nature. Design to overcome the disadvantages of analog sensors.
Along with the analog sensor, it also comprises extra electronics for bit conversion.
Example – Passive infrared (PIR) sensor and digital temperature sensor(DS1620).
Scalar sensor –
Detects the input parameter only based on its magnitude. The answer for the sensor is a
function of magnitude of some input parameter. Not affected by the direction of input
parameters.
Example – temperature, gas, strain, color and smoke sensor.
Vector sensor –
The response of the sensor depends on the magnitude of the direction and orientation of
input parameter. Example – Accelerometer, gyroscope, magnetic field and motion detector
sensors.
 Types of sensors –
Electrical sensor :
Electrical proximity sensors may be contact or non contact.
Simple contact sensors operate by making the sensor and the component complete an
electrical circuit.
Non- contact electrical proximity sensors rely on the electrical principles of either induction
for detecting metals or capacitance for detecting non metals as well.
Light sensor:
Light sensor is also known as photo sensors and one of the important sensor.
Light dependent resistor or LDR is a simple light sensor available today.
The property of LDR is that its resistance is inversely proportional to the intensity of the
ambient light i.e when the intensity of light increases, it’s resistance decreases and vise
versa.
Touch sensor:
Detection of something like a touch of finger or a stylus is known as touch sensor.
It’s name suggests that detection of something.
They are classified into two types:
Resistive type
Capacitive type
Today almost all modern touch sensors are of capacitive types.
Because they are more accurate and have better signal to noise ratio.
Range sensing:
Range sensing concerns detecting how near or far a component is from the sensing
position, although they can also be used as proximity sensors.
Distance or range sensors use non-contact analog techniques. Short range sensing,
between a few millimetres and a few hundred millimetres is carried out using electrical
capacitance, inductance and magnetic technique.
Longer range sensing is carried out using transmitted energy waves of various types eg
radio waves, sound waves and lasers.
Mechanical sensor:
Any suitable mechanical / electrical switch may be adopted but because a certain amount
of force is required to operate a mechanical switch it is common to use micro-switches.
Pneumatic sensor:
These proximity sensors operate by breaking or disturbing an air flow.
The pneumatic proximity sensor is an example of a contact type sensor. These cannot be
used where light components may be blown away.
Optical sensor:
In there simplest form, optical proximity sensors operate by breaking a light beam which
falls onto a light sensitive device such as a photocell. These are examples of non contact
sensors. Care must be exercised with the lighting environment of these sensors for
example optical sensors can be blinded by flashes from arc welding processes, airborne
dust and smoke clouds may impede light transmission etc.
Speed Sensor:
Sensor used for detecting the speed of any object or vehicle which is in motion is known as
speed sensor .For example – Wind Speed Sensors, Speedometer ,UDAR ,Ground Speed
Radar .
Temperature Sensor:
Devices which monitors and tracks the temperature and gives temperature’s
measurement as an electrical signal are termed as temperature sensors .These electrical
signals will be in the form of voltage and is directly proportional to the temperature
measurement .
PIR Sensor:
PIR stands for passive infrared sensor and it is an electronic sensor that is used for the
tracking and measurement of infrared (IR) light radiating from objects in its field of view
and is also known as Pyroelectric sensor .It is mainly used for detecting human motion and
movement detection .
Ultrasonic Sensor:
The principle of ultrasonic sensor is similar to the working principle of SONAR or RADAR in
which the interpretation of echoes from radio or sound waves to evaluate the attributes of
a target by generating the high frequency sound waves .
What is an actuator? You may have often heard those working with hardware or
electronics talk about valves and actuators. And while our last blog talked about
valves , this one is about actuators, often used with valves. So this blog shall
share a simple introduction to the actuator; we shall also look at the different
types of actuators being used today.

 What is an Actuator?
Actuators are mechanical or electro-mechanical devices that, upon being
operated electrically, manually, or by various fluids, allow controlled and
sometimes limited movements or positioning. They refer to that component of a
machine that helps carry out the moving and controlling of a mechanism or
system; take for instance opening a valve. To put it simply, they can be called
movers.
Actuators basically need a control signal and a source of energy. Upon receiving
a control signal, the actuator uses energy from the source to bring about a
mechanical motion. The control system can be a human, a fixed mechanical or
electronic system, or even software-based, say a printer driver, or a robot
control system.
Examples of actuators include electric motors, stepper motors, electroactive
polymers, screw jacks, servomechanism, solenoids and hydraulic cylinders.

Types of Actuators
Actuator types also vary depending on motions, power configurations, styles and
sizes depending on the application.

a. Mechanical actuators
Mechanical actuators create movement by converting one kind of motion, such
as rotary motion, into another kind, such as linear motion. Say for instance, a
rack and a pinion. Another example is that of a chain block hoisting weight
where the mechanical motion of the chain is used to lift a load.The functioning
of mechanical actuators relies on the combinations of their structural
components, such as gears and rails, or pulleys and chains. High reliability,
simplicity of utilisation, easier maintenance and greater precision of positioning
are some of the advantages. They can be categorised into hydraulic, pneumatic
and electric actuators.

b. Hydraulic actuators

Hydraulic actuators have a cylinder or fluid motor that uses hydraulic power to
generate mechanical motion, which in turn leads to linear, rotatory or oscillatory
motion. Given the fact that liquids are nearly impossible to compress, a
hydraulic actuator can exert a large force. When the fluid enters the lower
chamber of the actuator’s hydraulic cylinder, pressure inside increases and
exerts a force on the bottom of the piston, also inside the cylinder. The pressure
causes the sliding piston to move in a direction opposite to the force caused by
the spring in the upper chamber, making the piston move upward and opening
the valve. The downside with these actuators is the need for many
complementary parts and possibility of fluid leakage.
c. Pneumatic actuators

Pneumatic actuators convert energy in the form of compressed air into

mechanical motion. Here pressurised gas or compressed air enters a chamber
thus building up the pressure inside. Once this pressure goes above the required
pressure levels in contrast to the atmospheric pressure outside the chamber, it
makes the piston or gear move kinetically in a controlled manner, thus leading
to a straight or circular mechanical motion. Examples include pneumatic
cylinders, air cylinders, and air actuators. Cheaper and often more powerful than
other actuators, they can quickly start or stop as no power source has to be
stored in reserve for operation. Often used with valves to control the flow of air
through the valve, these actuators generate considerable force through
relatively small pressure changes.
Examples of maker projects using pneumatic actuators include lifting devices
and humanoid robots with arms and limbs, typically used for lifting.

