Chapter Two

Sensors and Application

Dept. of Electrical and Computer Eng.

WACHEMO UNIVERSITY

NAME ID
1.SAMUEL DESTA ………………. 14D2445
2.AMIN MOHAMED……………… 14O2810
3.ERMIAS DADI ………………….. 1403548
4.ASHENAFI TAMIRU………….. 1402875



Topics Covered in This Chapter
Introduction to Sensors and Applications
Classification of sensors, types and applications
 Passive Sensors
 Active Sensors
 Analog and Digital Sensors
Sensor working principles
Proximity & position sensors
Pressure & force sensors
Optical & Imaging sensors
Motion & Acceleration sensors

 1
 Introduction
Sensing element, the first block diagram represented in the functional block diagram of
measurement system, is the basic and main building blocks of a measurement system.
•Sensor is defined as a component, device or equipment that detects variation of input or
physical phenomenon and responds (or provides) equivalent electrical or it may non electrical
quantity corresponding to it.
•Often a term transducer is also used for sensing element; literally transducer is defined as a
device that transforms one form or type of energy into another.
•Example: a microphone, a photoelectric cell, an automobile horn, or bulb, loudspeakers,
thermometers, position and pressure sensors, and antenna
• Sensor is a transducer but transducer is more than a sensor, if it is used for sensing application
both terms are used interchangeably.
3
 Cont’d- - - -
A transducer is a device that transforms energy from
one form to another, such as speed into electrical signal.
Contain many components. A sensor does not have any
other component except itself.
Thermistors, Mercury thermometers, Motion
sensors, and Pressure switches are common examples of
sensors.
Advantages of using sensors include
1. Mechanical effects such as friction is reduced to the minimum
possibility
2. Very small power is required for controlling the electrical system
3. The electrical output can be amplified to any desired level
4. The electrical output can be detected and recorded remotely at a
distance from the sensing medium and use modern digital computers
4
 Use of Sensors
1.Information gathering: Provide data for display purpose
• This gives an understanding of the current status of the system parameters
• Example: Car speed sensor and speedometer, which records the speed of a car against
time
2. System control: Signal from the sensor is an input to a controller
System under
Controller control
Desires signal Output signal

Sensor

5
 Sensor Requirements
The main function of a sensor is to respond only for the
measurement under specified limits for which it is designed
Sensors should meet the following basic requirements
1. Ruggedness: Capable of withstanding overload
· Some safety arrangements should be provided for overload
protection
2. Linearity: Its input-output characteristics must be linear
3. Repeatability: It should reproduce the same output signal
when the same input is applied again and again
4. High output signal quality
5. High reliability and stability
6. Good dynamic response
7. No hysteresis,
 On other hand classification of sensors is may be
• Primary and secondary sensors
• Active and passive sensors
• Analog and Digital sensors

7
 Cont’d- - - -
Primary and Secondary Sensors
Classification is based on the method of application
Primary sensor
• The input NEQ is directly sensed by the sensor
• The physical phenomenon is converted into another NEQ

Secondary sensor
• The output of the primary sensor is fed to another (secondary) sensor that
converts the NEQ to EQ
NEQ Load NEQ EQ
Strain- gauge
cell

