SENSORS

BY; VIVEK KUMAR RE6001B40 E6001 REG NO- 11000518

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am heartily thankful to my teacher GREESH KUMAR SINGH whose encouragement, guidance and support from the initial to the final level enabled me to develop an understanding of the subject. My sincere thanks to my parents for their moral support and believe in me in completion of my project. I also owe my sincere thanks to Mr. Vivek Sharma for their review on smart sensors which helped me to understand the future perspective of sensors. Lastly, I offer my regards and blessings to all of those who supported me in any respect during the completion of the project.

VIVEK KUMAR

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Abstract1 2. Introduction.2 3. Ideal Sensor.3 4. Properties of Sensors..3 5. Types of Sensor4 6. Proximity sensors4 7. Environmental Sensors...5 8. Smart Sensors..7 9. References8

ABSTRACT:Sensors were really quite interesting thing to explore as the world moves towards future world with dreams of being surrounded by flying cars no traffic jams ultra modern luxurious houses and tacky nano electronic gadgets 3D gaming holographic projects and much more on tis way to stunned the world. This report covers some basic and fundamentals of the sensors and its application in the electronic world. I have also covered few facts of smart sensors as they are future of these sensors and will exist till the end.

INTRODUCTION
Modernisation and urbanization has helped the electronic industry to come to its par level with everyday futuristic products flowing in the market for ease and comfort ability of the consumers and lead a luxurious life. Man from 18th century only wants everything automated without any man power required. From that time only he had desired for self sufficient and independent machine which can perform multiple tasks with precision and no error or mistakes at all. This desire led man to explore many new designs and sophisticated products which can make their life easy with no stress. In this way when we are living in the 21st century where we surrounded gadgets, humanoids, automated vehicles and transportation system, self sufficient machines, independent industries. For all these automation we require electronic tools and components that are designed to perform specific action according to way they are programmed. This automation gave birth to one of the finest and significant component in the electronic industry named Sensors. As from the name only you can find what this Sensor will do or you may get an idea about one important component that forms the foundation of any automatic machines. Sensors are significantly used in various machines and tools for multiple tasks. From my little description I think you want pretty more about this little interesting component Sensors. Dont stress your brain too much and let me start now start from basics to most advanced theories and application related to this small term Sensor.

Our body also has sensors (also known as sense organs) so as to sense the external stimulus and send the signal to the brain accordingly. The following image illustrates the functioning of the various sensors in the human body:

What is a SENSOR?
As the name says, the sensors are the objects that sense the external stimulus and convert it in a form interpretable to the control system of the body. So now you get an idea the function of any basic sensor and how it can be applied in machine world.

The above figure is quite familiar to all of us and we all know about nervous system and sense organs (10 grade biology). So we may now define SENSOR in engineering terms as: A sensor is a device that measures a physical quantity and converts it into a signal which can be read by an observer or by an instrument. So sensor senses the physical environment and interpret in machine language that can be understood by the circuit and perform the specified task as per the input signal. For any object, machine in physics there we always consider the object to be in ideal state for any derivation and calculation we apply to it. Sensor can only be ideal, when

IDEAL SENSOR
An ideal sensor must obey the following rules:1. It must be sensitive to the measured property.

2. It must be in sensitive to any other property. 3. It must not influence the measured property. 4. The output signal of the sensor must be linearly proportional to the value of the measured property. The conditions are quite realistic and in the practical world the object always deviate from its ideal nature due practical environment and loses it suffers during its operation. So we should take in account the upon the fact that nothing is ideal in the world lets discuss that how a sensor deviates from its ideal character to real character due environmental factors which act upon it.

Different types of SENSOR:

Classification of sensors
Sensors are basically classified into two types 1. Passive sensors 2. Active sensors Passive sensors:-Stimulus (physical property being measured) comes from the environment. Active sensors:-Provide their own signal stimulus and use its interaction with the environment as the property being measured.

Sensor deviations:1. Sensitivity error:-The sensitivity may in practice differ from the value specified, but the sensor is still linear. 2. Sensor Offset:-If the output signal is not zero when the measured property is zero, the sensor has an offset or bias. 3. Nonlinearity:-If the sensitivity is not constant over the range of the sensor, this is called nonlinearity. 4. Drift:-If the output signals slowly changes independent of the measured property. 5. Noise:-Noise is an unwanted random addition to wanted signal. 6. Digitization error:-If the sensor has a digital output, the output is essentially an approximation of the measured property. The approximation error is also called digitization error. Lets now highlight the properties of any sensor because it is important to know about properties before we use it in our world.