d. Electric Linear actuators

Now let us look at the electrical actuators, those that run on electricity.
Taking off from the two basic motions of linear and rotary, actuators can be
classified into these two categories: linear and rotary. Electric linear actuators
take electrical energy and turn it into straight line motions, usually for
positioning applications, and they have a push and pull function. They convert
energy from the power source into linear motion using mechanical transmission,
electro-magnetism, or thermal expansion; they are typically used whenever
tilting, lifting, pulling and pushing are needed. They are also known for offering
precision and smooth motion control; this is why they are used in industrial
machinery, in computer peripherals such as disk drives and printers, opening
and closing dampers, locking doors and for braking machine motions. They are
also used in
3d printers and for controlling valves. Some of them are unpowered and
manually operated with a rotating knob or handwheel. Electric linear actuators

e. Electric Rotary actuators

Consisting of motors and output shaft mechanisms with limited rotary travel,
electric rotary actuators convert electrical energy into rotary motion. Used in a
wide range of industries where positioning is needed, and driven by various
motor types, voice coils, these actuators work as per specifications such as the
intended application, drive method, number of positions, output configuration,
mounting configuration, physical dimensions and electrical characteristics. A
common use is for controlling valves such as ball or butterfly valves. Other
applications include automation applications where a gate, door or valve needs
controlled movement to certain rotational positions.

f. Electromechanical actuators
Electromechanical actuators are mechanical actuators where there’s an electric
motor in place of the control knob or handle. The rotary motion of the motor
leads to linear displacement. The inclined plane concept is what drives most
electromechanical actuators; the lead screw’s threads work like a ramp
converting the small rotational force by magnifying it over a long distance, thus
allowing a big load to be moved over a small distance. While there are many
design variations among electromechanical actuators available today, most have
the lead screw and the nut incorporated into the motion. The biggest advantages
are their greater accuracy in relation to pneumatics, their longer lifecycle and
low maintenance effort required. On the other hand, they do not boast the
highest speed.
g. Electrohydraulic actuators
Instead of hydraulic systems, electrohydraulic actuators have self-contained
actuators functioning solely on electrical power. They are basically used to
actuate equipment such as multi-turn valves, or electric-powered construction
and excavation equipment. In case of controlling the flow of fluid through a
valve, a brake is typically installed above the motor to prevent the fluid pressure
from forcing open the valve. The main advantage here is that these actuators
help do away with the need for separate hydraulic pumps and tubing, simplifying
system architectures and enhancing reliability and safety. Originally developed
for the aerospace industry, today they are found in many other industries where
hydraulic power is used.

h. Thermal actuators

A thermal actuator is a non-electric motor that generates linear motion in

response to temperature changes. Its main components are a piston and a
thermal sensitive material. When there is a rise in temperature, the thermal-
sensitive materials begin to expand in response, driving the piston out of the
actuator. Similarly, upon detecting a drop in the temperature, the thermal-
sensitive materials inside contract, making the piston retract. Thus these
actuators can be used for carrying out tasks such as releasing latches, working
switches and opening or closing valves. They have many applications,
particularly in the aerospace, automotive, agricultural and solar industries.

i. Magnetic actuators
Magnetic actuators are those that use magnetic effects to produce motion of a
part in the actuator. They usually come in the following categories: moving coil
actuator, moving magnet actuator, moving iron actuator and electromagnetic
actuator.
In case of the first kind (moving coil actuator), a mobile coil driven by a current
is placed in a static magnetic field, where it is subject to the Lorentz force. This
force is proportional to the applied current.
Moving magnet actuators work differently; here mobile permanent magnet is
placed between two magnet poles and is switched from one pole to the other
using coils. Such actuators can generate high forces but are not easily
controlled.
In moving iron actuators, a soft magnetic part placed into a coil system moves in
a fashion that keeps the system magnetic energy to a minimum.
Lastly, electromagnetic actuators are the ones comprising electric motors such
as Brushless DC motors (BLDC) and stepper motors . These magnetic actuators
are used for various purposes such as valve control, pump and compressor
actuation, locking mechanisms,aerospace engineering, vibration generation, fast
positioning etc. Advantages include reduced system cost, improved robustness,
and reduced control complexity.
Actuators play a pivotal role in the world of robotics and IoT. These components
transform an input signal, usually electrical, into motion or some form of
mechanical action. From linear to rotary, hydraulic to pneumatic, the variety in
types of actuators is vast, each serving a unique purpose in engineering designs.
As the world of robotics continues to advance, understanding the intricacies of
these actuators becomes increasingly essential. For young enthusiasts eager to
dive into the realm of robotics and IoT, starting early can give them a head
start. Programs like YoungWonks, which offer coding classes for kids , often use
tools like the Raspberry Pi to explore such intriguing topics, providing hands-on
experience with actual components, including actuators.
*Contributors: Written by Vidya Prabhu; Lead image by: Leonel Cruz
This blog is presented to you by YoungWonks. The leading coding program for
kids and teens.

 IoT development boards help with rapid prototyping and development

The world of Internet of Things (IoT) is constantly growing, evolving, and changing at a rapid
pace. In general, IoT is simply a network of physical internet or wirelessly capable devices
able to exchange data with the internet. As the IoT market continues to advance, more
businesses benefit from this technology; everything from home automation to medicine
reaps the benefits of IoT.
What’s even more exciting is that agile hardware development through fast prototyping
processes and early integration is now possible. Options for creating an IoT device using IoT
development boards are more common than ever, allowing for easy integration into the IoT
device tech stack. Knowing how to choose the right microcontroller or microprocessor is
essential for development, and utilizing a readily available development kit can accelerate
the process even more.
 What Are IoT Development Boards?
A development board is essentially a printed circuit board with circuitry and hardware for
experimenting with specific microcontrollers, microprocessors, or other complex integrated
circuits (IC).
Specifically, an IoT development board includes:
A programming interface to program the microcontroller from a computer.
A power circuit used to provide stable DC power to the microcontroller.
Input components: buttons, switches, etc.
Output components such as LEDs.
Various I/O pins used for compatibility with sensors, motors, screens, and any other
components.
IoT development boards allow for tinkering and easy access to I/O pins to build custom
circuitry and easily develop firmware.
 IoT Development Board Categories
There are three devkit categories:
Microcontroller - based boards comprised of a small computer, usually built with CMOS
processes. These are primarily used in implants, office machines, power tools,
and automotive control systems.
System-on-Chip SoC boards have more system components integrated into the chip and
have memory, audio receivers, PCI, SATA, and USB communication abilities in addition to a
microprocessor. Additional electronic components and circuits are the only things required–
fewer additional ICs. They allow for more miniaturization and higher processing speeds with
less microchip power. This is all at the cost of specialization and development time.
Single Board Computers (SBCs) contain all the features of a computer on a single device,
including I/O ports, microprocessors, and memory. SBCs are usually larger but are more
capable and do not need to rely on expansion slots for additional peripheral capabilities.