Primary sensor Secondary sensor

Weight Displacement Resistance
(Force F) d R 8
 Classification based on the basis
of energy requirement
Active sensor
Generates voltage/current in response to NEQ variation
Are also called self-generating sensors
Normally, the output of active sensors is in V or mV
Examples :-
Thermocouples: A change in temperature produces output voltage
Photovoltaic cell: Change solar energy into voltage
Hall-effect sensors: magnetic or magnetically encoded information into
electrical signals for processing by electronic circuits
9
 Cont’d- - - -
Passive sensors
Sensors that does not generate voltage or current, but produce
element variation in R, L, or C
Need an additional circuit to produce voltage or current variation
Examples :-
Thermistor: Change in temperature leads to change in resistance
Photo resistor: Change in light leads to change in resistance
Strain gauge: Change in length or position into change in resistance)
LVDT, Mic
10
 Analog and Digital Sensors
Classification based on the nature of the output signal
Analog sensor
· Gives an output that varies continuously as the input changes
· Output can have infinite number of values within the sensor’s range
Digital sensor
· Has an output that varies in discrete steps or pulses or sampled
form and so can have a finite number of values
· E.g., Revolution counter: A cam, attached to a revolving body
whose motion is being measured, opens and closes a switch
· The switching operations are counted by an electronic counter
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 Over view of sensor applications in modern technology
 Sensors are the unsung heroes of modern technology. They act as the
"senses" of our devices and systems, detecting changes in their environment
and converting that information into a signal that a computer can understand.
Their ubiquity and impact are enormous, touching nearly every aspect of our
lives.
Application Areas with Examples:
Consumer Electronics:
* Smartphones: Accelerometers (orientation, motion), gyroscopes
(rotation), magnetometers (compass), proximity sensors (screen off during
calls), ambient light sensors (screen brightness), fingerprint sensors (biometric
authentication), microphones (voice input), cameras (image and video capture).
* Wearable Devices (Smartwatches, Fitness Trackers): Heart rate sensors,
accelerometers, gyroscopes, GPS, skin temperature sensors, blood oxygen
saturation sensors.
 Cont’d- - - -
* Gaming Consoles: Motion sensors (gesture recognition), cameras (player
tracking).
* Smart Home Devices: Temperature sensors, humidity sensors, motion
detectors, light sensors, door/window sensors, smart thermostats.
Automotive:
* Engine Management: Oxygen sensors, temperature sensors, pressure
sensors (manifold absolute pressure), knock sensors.
* Safety Systems: Airbag sensors (accelerometers), antilock braking system
(wheel speed sensors), electronic stability control (yaw rate sensors, steering
angle sensors).
* Advanced Driver-Assistance Systems (ADAS): Radar (distance and speed of
objects), lidar (3D mapping), cameras (lane keeping, traffic sign recognition),
ultrasonic sensors (parking assistance).
* Autonomous Vehicles: All the above, plus more sophisticated sensors and
sensor fusion algorithms. 13
 Cont’d- - - -
Industrial Automation:
* Manufacturing: Position sensors, pressure sensors, temperature sensors,
flow sensors, level sensors, vibration sensors, vision sensors (quality control).
* Robotics: Force/torque sensors, proximity sensors, vision sensors.
* Process Control: pH sensors, conductivity sensors, temperature sensors,
pressure sensors (chemical, pharmaceutical, food processing industries).
Healthcare:
* Medical Devices: Blood glucose sensors (continuous glucose monitors),
pressure sensors (blood pressure monitors), pulse oximeters (oxygen
saturation), ECG sensors (heart monitoring), EEG sensors (brain activity).
* Diagnostic Equipment: MRI, CT Scanners, Ultrasound machines all rely on
complex sensor arrays.
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 Sensor Working Principles
Inductive And Capacitive Sensors
Inductive Sensors
• Detecting Metal with Electromagnetic Magic: Inductive
sensors operate on the principle of electromagnetic
induction.
• They generate an electromagnetic field around a coil when
an alternating current passes through it. When a metallic
object enters this field, it disrupts the field, inducing eddy
currents in the metal.
• This disruption is detected by the sensor, triggering a
response. Inductive sensors are ideal for detecting metallic
objects without direct contact and find applications in
industrial automation, machine monitoring, and material
handling.A