On basis of function Sensors can be classified as:1. PROXIMITY 2. ENVIRONMENTAL

Proximity Sensors
A proximity sensor is a sensor which is able to detect the presence of nearby objects without any physical contact. It often emits an electromagnetic or electrostatic field or a beam of electromagnetic radiation and looks for changes in the field or return signal. Proximity sensors are further classified as: Mechanical Proximity Sensors
(also know as TACTILE SWITCHES)

Properties of sensors
1. Range of the sensor-Fixed interval of output. 2. Sensitivity-How change in input is mapped to change in output. 3. Speed-Time interval between reading input and presenting output. 4. Stability-How vulnerable it is to noise.

Have a cylindrical rod at the one side. This rod bangs with the obstacle or wall.

This banging is sensed and motor polarity changes. Ideal for Obstacle Sensor and Wall Follower. Also called tactile switches, they are found useful in switch panels for machines, designing nano scale switches for small handheld gadgets like mobile phones, PDA, laptops, ipods, and music players. They are also useful in automatic doors, robotic movements etc.

Spectral response of these sensors is close to that of the human eye. Si photodiodes have internal visible compensation filter while GaP and GaAsP photodiodes have spectral response approaching to that of the human eye. Generally used in and as Imaging Sensors (as in Google earth).

Ultra-range Sensors
Reflective Proximity Sensors

Infrared Sensors. Visible Sensors. Ultra range Sensors.

The SRF04 Ultra Sonic Ranger Module is a high quality ultra sonic range finder, which can easily be connected to many microcontrollers to measure/detect the presence of obstacles. Using a 5V supply and drawing from 30mA typical to 50mA max. The SRF04 can be connected directly too many micros without the need for a separate power supply. They are found used in high end robotic machines and robots which are designed to perform multiple tasks. One of the best used on military services like UAV (Unmanned Armed Vehicles) in US defence services and remote controlled ground clearance in Israel military department and much more. Well these were proximity sensors type and their wide application in various fields, we move to another type of sensor the next on Environmental Sensor.

Infrared Sensors
A Pyroelectric Infrared sensor (PIR sensor) is an electronic device that measures infrared (IR) light radiating from objects.PIR sensors are often used in the construction of PIR-based motion detectors. Apparent motion is detected when an infrared source with one temperature, such as a human, passes in front of an infrared source with another temperature, such as a wall.

Environmental Sensors
These sensors were designed earlier as part of automation in the electronics science and technology. An environmental sensor is one which detects the physical environment like temperature, humidity, wind, rainfall, heat, etc.

Visible Light Sensors

Environmental Sensors are designed to sense: Light Temperature Sound Pressure Humidity Gases Moisture A thyristor is a solid-state semiconductor device with four layers of alternating N and P-type material. They act as bistable switches, conducting when their gate receives a current pulse, and continue to conduct for as long as they are forward biased (that is, as long as the voltage across the device has not reversed). A thermistor is a temperature-sensing element composed of sintered semiconductor material which exhibits a large change in resistance proportional to a small change in temperature. Thermistors usually have negative temperature coefficients which means the resistance of the thermistor decreases as the temperature increases. They are sued cooling systems in the electronic devices and in fire alarms for activating the warning siren. They are also finding used in digital thermometer and in air conditioner for auto switching in place of thermostat.

The cheapest of these are LDRs meaning Light Dependent Resistor working on principle photoelectric effect as the resistance vary according to intensity of light and find application in barrier and automated doors. A photodiode is a type of photo detector capable of converting light into either current or voltage, depending upon the mode of operation. The Phototransistor is similar in operation to the amplifying Transistor, but it is controlled by light rather than by the electric current of the emitter. It also uses a piece of germanium but only a single collector wire. The tip of this wire rests in a small dimple ground into one side of the germanium disk. At this point the germanium disk is only three thousandths of an inch thick.

These were some of commonly used environmental sensors in many industrial and domestic areas in the world. Sensors play very critical role in electronic world today and in future also.

Anything that is smart can make its own decision. Similarly, a smart sensor has build in decision making capability. The decision making capability is usually provided by the microcontroller that sends a control signal; for example, to stop a process or to relay the information to a central node for monitoring. Smart sensors are useful in a variety of areas ranging from industrial safety, security, and hazard and accident prevention to early detection of unusual mechanical behaviour of machines. Smart Sensors can be deployed in manned as well as unmanned situations. These have found applications in several real-life situations where response time is critical; for example in fire detection. A temperature sensor based smart sensor connected with ZigBee can be used to detect forest fires and take preventive action sooner than otherwise. Smart Sensors based PIR transmit data to remote location, either to a computer on Wi Fi or GPRS mobile phones

SMART SENSORS-Future of
sensors

References cited:Books: Electronics Engineering Saraswati Publications Semiconductors publication by by

Oxford

Electronics For You(August 2010)

Internet: www.wikepedia.com

www.temperatures.com/therm istors.html hyperphysics.phyastr.gsu.edu/hbase/Electronic/ photdet.html