Breadboards allow for easier prototyping of PCBs with microcontrollers

Important Features for IoT Development Boards
When choosing an IoT development board, consider the device you’d like to develop and its
required capabilities. Then, choose a devkit that contains the features necessary for testing
and prototyping.
Examples include:
Connectivity support: IoT applications require adequate connectivity to the outside world,
either to the internet or additional devices. Features like built-in WiFi, Bluetooth, Zigbee,
and/or Ethernet may all be necessary. This may be the most important aspect, as smart
devices rely on their capability connections.
Peripheral capabilities: Considering how your IoT device will interact with other external
components is essential. Additional peripheral capabilities such as HDMI, USB, UART, GPIO,
PWM pin-out, or even PCI/SPI support may be necessary to communicate to other chips and
devices in a wired fashion.
Memory: Depending on if you want your device to store data or immediately offload it
wirelessly, your IoT development board may need built-in Flash memory, with MicroSD or
MiniSD data storage expansion capabilities.
Processing power: Whether through a built-in microcontroller, CPU, CPLD, or FPGA, this
component’s capabilities will likely also determine how you program the device.
  Arduino is a prototype platform (open-source) based on an easy-to-use hardware
and software. It consists of a circuit board, which can be programed (referred to as a
microcontroller) and a ready-made software called Arduino IDE (Integrated
Development Environment), which is used to write and upload the computer code to
the physical board. The key features are:  Arduino boards are able to read analog or
digital input signals from different sensors and turn it into an output such as
activating a motor, turning LED on/off, connect to the cloud and many other actions. 
You can control your board functions by sending a set of instructions to the
microcontroller on the board via Arduino IDE (referred to as uploading software). 
Unlike most previous programmable circuit boards, Arduino does not need an extra
piece of hardware (called a programmer) in order to load a new code onto the board.
You can simply use a USB cable.  Additionally, the Arduino IDE uses a simplified
version of C++, making it easier to learn to program.  Finally, Arduino provides a
standard form factor that breaks the functions of the microcontroller into a more
accessible package.
ARDUINO – BOARD DESCRIPTION 12 Arduino board can be powered by using the USB
cable from your computer. All you need to do is connect the USB cable to the USB
connection
(1). Power (Barrel Jack) Arduino boards can be powered directly from the AC mains power
supply by connecting it to the Barrel Jack
(2). Voltage Regulator The function of the voltage regulator is to control the voltage given
to the Arduino board and stabilize the DC voltages used by the processor and other
elements. Crystal Oscillator The crystal oscillator helps Arduino in dealing with time issues.
How does Arduino calculate time? The answer is, by using the crystal oscillator. The number
printed on top of the Arduino crystal is 16.000H9H. It tells us that the frequency is
16,000,000 Hertz or 16 MHz. Arduino Reset You can reset your Arduino board, i.e., start your
program from the beginning. You can reset the UNO board in two ways. First, by using the
reset button (17) on the board. Second, you can connect an external reset button to the
Arduino pin labelled RESET
(5). Pins (3.3, 5, GND, Vin)  3.3V
(6): Supply 3.3 output volt   5V
(7): Supply 5 output volt   Most of the components used with Arduino board works fine with
3.3 volt and 5 volt.   GND
(8)(Ground): There are several GND pins on the Arduino, any of which can be used to
ground your circuit.   Vin
(9): This pin also can be used to power the Arduino board from an external power source,
like AC mains power supply.  13 Analog pins The Arduino UNO board has five analog input
pins A0 through A5. These pins can read the signal from an analog sensor like the humidity
sensor or temperature sensor and convert it into a digital value that can be read by the
microprocessor. Main microcontroller Each Arduino board has its own microcontroller
(11). You can assume it as the brain of your board. The main IC (integrated circuit) on the
Arduino is slightly different from board to board. The microcontrollers are usually of the
ATMEL Company. You must know what IC your board has before loading up a new program
from the Arduino IDE. This information is available on the top of the IC. For more details
about the IC construction and functions, you can refer to the data sheet. ICSP pin Mostly,
ICSP (12) is an AVR, a tiny programming header for the Arduino consisting of MOSI, MISO,
SCK, RESET, VCC, and GND. It is often referred to as an SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface),
which could be considered as an "expansion" of the output. Actually, you are slaving the
output device to the master of the SPI bus. Power LED indicator This LED should light up
when you plug your Arduino into a power source to indicate that your board is powered up
correctly. If this light does not turn on, then there is something wrong with the connection.
TX and RX LEDs On your board, you will find two labels: TX (transmit) and RX (receive). They
appear in two places on the Arduino UNO board. First, at the digital pins 0 and 1, to indicate
the pins responsible for serial communication. Second, the TX and RX led (13). The TX led
flashes with different speed while sending the serial data. The speed of flashing depends on
the baud rate used by the board. RX flashes during the receiving process. Digital I / O The
Arduino UNO board has 14 digital I/O pins (15) (of which 6 provide PWM (Pulse Width
Modulation) output. These pins can be configured to work as input digital pins to read logic
14 values (0 or 1) or as digital output pins to drive different modules like LEDs, relays, etc.
The pins labeled “~” can be used to generate PWM. AREF AREF stands for Analog Reference.
It is sometimes, used to set an external reference voltage (between 0 and 5 Volts) as the
upper limit for the analog input pins. 15 After learning about the main part

Arduino Boards
Arduino is an easy-to-use open platform to create electronics projects. Arduino boards play a
vital role in creating different projects. It makes electronics accessible to non-engineers,
hobbyists, etc.
The various components present on the Arduino boards are Microcontroller, Digital
Input/output pins, USB Interface and Connector, Analog Pins, Reset Button, Power
button, LED's, Crystal Oscillator, and Voltage Regulator. Some components may differ
depending on the type of board.
The most standard and popular board used over time is Arduino UNO. The ATmega328
Microcontroller present on the UNO board makes it rather powerful than other boards. There
are various types of Arduino boards used for different purposes and projects.
The Arduino Boards are organized using the Arduino (IDE), which can run on various
platforms. Here, IDE stands for Integrated Development Environment.
Let's discuss some common and best Arduino boards.
Backward Skip 10sPlay VideoForward Skip 10s
ADVERTISEMENT
Types of Arduino Boards
ADVERTISEMENT
ADVERTISEMENT
Arduino UNO
Arduino UNO is based on an ATmega328P microcontroller. It is easy to use compared to
other boards, such as the Arduino Mega board, etc. The Arduino UNO includes 6 analog pin
inputs, 14 digital pins, a USB connector, a power jack, and an ICSP (In-Circuit Serial
Programming) header.
It is the most used and of standard form from the list of all available Arduino Boards. It is
also recommended for beginners as it is easy to use.