15
 Cont’d- - - -
Capacitive Sensors
• Sensing the Presence of Any Material: Capacitive sensors,
on the other hand, work based on changes in
capacitance.
• They consist of two conductive plates separated by a
dielectric material. When an object enters the sensor's
detection range, it alters the capacitance between the
plates, which is detected by the sensor.
• Unlike inductive sensors, capacitive sensors can detect
both metallic and non-metallic objects, making them
versatile for various applications. They are commonly
used in industries such as food processing, packaging,
and level sensing.
16
 Cont’d- - - -
Photoelectric Sensors
• Photoelectric sensors, also known as photo eyes, are devices that
detect the presence, absence, or distance of objects by using light.
They emit a light beam (usually infrared, visible, or ultraviolet)
from a transmitter to a receiver. When an object interrupts this
light beam, the sensor detects the change and triggers a response,
such as activating a switch or signaling an alarm.
How Do Photoelectric Sensors Work?
Photoelectric sensors operate based on one of three primary
principles:
1)through-beam
2)retro-reflective
3)diffuse

17
 Cont’d- - - -
• Through-beam Sensors: These sensors consist of separate
transmitter and receiver units placed opposite each other. When
an object passes between them and interrupts the light beam, the
receiver detects the absence of light and triggers a response.
• Retro-reflective Sensors: In this configuration, the transmitter and
receiver are housed in a single unit. A reflector is placed opposite
the sensor, reflecting the emitted light back to the receiver. When
an object breaks the beam, the receiver detects the decrease in
reflected light intensity and activates the sensor.
• Diffuse Sensors: These sensors combine the transmitter and
receiver in one unit. They emit a light beam that scatters when it
hits an object. The receiver then detects the scattered light, and
the presence of an object is determined by the intensity of the
received light.

18
 Temperature Sensors
• Temperature sensors are fundamental devices used
across numerous industries to measure temperature
accurately. Let's delve into what temperature sensors
are, how they operate, and the diverse applications
they serve.
• Measure temperature changes using thermistors, RTDs,
or thermocouples. Used in industrial processes, home
appliances, and medical devices.
• Understanding Temperature Sensors
• A temperature sensor is a device specifically designed
to measure temperature, typically by generating an
electrical signal proportional to the temperature being
measured.
• These sensors play a critical role in monitoring and
 Types of Temperature Sensors
• There are several types of temperature sensors, each with its own
working principle and applications:
• Thermocouples: Thermocouples consist of two different metal wires
joined at one end. When there is a temperature difference between
the junction and the other end, it generates a voltage proportional
to the temperature difference. Thermocouples are robust, versatile,
and suitable for high-temperature applications.
• RTDs (Resistance Temperature Detectors): RTDs are temperature
sensors made of pure metals or metal alloys whose resistance
changes predictably with temperature. The most common RTD
material is platinum, known for its stable and linear resistance-
temperature characteristics.
• Thermistors: Thermistors are temperature-sensitive resistors made
from semiconductor materials. Their resistance decreases
exponentially with increasing temperature (NTC thermistors) or
increases exponentially with increasing temperature (PTC
thermistors). Thermistors are highly sensitive and suitable for
precise temperature measurement in a limited temperature range.
 Applications of Temperature Sensors
• Temperature sensors find widespread use across various industries
and applications, including:
• HVAC Systems: Temperature sensors are crucial components in
heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems for
maintaining comfortable indoor temperatures.
• Industrial Processes: They are used in industrial processes such as
manufacturing, chemical processing, and food production to
monitor and control temperature for quality control and process
optimization.
• Medical Devices: Temperature sensors are employed in medical
devices such as thermometers, incubators, and medical imaging
equipment for patient monitoring and diagnosis.
• Automotive: In vehicles, temperature sensors are utilized for
engine temperature monitoring, climate control systems, and cabin
comfort control.