Arduino Nano
The Arduino Nano is a small Arduino board based on ATmega328P or ATmega628
Microcontroller. The connectivity is the same as the Arduino UNO board.
The Nano board is defined as a sustainable, small, consistent, and flexible microcontroller
board. It is small in size compared to the UNO board. The devices required to start our
projects using the Arduino Nano board are Arduino IDE and mini USB.
The Arduino Nano includes an I/O pin set of 14 digital pins and 8 analog pins. It also includes
6 Power pins and 2 Reset pins.
Arduino Mega
The Arduino Mega is based on ATmega2560 Microcontroller. The ATmega2560 is an 8-bit
microcontroller. We need a simple USB cable to connect to the computer and the AC to DC
adapter or battery to get started with it. It has the advantage of working with more memory
space.
ADVERTISEMENT
ADVERTISEMENT
The Arduino Mega includes 54 I/O digital pins and 16 Analog Input/Output (I/O), ICSP header,
a reset button, 4 UART (Universal Asynchronous Reciever/Transmitter) ports, USB
connection, and a power jack.

Arduino Micro
The Arduino Micro is based on the ATmega32U4 Microcontroller. It consists of 20 sets of
pins. The 7 pins from the set are PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) pins, while 12 pins are
analog input pins. The other components on board are reset button, 16MHz crystal oscillator,
ICSP header, and a micro USB connection.
The USB is inbuilt in the Arduino Micro board.

The Arduino Micro is also called as the shrunk version of Arduino Leonardo.
Arduino Leonardo
The basic specification of the Arduino Leonardo is the same as the Arduino Micro. It is also
based on ATmega32U4 Microcontroller. The components present on the board are 20 analog
and digital pins, reset button, 16MHz crystal oscillator, ICSP header, and a micro USB
connection.

Arduino Due
The Arduino Due is based on the 32- bit ARM core. It is the first Arduino board that has
developed based on the ARM Microcontroller. It consists of 54 Digital Input/Output pins and
12 Analog pins. The Microcontroller present on the board is the Atmel SAM3X8E ARM Cortex-
M3 CPU.
It has two ports, namely, native USB port and Programming port. The micro side of the USB
cable should be attached to the programming port.
Arduino Shields
The Arduino shields are the boards, which can be plugged on the top of the PCB. The shields
further extend the potential of the PCB's. The production of shields is cheap. It is also easy
to use. There are various types of Arduino shields that can be used for different purposes.
For example, the Xbee shield.

The Xbee shield can be used for wireless communication between multiple Arduino boards
over distances upto 300 feet using the Zigbee Module.
Arduino Lilypad
The Arduino LilyPad was initially created for wearable projects and e-textiles. It is based on
the ATmega168 Microcontroller. The functionality of Lilypad is the same as other Arduino
Boards. It is a round, light-weight board with a minimal number of components to keep the
size of board small.
ADVERTISEMENT
ADVERTISEMENT
The Arduino Lilypad board was designed by Sparkfun and Leah. It was developed by Leah
Buechley. It has 9 digital I/O pins.

Arduino Bluetooth
The Arduino Bluetooth board is based on ATmega168 Microcontroller. It is also named
as Arduino BT board. The components present on the board are 16 digital pins, 6 analog
pins, reset button, 16MHz crystal oscillator, ICSP header, and screw terminals. The screw
terminals are used for power.

ADVERTISEMENT
ADVERTISEMENT
The Arduino Bluetooth Microcontroller board can be programmed over the Bluetooth as a
wireless connection.
Arduino Diecimila
The Arduino Diecimila is also based on ATmeg628 Microcontroller. The board consists of 6
analog pin inputs, 14 digital Input/Output pins, a USB connector, a power jack, an ICSP (In-
Circuit Serial Programming) header, and a reset button.

We can connect the board to the computer using the USB, and can power-on the board with
the help of AC to DC adapter. The Diecimila was initially developed to mark the 10000
delivered boards of Arduino. Here, Diecimila means 10,000 in Italian.
Arduino Robot
The Arduino Robot is called as the tiny computer. It is widely used in robotics. The board
comprises of the speaker, five-button, color screen, two motors, an SD card reader, a digital
compass, two potentiometers, and five floor sensors.

The Robot Library can be used to control the actuators and the sensors.
Arduino Ethernet
The Arduino Ethernet is based on the ATmega328 Microcontroller. The board consists of 6
analog pins, 14 digital I/O pins, crystal oscillator, reset button, ICSP header, a power jack,
and an RJ45 connection.

With the help of the Ethernet shield, we can connect our Arduino board to the internet.
Arduino Zero
The Arduino Zero is generally called as the 32-bit extension of the Arduino UNO. It is based
on ATmel's SAM21 MCU. The board consists of 6 analog pin inputs, 14 digital Input/Output
pins, a USB connector, a power jack, and an ICSP (In-Circuit Serial Programming) header,
UART port pins, a power header, and AREF button.

The Embedded debugger of Atmel is also supported by the Arduino Zero. The function of
Debugger is to provide a full debug interface, which does not require additional hardware.
Arduino Esplora
The Arduino Esplora boards allow easy interfacing of sensors and actuators. The outputs and
inputs connected on the Esplora board make it unique from other types of Arduino boards.
The board includes outputs, inputs, a small microcontroller, a microphone, a sensor, a
joystick, an accelerometer, a temperature sensor, four buttons, and a slider.

Arduino Pro Micro

The structure of Arduino Pro Micro is similar to the Arduino Mini board, except the
Microcontroller ATmega32U4. The board consists of 12 digital Input/output pins, 5 PWM
(Pulse Width Modulation) pins, Tx and Rx serial connections, and 10-bit ADC (Analog to
Digital Converter).

What is Raspberry Pi development?

Raspberry Pi is the name of a series of single-board computers made by the Raspberry Pi

Foundation, a UK charity that aims to educate people in computing and create easier access
to computing education.
The Project Box for Raspberry Pi contains all the components needed in order to complete
10 simple projects involving LEDs, thermistor, phototransistor and switches and is an ideal
starting point for anyone new to electronics and the Raspberry Pi.

The Raspberry Pi is a very cheap computer that runs Linux, but it also provides a set of GPIO
(general purpose input/output) pins, allowing you to control electronic components for
physical computing and explore the Internet of Things (IoT).
Working Principles and Applications of RFID Labels
RFID labels consist of coupling components and chips. Each RFID label has an electronic
code attached to an object to identify the target object, also called electronic tags or smart
tags. RFID labels are divided into active tags, passive tags and semi-active and semi-passive
tags.

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) is a form of wireless communication that

incorporates the use of electromagnetic or electrostatic coupling in the radio frequency
portion of the electromagnetic spectrum to uniquely identify an object, animal or person. It
uses radio frequency to search ,identify, track and communicate with items and people. it is
a method that is used to track or identify an object by radio transmission uses over the web.
Data digitally encoded in an RFID tag which might be read by the reader. This device work
as a tag or label during which data read from tags that are stored in the database through
the reader as compared to traditional barcodes and QR codes. It is often read outside the
road of sight either passive or active RFID.

Kinds of RFID :
There are many kinds of RFID, each with different properties, but perhaps the most
fascinating aspect of RFID technology is that most RFID tags have neither an electric plug
nor a battery. Instead, all of the energy needed to operate them is supplied in the form of
radio waves by RFID readers. This technology is called passive RFID to distinguish it from
the(less common) active RFID in which there is a power source on the tag.
UHF RHID ( Ultra-High Frequency RFID ). It is used on shipping pallets and some
driver’s licenses. Readers send signals in the 902-928 MHz band. Tags communicate at
distances of several meters by changing the way they reflect the reader signals; the reader
is able to pick up these reflections. This way of operating is called backscatter.
HF RFID (High-Frequency RFID ). It operates at 13.56 MHz and is likely to be in your
passport, credit cards, books, and noncontact payment systems. HF RFID has a short-range,
typically a meter or less because the physical mechanism is based on induction rather than
backscatter.
There are also other forms of RFID using other frequencies, such as LF RFID(Low-Frequency
RFID), which was developed before HF RFID and used for animal tracking

There are two types of RFID :

Passive RFID –
Passive RFID tags does not have their own power source. It uses power from the reader. In
this device, RF tags are not attached by a power supply and passive RF tag stored their
power. When it is emitted from active antennas and the RF tag are used specific frequency
like 125-134KHZ as low frequency, 13.56MHZ as a high frequency and 856MHZ to 960MHZ
as ultra-high frequency.

Active RFID –
In this device, RF tags are attached by a power supply that emits a signal and there is an
antenna which receives the data. means, active tag uses a power source like battery. It has
it’s own power source, does not require power from source/reader.

Working Principle of RFID :

Generally, RFID uses radio waves to perform AIDC function. AIDC stands for Automatic
Identification and Data Capture technology which performs object identification and
collection and mapping of the data.

An antenna is an device which converts power into radio waves which are used for
communication between reader and tag. RFID readers retrieve the information from RFID
tag which detects the tag and reads or writes the data into the tag. It may include one
processor, package, storage and transmitter and receiver unit.

Working of RFID System :

Every RFID system consists of three components: a scanning antenna, a transceiver and a
transponder. When the scanning antenna and transceiver are combined, they are referred to
as an RFID reader or interrogator. There are two types of RFID readers — fixed readers and
mobile readers. The RFID reader is a network-connected device that can be portable or
permanently attached. It uses radio waves to transmit signals that activate the tag. Once
activated, the tag sends a wave back to the antenna, where it is translated into data.
The transponder is in the RFID tag itself. The read range for RFID tags varies based on
factors including the type of tag, type of reader, RFID frequency and interference in the
surrounding environment or from other RFID tags and readers. Tags that have a stronger
power source also have a longer read range.

Features of RFID :
An RFID tag consists of two-part which is an microcircuit and an antenna.
This tag is covered by protective material which acts as a shield against the outer
environment effect.
This tag may active or passive in which we mainly and widely used passive RFID.

Application of RFID :
It utilized in tracking shipping containers, trucks and railroad, cars.
It uses in Asset tracking.
It utilized in credit-card shaped for access application.
It uses in Personnel tracking.
Controlling access to restricted areas.
It uses ID badging.
Supply chain management.
Counterfeit prevention (e.g., in the pharmaceutical industry).

Advantages of RFID :
It provides data access and real-time information without taking to much time.
RFID tags follow the instruction and store a large amount of information.
The RFID system is non-line of sight nature of the technology.
It improves the Efficiency, traceability of production.
In RFID hundred of tags read in a short time.

Disadvantages of RFID :
It takes longer to program RFID Devices.
RFID intercepted easily even it is Encrypted.
In an RFID system, there are two or three layers of ordinary household foil to dam the radio
wave.
There is privacy concern about RFID devices anybody can access information about
anything.
Active RFID can costlier due to battery.
Unlock the Power of Placement Preparation!
Feeling lost in OS, DBMS, CN, SQL, and DSA chaos? Our Complete Interview
Preparation Course is the ultimate guide to conquer placements. Trusted by over 100,000+
geeks, this course is your roadmap to interview triumph.
Ready to dive in? Explore our Free Demo Content and join our Complete Interview
Preparation course.

Working principle of RFID labels

When the tag enters the magnetic field, it receives the radio frequency signal sent by the
reader, and sends out the product information stored in the chip obtained by the induced
current or actively sends a signal of a certain frequency. The reader reads and decodes the
information and sends it to the management information system for related data processing.

With the progress and development of society, countries and regions such as the European
Union, the United States, Japan, and South Korea have successively introduced tire label
laws, requiring tires to be labeled to indicate the fuel efficiency, rolling resistance, rolling
noise, and wet traction grade of tires. At present, China's tire label system is also vigorously
promoting.

Application of RFID labels in tires

Currently, the traceability label identification of tires on the market generally uses the form
of "barcode + tire sidewall information" to store various information of the tire. However,
both the barcode and sidewall information are located on the surface of the tire body, which
will wear off quickly after the tire is used. Once these information cannot be visually
observed, it means the loss of tire information, and the identification of tire model, tread,
diameter and other information cannot be distinguished. If there are situations, such as
illegal or unsafe use of tires (unqualified tires, overloaded use, expired use, etc.), it will
directly cause difficulties in the use, maintenance and claims of users, leading to disputes,
and even frequent safety accidents, waste of energy resources, and damage to the
environment.