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 Proximity and Position Sensors
Proximity Sensors
• A proximity sensor, often referred to simply as a
proximity detector, is a type of sensor that detects the
presence or absence of an object nearby without any
physical contact.
• These sensors can detect objects through various
means, such as electromagnetic fields, infrared light, or
sound waves, and convert this detection into an
electrical signal.
How Do Proximity Sensors Work?
Proximity sensors operate based on different
principles, including inductive, capacitive, optical, and
ultrasonic:
 Cont’d- - - -
• Capacitive Proximity Sensors: Capable of detecting
both metallic and non-metallic objects, capacitive
sensors use changes in capacitance to identify the
presence of an object. When an object enters the
sensor's detection range, it alters the capacitance,
triggering the sensor's response.
• Optical Proximity Sensors: Utilizing light beams
(infrared or visible), optical sensors detect objects
based on changes in light intensity. When an object
enters the sensor's field of view, it obstructs or
reflects the light, leading to a change in the sensor's
output.
• Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors: These sensors emit
ultrasonic waves and measure the time it takes for the
waves to reflect back from an object. By calculating
 Cont’d- - - -
Types and Applications of Proximity Sensors
Proximity sensors come in various types, each suited for
different applications:
Inductive Sensors: Widely used in industrial automation for
detecting metallic objects in manufacturing processes, such as
machine automation and material handling.
Capacitive Sensors: Ideal for detecting non-metallic objects or
materials in industries like food processing, pharmaceuticals,
and packaging.
Optical Sensors: Commonly employed in robotics, automotive
systems, and consumer electronics for object detection,
proximity sensing, and touchless controls.
Ultrasonic Sensors: Found in automotive parking assistance
systems, industrial presence detection, and liquid level sensing
applications.
 Position Sensor
• Position sensors are critical components used to detect
the position or displacement of objects in various
applications.
• Let's delve into what position sensors are, how they
operate, and the diverse applications they serve.
• Position sensors are devices designed to measure the
position or displacement of an object relative to a
reference point. They provide information about the
location, orientation, or movement of objects in a wide
range of applications, from industrial automation to
automotive systems and aerospace.
Types of Position Sensors
There are several types of position sensors, each with its own
working principle and applications:
25
 Cont’d- - - -
• Potentiometric Sensors: Potentiometric sensors, such as
potentiometers and linear variable differential transformers
(LVDTs), measure position based on changes in resistance or
voltage. They are commonly used in applications requiring
linear or rotational position sensing, such as industrial
machinery and automotive controls.
• Inductive Sensors: Inductive sensors use electromagnetic
induction to detect the presence or position of metallic
objects. They are often employed in proximity sensors,
position switches, and speed sensors in manufacturing and
material handling systems.
• Optical Sensors: Optical sensors utilize light-based
technologies, such as infrared, laser, or fiber optics, to
measure position or displacement. They offer high precision
and are used in applications such as robotics, precision
machining, and optical encoders.
 Applications of Position Sensors
Position sensors find applications across
various industries and scenarios, including:
Robotics and Automation: They are used in robotic
arms, CNC machines, and automated assembly systems
for precise positioning and motion control.
Automotive Systems: Position sensors play a crucial
role in vehicle stability control, throttle position
sensing, and transmission control systems.
Aerospace and Defense: They are employed in aircraft
landing gear, flight control systems, and missile
guidance systems for accurate positioning and
navigation.
Medical Devices: Position sensors are used in medical
imaging equipment, robotic surgery systems, and
 Pressure and Force Sensors
Pressure Sensors
• Measure absolute, gauge, or differential pressure
values using piezo-resistive, capacitive, or strain gauge
principles. Used in HVAC, automotive, and medical
devices.
• Pressure sensors are essential devices used across
various industries to measure the force exerted by
fluids or gases on their surroundings. Let's explore
what pressure sensors are, how they work, and where
they are commonly applied.
• A pressure sensor is a device that measures the force
exerted by a fluid (liquid or gas) on its surrounding
environment. It converts this force into an electrical
signal that can be measured, recorded, or used to
trigger specific actions.
 How Do Pressure Sensors Work?
Basic principle of pressure sensor:
Pressure sensors operate based on various principles, including
piezoresistive, capacitive, piezoelectric, and optical:
Piezoresistive Pressure Sensors: These sensors utilize the change in
resistance of a material (such as silicon) when subjected to pressure.
As pressure increases or decreases, the resistance of the material
changes, which is then converted into an electrical signal
proportional to the pressure applied.
Capacitive Pressure Sensors: Capacitive sensors measure pressure
by detecting changes in capacitance caused by deflections in a
diaphragm or membrane under pressure. The change in capacitance
is converted into an electrical signal that represents the applied
pressure.
Piezoelectric Pressure Sensors: These sensors generate an electrical
charge when subjected to mechanical stress (pressure). The
magnitude of the charge produced is directly proportional to the
applied pressure, allowing for precise pressure measurements.
29
 Cont’d- - - -
 Optical Pressure Sensors: Optical sensors measure pressure
by detecting changes in the optical properties of a material
(such as refractive index or light intensity) under pressure.
These sensors are often used in high-pressure or harsh
environment applications.
Applications of Pressure Sensors
Pressure sensors are utilized in a wide range of applications
across industries:
Automotive Industry: They are used for monitoring tire
pressure, engine performance, and fuel system pressure.
Industrial Automation: Pressure sensors play a crucial role in
monitoring and controlling processes such as fluid and gas
flow, hydraulic systems, and pneumatic systems.
Healthcare: In medical devices, pressure sensors are used for
monitoring blood pressure, respiratory function, and
intracranial pressure. 30
 Optical and Imaging Sensors
Optical Sensors
Optical sensors detect and measure light, converting it into an electrical signal. Light can
include visible light, infrared (IR), ultraviolet (UV), and other wavelengths.
Types of Optical Sensors:
Photodiodes:
• Working Principle: A semiconductor device that converts light into current. When
photons strike the diode, they create electron-hole pairs, which are then separated by the
built-in electric field, resulting in a current flow proportional to the light intensity.
• Applications: Light meters, barcode scanners, optical communication, solar cells, medical
imaging (e.g., pulse oximetry).