However, the application of RFID labels technology can regulate the tire industry for orderly
production and sales (preventing counterfeiting, label switching, and counterfeiting),
realizing tire life cycle management; regulating the transportation industry to ensure the
safety of personal and property; promoting and regulating the tire retreading industry,
realizing tire recycling economy. The RFID technology in the tire industry is demonstrated as
follows: the electronic tag is implanted into the tire during the tire forming process, and can
withstand deformation, high temperature and high pressure during the tire forming and
vulcanization process. The finished tire is tested for reliability, such as X-ray detection, air
bubble inspection, dynamic balance and uniformity testing, and durability testing.
It can be seen that the combination of RFID technology and tire manufacturing technology
can not only solve the problems encountered in the current tire identification and
traceability processes but also write tire production data, sales data, usage data, retreading
data, etc., by planting RFID labels inside the tire, and the corresponding data can be
collected and read at any time through the terminal. In combination with the corresponding
management software, the recording and traceability of tire life cycle data can be realized.

Components of RFID Technology

RFID technology consists of four components: RFID tags, antenna, RFID receiver
(transceiver), and software.

Image: Youtube
1. RFID Tag
RFID tags are small devices that consist of an electronic microchip embedded inside and an
antenna. The microchip has the unique identification number of the RFID tag.
A passive RFID tag does not have a power source; it will receive power from radio signals
transmitted from the RFID receiver. These tags will operate when the reader is in the
proximity of the tags (line of sight not required).
The antenna coil will act as a power source and medium to transfer data to the reader.
Types of Tags
Passive Tags: Does not have a power source, uses power from the reader to operate.
Battery-Assisted Passive Tags: The logic circuit chip uses battery power. Need RF signals
from the reader to activate and function.
Active Tags: Uses a power source like a battery and does not require power from the
source/reader.
2. Antenna
RFID antennas are designed to operate at a specific frequency for each application in which
it operates. These antennas are often mounted on the RFID reader and easily accessible for
tags to tap on it.

In some handheld devices, the antenna is often attached to the device. The size and shape
of the antenna depend on the application and the system’s operating frequency.
3. RFID Reader
The RFID reader is one of the significant hardware components in the RFID system, which
reads information from the RFID devices/tags and connects to the network to transfer the
information to the database.
Specification of RFID Reader
Frequency: Operating frequency is one of the specifications of the RFID reader.
 Frequency Band Range Data Rate

LF: 120–150 kHz 10 cm Low

HF: 13.56 MHz 0.1–1 m Low to moderate

UHF: 433 MHz 1–100 m Moderate

UHF: 865–868 MHz 1–12 m Moderate to high

902–928 MHz

microwave: 2450–5800 MHz 1–2 m High

microwave: 3.1–10 GHz up to 200 m High

4. Software
RFID technology uses specific software depending on service providers. This software
controls the RFID reader, initiates a scan, retrieves information from the tags, and stores the
information on a local computer or sends it to the cloud storage.
RFID tags can be erased and re-used using control software.
How does RFID work?

RFID technology works based on the principle of inductive coupling, including a source and
receiver antenna. Each RFID tag will have a microchip that contains a unique identification
number, model, manufacturing date, expiry date, access information, etc.…
RFID reading is a process of accessing information on a tag using a reader. When the user
initiates a scanning, the tags are placed near the RFID reader or vice versa.
RFID reader sends radio frequency signals using its antenna; small coils embedded in the
RFID tag pick up the signal from the reader and activate the tag (in passive tags) by
powering it.
Once the tag is activated, it starts transmitting data back to the reader using the same
antenna coils using the inductive coupling (backscatter coupling) method.
What are the applications of RFID technology?
1. Retail and Supply Chain

Image: Reddit
RFID technology is revolutionizing operational efficiency across the supply chain. Retail
stores can efficiently manage stocks, and customers can access information about a
particular product or self-checkout from the stores.
Many fashion retailers have already adopted the applications of RFID technology; it has
helped them modernize their stores and improve customer satisfaction. RFID technology
helps faster checkouts and reduces the number of support staff.
Theft control is another advantage of RDIF technology in retail stores. RFID readers will
detect any items that pass through the exit without payment being completed.
2. Access control

Image: kisi
Access control and security is one of the common applications of RFID technology.
Employers can assign different levels of access to each work group personnel in office
environments, manufacturing plants, hospitals, airports, shops, etc.… Using modern RFID
technology, a highly secure access control system can be implemented and monitored
remotely.
Companies are using personal identification badges with RFID technology for employees.
3. Medical and hospital

RFID technology can be used in medicine and healthcare to track the movement of medical
equipment, update medicine stock, and authorize access for medical professionals. A simple
RFID tag on a patient’s wrist does not require scanning (like a barcode scan); it helps
medical practitioners efficiently handle patients for different procedures.
Implementation of RFID technology facilitates hospitals to improve efficiency, avoid errors
during medication, and increase customer satisfaction. An RFID can store more data like
personal information, allergies to some medicines, chronic conditions like diabetes, etc.
Furthermore, RFID implementation can reduce wait time in hospitals and clinics during busy
hours. Healthcare personnel can track the patient’s location within hospitals and guide them
for other procedures if necessary.
Pharmaceutical companies use RFID technology to prevent counterfeit products from
reaching the market.
Find more about how Radio Frequency technology is used in the medicine and the
healthcare sector
4. Logistics and shipping

Image: abr.com
RFID tags were primarily developed to improve the efficiency of logistics and shipping.
Manual recording of inventory movements is not feasible for larger quantities of items from
the warehouse, manufacturing, and storage area.
RFID readers can easily read hundreds of tags within seconds with accuracy. Once the items
move out of the warehouse premises, data will be updated in the database without manual
action.
RFID gates are used for inventory management in big warehouse storage areas. RFID
readers installed on the gates will record inventory movement in and out of a warehouse
location.
5. Automation of manufacturing
RFID technology is one of the significant enablers for the smart factory concept to help
automate different stages during manufacturing. During each stage of manufacturing, RFID
readers will record the movement of products and update the database without additional
action from the operator.
The application of RFID technology is suitable for large-scale production sites where
hundreds or thousands of products are monitored, and status information is recorded in real-
time. Manually updating this information is time-consuming and cause error while entering
the data.
6. Animal tracking
Implementing RFID tags on livestock helps farmers update, identify, and easily track.
Manually updating large amounts of data is not easy, especially in a remote location.
A handheld reader can easily access information (age, weight, vaccination data, etc.) within
seconds. Veterinary doctors can retrieve information about a pet by scanning the tag
(without going through records).
7. Baggage handling in aviation
The number of airline passengers has been increasing every year, and it will continue to
grow in the coming years. Baggage handling a huge number of passengers is a heavy task
for airlines; baggage mishandling often costs millions of dollars every year.
The efficient application of RFID technology helps airlines solve this issue and significantly
reduce luggage mishandling. RFID tags do not require a line-of-sight angle to read
information; this is an advantage compared to barcode scanning.
Tracking of baggage is much easier than other technologies; the operator will get a
notification if the baggage is placed at the wrong location or moved to a different location.
RFID gate for inventory management, records in and out of a warehouse location
8. Tollgate systems / Electronic Road Pricing