Phototransistors:
• Working Principle: Similar to photodiodes, but with amplification. The light-
generated current is amplified by the transistor, resulting in a larger output
signal.
• Applications: Light detection, remote control receivers, object detection.
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 Cont’d- - - -
Photoresistors (Light-Dependent Resistors - LDRs):
• Working Principle: A resistor whose resistance changes
with the intensity of light. Typically made of a
semiconductor material like cadmium sulfide (CdS) or
cadmium selenide (CdSe). More light = lower resistance.
• Applications: Street lighting control, alarm systems,
camera light meters.
Infrared (IR) Sensors:
• Working Principle: Detect infrared radiation. Can be
passive (detecting existing IR radiation) or active (emitting IR
radiation and detecting its reflection). 32
 Types:
 Passive IR (PIR) Sensors: Detect changes in IR radiation (e.g., body heat).
 IR Emitters and Detectors: Used in remote controls, object detection, and
communication.
Applications: Motion detection, security systems, remote controls, thermal
imaging (e.g., night vision).
Fiber Optic Sensors:
• Working Principle: Light is transmitted through an optical fiber. Changes in the fiber
(e.g., strain, temperature) affect the light's properties (intensity, phase, polarization).
• Applications: Structural health monitoring, medical diagnostics, environmental
monitoring.
Spectrometers:
• Working Principle: Separate light into its constituent wavelengths and measure the
intensity of each wavelength.
• Applications: Chemical analysis, material identification, environmental monitoring,
astronomy. 33
 Imaging Sensors
Imaging sensors capture images by converting light into an electrical signal
that can be processed to create a visual representation.