ER
P in Singapore Image: Todayonline
Electronic toll gates and Electronic Road Pricing (ERP) use RFID technology to allow access
and charge for entry to an area. These are mostly active tags with payment options enabled.
RFID readers can read these tags from up to 20 – 30 feet above the vehicles.
Other applications
Agriculture: RFID tags can be implemented in agriculture and smart farming. Smart tags can
store information about crops like harvested dates, locations, organic farming information,
etc.
Advantages of RFID technology
Cost-effective solution compared to other technologies
Does not require a direct line of sight to operate
RFID readers can read hundreds of tags simultaneously within seconds
RFID tags can be rewritten and easily reused
Data from tags can be encrypted for enhanced security
Tags can store more information than just basic product information (serial number, lot
number, manufacturing date, expiry, website URL, etc.)
RFID systems can be integrated with other existing systems
RFID technology is easily scalable and easy to implement
Limitations of RFID technology
Signals from the RFID reader can be blocked by metal surfaces, liquids, and thick materials.
Higher implementation cost compared to barcode scanners
Accuracy is affected due to signal quality (any obstruction could cause an error in data)
Implementation is more complex than the barcode system
Privacy and security vulnerabilities often argued with the increased use of tags (especially
personal information)

Actuators in IoT
An IoT device is made up of a Physical object (“thing”) + Controller (“brain”)
+ Sensors + Actuators + Networks (Internet). An actuator is a machine component
or system that moves or controls the mechanism of the system. Sensors in the
device sense the environment, then control signals are generated for the
actuators according to the actions needed to perform.
A servo motor is an example of an actuator. They are linear or rotatory actuators,
can move to a given specified angular or linear position. We can use servo motors
for IoT applications and make the motor rotate to 90 degrees, 180 degrees, etc.,
as per our need.
The following diagram shows what actuators do, the controller directs the
actuator based on the sensor data to do the work.

Working of IoT devices and use of Actuators

The control system acts upon an environment through the actuator. It requires a
source of energy and a control signal. When it receives a control signal, it converts
the source of energy to a mechanical operation. On this basis, on which form of
energy it uses, it has different types given below.
Types of Actuators :
1. Hydraulic Actuators –
A hydraulic actuator uses hydraulic power to perform a mechanical operation.
They are actuated by a cylinder or fluid motor. The mechanical motion is
converted to rotary, linear, or oscillatory motion, according to the need of the IoT
device. Ex- construction equipment uses hydraulic actuators because hydraulic
actuators can generate a large amount of force.
Advantages :
 Hydraulic actuators can produce a large magnitude of force and high speed.
  Used in welding, clamping, etc.
 Used for lowering or raising the vehicles in car transport carriers.
Disadvantages :
 Hydraulic fluid leaks can cause efficiency loss and issues of cleaning.
 It is expensive.
 It requires noise reduction equipment, heat exchangers, and high
maintenance systems.
2. Pneumatic Actuators –
A pneumatic actuator uses energy formed by vacuum or compressed air at high
pressure to convert into either linear or rotary motion. Example- Used in robotics,
use sensors that work like human fingers by using compressed air.
Advantages :
 They are a low-cost option and are used at extreme temperatures where
using air is a safer option than chemicals.
 They need low maintenance, are durable, and have a long operational life.
 It is very quick in starting and stopping the motion.
Disadvantages :
 Loss of pressure can make it less efficient.
 The air compressor should be running continuously.
 Air can be polluted, and it needs maintenance.
3. Electrical Actuators –
An electric actuator uses electrical energy, is usually actuated by a motor that
converts electrical energy into mechanical torque. An example of an electric
actuator is a solenoid based electric bell.
Advantages :
 It has many applications in various industries as it can automate industrial
valves.
 It produces less noise and is safe to use since there are no fluid leakages.
 It can be re-programmed and it provides the highest control precision
positioning.
Disadvantages :
 It is expensive.
 It depends a lot on environmental conditions.
Other actuators are –
 Thermal/Magnetic Actuators –
These are actuated by thermal or mechanical energy. Shape Memory Alloys
(SMAs) or Magnetic Shape‐Memory Alloys (MSMAs) are used by these
 actuators. An example of a thermal/magnetic actuator can be a piezo
motor using SMA.
 Mechanical Actuators –
A mechanical actuator executes movement by converting rotary motion
into linear motion. It involves pulleys, chains, gears, rails, and other devices
to operate. Example – A crankshaft.
 Soft Actuators
 Shape Memory Polymers
 Light Activated Polymers
 With the expanding world of IoT, sensors and actuators will find more
usage in commercial and domestic applications along with the pre-existing
use in industry.
Key Info
 A prototype is an operating version of a solution. It is often made with
different materials (cheaper and easier to work with) than the final version.
 Prototypes allow you to test how your solution will work and even show
the solution to users for feedback.
 Creating prototypes may involve using readily available materials,
construction kits, storyboards, or other techniques that help you to create
your solution quickly and with little cost. Keep in mind that these are
mockups of your final solution, not the real thing!
Prototyping
A prototype is an operating version of a solution. Often a designer makes a
prototype with different materials than the final version, and generally it is not as
polished.
Prototypes are a key step in the development of a final solution, allowing the
designer to test how the solution will work and even show the solution to users
for feedback. Occasionally, designers will prototype pieces of the final solution
very early in the design process. Sometimes designers will make several
prototypes during the development of a solution.
Prototypes can help you to develop the structure, function, and appearance of
your solution.

Understanding The IoT Development Board

A development board is a circuit board that includes a specific microprocessor,
the stripped-down hardware components required to support its use, and little
else. Though there’s rarely a user interface, these IoT devices are designed to
provide engineers the means to quickly prototype and test software for a
particular IoT solution.
Along with the microprocessor, these boards typically include a power supply, an
interface that allows components on the board to be programmed, and some
basic input and output devices, like buttons and LEDs. Engineers can usually
connect a device – a computer, a USB flash drive, or another input object carrying
minimal software – that can run code.
Development boards provide two specific benefits to engineers prototyping an
IoT device:
 They allow them to work with a standard set of circuits and power supplies
that would otherwise have to be reassembled for every project; and
 They are stripped down and simple enough that they provide a quick,
affordable way to test software and IoT device functionality.
Of course, it’s possible to buy the components that make up a development
board individually and assemble them yourself on a breadboard, but these tools
allow you to skip that step and move right to testing code. Boards used for IoT
development typically connect to the internet, which allows developers to
explore how devices on a network can talk to each other and transmit data where
it needs to go.
IoT development boards could be used to test an automation of some kind – a
system to water crops on a schedule, for example, or to turn an industrial facility’s
HVAC system on and off at specific times. Development boards can also be helpful
when an IoT engineer needs to ensure functionality in a more extreme
environment – i.e. when heat or cold, or humidity is potentially hazardous.
The boards provide a cheaper way to evaluate risks to equipment and whether all
systems will function appropriately in real-world conditions before deploying a
full complement of devices. To that end, selecting the type of board that allows
the right testing processes and yields the most accurate results is essential.
Selecting The Right Development Board for You
Different manufacturers’ boards offer different features that may be helpful in
testing your project. Most fall within one of the three primary types of
development boards commonly used in IoT prototyping:
 Microcontroller boards are the simplest type. They are generally driven by
an external operating system and are designed to run a single function or
process.
 Single board computers are ready to go out of the box. They already have
an operating system built in and can run multiple tasks simultaneously.
 Field-programmable gate array boards use processors that are designed,
as their name suggests, to be configured once they’re part of the end-user’s
system. They have a variety of possible configurations, which allows
experimentation around ways of setting up the architecture of the IoT
network that’s in the design and testing process.
Choosing the right board requires thinking through the functionality of the
particular devices and how that could impact your IoT project. Will the device
need to perform complex tasks, or will it really be required to accomplish a single
process or action?
Speed is another factor – how quickly will processes need to be completed to
effectively accomplish the project’s goal? The right development board can not
only accelerate the work to engineer devices, it can even help pressure
test specific kinds of connectivity.
Of course, budget is something to consider. Boards that don’t include a full OS will
be able to accomplish less complicated tasks, but can be acquired more cheaply,
which drives down the cost of prototyping and testing.

RFID (radio frequency identification)

What is RFID (radio frequency identification)?
RFID (radio frequency identification) is a form of wireless communication that
incorporates the use of electromagnetic or electrostatic coupling in the radio
frequency portion of the electromagnetic spectrum to uniquely identify an object,
animal or person.
How does RFID work?
Every RFID system consists of three components: a scanning antenna,
a transceiver and a transponder. When the scanning antenna and transceiver are
combined, they are referred to as an RFID reader or interrogator. There are two
types of RFID readers -- fixed readers and mobile readers. The RFID reader is a
network-connected device that can be portable or permanently attached. It uses
radio waves to transmit signals that activate the tag. Once activated, the tag
sends a wave back to the antenna, where it is translated into data.
The transponder is in the RFID tag itself. The read range for RFID tags varies based
on factors including the type of tag, type of reader, RFID frequency and
interference in the surrounding environment or from other RFID tags and readers.
Tags that have a stronger power source also have a longer read range.
What are RFID tags and smart labels?
RFID tags are made up of an integrated circuit (IC), an antenna and a substrate.
The part of an RFID tag that encodes identifying information is called the RFID
inlay.
There are two main types of RFID tags:
 Active RFID. An active RFID tag has its own power source, often a battery.
 Passive RFID. A passive RFID tag receives its power from the reading
antenna, whose electromagnetic wave induces a current in the RFID tag's
antenna.
There are also semi-passive RFID tags, meaning a battery runs the circuitry while
communication is powered by the RFID reader.
Low-power, embedded non-volatile memory plays an important role in every
RFID system. RFID tags typically hold less than 2,000 KB of data, including a
unique identifier/serial number. Tags can be read-only or read-write, where data
can be added by the reader or existing data overwritten.
The read range for RFID tags varies based on factors including type of tag, type of
reader, RFID frequency, and interference in the surrounding environment or from
other RFID tags and readers. Active RFID tags have a longer read range than
passive RFID tags due to the stronger power source.
smart labels are simple RFID tags. These labels have an RFID tag embedded into
an adhesive label and feature a barcode. They can also be used by both RFID and
barcode readers. Smart labels can be printed on-demand using desktop printers,
where RFID tags require more advanced equipment.
Zebra Technologies
RFID readers can be fixed (left) or mobile (right).
What are the types of RFID systems?
There are three main types of RFID systems: low frequency (LF), high frequency
(HF) and ultra-high frequency (UHF). Microwave RFID is also available.
Frequencies vary greatly by country and region.
 Low-frequency RFID systems. These range from 30 KHzto 500 KHz, though
the typical frequency is 125 KHz. LF RFID has short transmission ranges,
generally anywhere from a few inches to less than six feet.
 High-frequency RFID system These range from 3 MHzto 30 MHz, with the
typical HF frequency being 13.56 MHz. The standard range is anywhere
from a few inches to several feet.
 UHF RFID systems. These range from 300 MHz to 960 MHz, with the typical
frequency of 433 MHz and can generally be read from 25-plus feet away.
 Microwave RFID systems. These run at 2.45 Ghzand can be read from 30-
plus feet away.
The frequency used will depend on the RFID application, with actual obtained
distances sometimes varying from what is expected. For example, when the U.S.
State Department announced it would issue electronic passports enabled with an
RFID chip, it said the chips would only be able to be read from approximately 4
inches away. However, the State Department soon received evidence that RFID
readers could skim the information from the RFID tags from much farther than 4
inches -- sometimes upward of 33 feet away.
If longer read ranges are needed, using tags with additional power can boost read
ranges to 300-plus feet.
RFID applications and use cases
RFID dates back to the 1940s; however, it was used more frequently in the 1970s.
For a long time, the high cost of the tags and readers prohibited widespread
commercial use. As hardware costs have decreased, RFID adoption has also
increased.
Some common uses for RFID applications include:
 pet and livestock tracking
 inventory management
 asset tracking and equipment tracking
 inventory control
 cargo and supply chain logistics
 vehicle tracking
 customer service and loss control
 improved visibility and distribution in the supply chain
 access control in security situations
 shipping
 healthcare
 manufacturing
 retail sales
 tap-and-go credit card payments