Types of Imaging Sensors:

• Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs):

• Working Principle: Light strikes individual pixels on the CCD chip,
generating electrons. These electrons are then transferred across the chip to
be read out. CCDs offer high image quality, low noise, and high sensitivity.
• Applications: Scientific imaging, high-end cameras, medical imaging (e.g.,
endoscopy), astronomy. Becoming less common in consumer devices due to
power consumption and cost.
• Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (CMOS) Image Sensors: 34
 Imaging Sensors
Imaging sensors capture images by converting light into an electrical
signal that can be processed to create a visual representation.
Types of Imaging Sensors:
Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs):
• Working Principle: Light strikes individual pixels on the CCD
chip, generating electrons. These electrons are then transferred
across the chip to be read out. CCDs offer high image quality, low
noise, and high sensitivity.
• Applications: Scientific imaging, high-end cameras, medical
imaging (e.g., endoscopy), astronomy. Becoming less common in
consumer devices due to power consumption and cost.
35
 Cont’d- - - -
Complementary Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor (CMOS) Image Sensors:
Working Principle: Each pixel on the CMOS chip has its own
amplifier and readout circuitry. CMOS sensors are typically lower in cost
and power consumption than CCDs. Image quality has improved
significantly, and they are now dominant in most applications.
Types:
Active Pixel Sensors (APS): The most common type of CMOS image
sensor.
Applications: Smartphones, digital cameras, webcams, security
cameras, automotive cameras.

36
 Motion and Acceleration Sensors
Accelerometers:
Working Principle: Measure acceleration (change in velocity per unit time). They can
measure acceleration in one, two, or three axes (x, y, and z).
Types:
MEMS Accelerometers (Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems): The most common type.
They consist of a tiny mass suspended by springs. When acceleration occurs, the mass moves,
and this movement is detected by capacitive, piezoelectric, or piezoresistive sensing elements.
Piezoelectric Accelerometers: Use piezoelectric materials that generate an electrical
charge when subjected to stress (acceleration).
Piezoresistive Accelerometers: Use piezoresistive materials whose resistance changes
when subjected to stress.
Capacitive Accelerometers: Use changes in capacitance to measure acceleration.
Applications:
Smartphones and Tablets: Screen orientation, gesture recognition, pedometers (step
counting), freefall detection.
37
 Cont’d- - - -
Gaming Consoles: Motion control, gesture recognition.
Automotive: Airbag deployment, anti-lock braking systems (ABS), electronic
stability control (ESC), rollover detection.
Industrial Automation: Vibration monitoring, machine health monitoring.
Aerospace: Inertial navigation systems, flight control.
Wearable Devices: Fitness tracking, activity monitoring.
Robotics: Navigation, collision avoidance.
Gyroscopes:
Working Principle: Measure angular velocity (rate of rotation) around one or more
axes.
Types:
MEMS Gyroscopes: Use vibrating structures (e.g., tuning forks or vibrating rings) to
detect rotation based on the Coriolis effect. When the gyroscope rotates, the vibrating
structure experiences a Coriolis force, which is proportional to the angular velocity.
 Cont’d- - - -
Fiber Optic Gyroscopes (FOGs): Use the Sagnac effect to measure rotation.
Light beams are sent in opposite directions through a coil of optical fiber.
Rotation causes a difference in the path length of the two beams, which can be
measured to determine the angular velocity.
Ring Laser Gyroscopes (RLGs): Similar to FOGs, but use lasers instead of
optical fibers. RLGs are more accurate but also more expensive.
Applications:
Smartphones and Tablets: Image stabilization, navigation, augmented
reality.
Automotive: Navigation systems, electronic stability control (ESC).

39
 Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs):
Working Principle: Combine accelerometers and gyroscopes (and sometimes
magnetometers) to provide a complete picture of an object's motion and
orientation.
Applications:
Aerospace: Inertial navigation systems (INS) for aircraft, spacecraft, and
missiles.
Robotics: Navigation, stabilization, mapping.
Automotive: Autonomous driving, advanced driver-assistance systems
(ADAS).
Wearable Devices: Activity tracking, motion capture.
Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR): Precise motion tracking.
Drones: Stabilization, navigation.
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Thank you

For your
Attention!!!