Chapter-1

OVERVIEW OF SENSORS
Introduction to
Sensor
 What Is A Sensor, Different Types Of Sensors
And Their Uses

• In our daily lives, sensors are everywhere, quietly working behind the scenes.
• They’re in our homes, offices, or cars, these clever devices help simplify our
routines.
• Imagine walking into a room and the lights automatically turn on, or your garage
door opening by itself as you pull up the driveway—these are just a few examples
of sensors at work.
• They not only make life easier but can also keep us safe by detecting dangers like
smoke or fire.
• Now, let’s take a moment to think about what sensors are, the different types we
use, and how they fit into various applications.
 What Is A Sensor?

• There are numerous definitions as to what a sensor is, but I would like to define a
Sensor as an input device which provides an output (signal) with respect to a
specific physical quantity (input).
• A Sensor is a device that converts signals from one energy domain to electrical
domain.
• The definition of the Sensor can be better understood if we take an example into
consideration.
• The term “input device” in the definition of a Sensor means that it is part of a
bigger system which provides input to a main control system (like a Processor or
a Microcontroller).
• The simplest example of a sensor is an LDR or a Light Dependent Resistor.
• It is a device, whose resistance varies according to intensity of light it is subjected
to.
• When the light falling on an LDR is more, its resistance becomes very less and
when the light is less, well, the resistance of the LDR becomes very high.
• We can connect this LDR in a voltage divider (along with other resistor) and
check the voltage drop across the LDR.
• This voltage can be calibrated to the amount of light falling on the LDR.
• Hence, a Light Sensor.
Now that we have seen what is a sensor, we will proceed further with the
classification of Sensors.
 Different Types Of Sensors And Their Uses

• The following is a list of different types of sensors that are commonly used in
various applications with examples.
• All these types are used for measuring one of the physical properties like
Temperature, Resistance, Capacitance, Conduction, Heat Transfer etc.
 FOLLOWING POINTS SHOULD
CONSIDER BEFORE SELECTING ANY
SENSOR
Different Types Of Sensors And Their Uses

Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning

Different Types Of Sensors And Their Uses
Different Types Of Sensors And Their Uses
Different Types Of Sensors And Their Uses

Heartbeat Sensor
GPS sensor
Color sensor
Ph sensor
 Temperature Sensor

• One of the most common and most popular sensors is the Temperature Sensor. A
Temperature Sensor, as the name suggests, senses the temperature i.e., it measures
the changes in the temperature.
• There are different types of Temperature Sensors like Temperature Sensor ICs (like
LM35, DS18B20), Thermistors, Thermocouples, RTD (Resistive Temperature
Devices), etc.
• Temperature Sensors can be analog or digital.
• In an Analog Temperature Sensor, the changes in the Temperature correspond to
change in its physical property like resistance or voltage.
 Temperature Sensor

• LM35 is a classic Analog Temperature Sensor.

• Coming to the Digital Temperature Sensor, the output is a discrete digital value
(usually, some numerical data after converting analog value to digital value).
• DS18B20 is a simple Digital Temperature Sensor.
• Temperature Sensors are used everywhere like computers, cell phones,
automobiles, air conditioning systems, industries etc.
Temperature Sensor

DS18B20
Temperature Sensor
 Proximity Sensors

• A proximity sensor is a non-contact type sensor that detects the presence of

an object.
• Proximity sensors can be implemented using different techniques like
optical (like infrared or laser), sound (ultrasonic), magnetic sessor (hall
effect sensor), capacitive, etc.
• some of the applications of proximity sensors are cell phones, cars
(parking), industries (object alignment), ground proximity in aircrafts, etc.
Proximity Sensors
 Accelerometer Sensor
• An accelerometer is a handy sensor that measures acceleration.
• It detects both the direction and the magnitude of acceleration, whether it’s from movement
or the force of gravity.
• These come in different types, such as capacitive or piezoelectric, each suited for specific
applications.
• For example, capacitive accelerometers are commonly found in smartphones to detect
orientation.
• Accelerometers can output data in both analog and digital formats.
• A typical analog accelerometer will change its voltage output in response to movement.
• Digital models, like those in modern electronics, directly provide numerical data that
applications can use.
• You’ll find accelerometers in various devices, from cell phones and tablets to cars, where
they help with stability control and accident detection.
 Infrared Sensor (IR Sensor)
• IR Sensors or Infrared Sensor are light based sensor that are used in various applications like
Proximity and Object Detection.
• IR Sensors are used as proximity sensors in almost all cell phones.
• There are two types of Infrared or IR Sensors:
• Transmissive Type
• Reflective Type.
• In Transmissive Type IR Sensor, the IR Transmitter (usually an IR LED) and the IR Detector
(usually a Photo Diode) are positioned facing each other so that when an object passes
between them, the sensor detects the object.
• The other type of IR Sensor is a Reflective Type IR Sensor.
 Infrared Sensor (IR Sensor)
• In this, the transmitter and the detector are positioned adjacent to each other
facing the object.
• When an object comes in front of the sensor, the infrared light from the IR
Transmitter is reflected from the object and is detected by the IR Receiver and
thus the sensor detects the object.
• Different applications where IR Sensor is implemented are Cell Phones,
Robots, Industrial assembly, automobiles etc.
• A small project, where IR Sensors are used to turn on streetlights: STREET
LIGHTS USING IR SENSORS.
 Pressure Sensor
• A pressure sensor is a tool that measures the force exerted by a fluid or gas.
• It can detect subtle changes in pressure and convert them into an electrical signal.
• There are several types of pressure sensors, including piezoelectric, strain gauge, and
capacitive sensors.
• Each type has its specialty. For instance, piezoelectric sensors are excellent for dynamic
pressure measurements like sound waves.
• Pressure sensors can also be analog or digital.
• In an analog sensor, the output is a continuous electrical signal that varies with the pressure.
• Digital sensors, on the other hand, convert this information into digital data that can be
easily read by computers.
• These are essential in many areas, such as weather forecasting, automotive systems, and
even healthcare, where they monitor blood pressure or respiratory conditions.
 Light Sensor
• Sometimes also known as Photo Sensors.
• Light Sensors are one of the important sensors.
• A simple Light Sensor available today is the Light Dependent Resistor or LDR.
• The property of LDR is that its resistance is inversely proportional to the intensity of the
ambient light i.e., when the intensity of light increases, its resistance decreases and vise-versa.
• By using LDR is a circuit, we can calibrate the changes in its resistance to measure the
intensity of Light. There are two other Light Sensors (or Photo) which are often used in
complex electronic system design. They are Photo Diode and Photo Transistor. All these are
Analog Sensors.
• here are also Digital Light Sensors like BH1750, TSL2561, etc., which can calculate intensity
of light and provide a digital equivalent value.
 Ultrasonic Sensor
• An Ultrasonic Sensor is a non-contact type device that can be used to measure distance as well
as velocity of an object.
• An Ultrasonic Sensor works based on the properties of the sound waves with frequency greater
than that of the human audible range.
• Using the time of flight of the sound wave, an Ultrasonic Sensor can measure the distance of
the object (like SONAR).
• The Doppler Shift property of the sound wave is used to measure the velocity of an object.
 Flow and Level Sensor
• Flow and level sensors are all about keeping an eye on liquids and gases. Whether it’s
measuring how fast something flows or checking how much is left in a tank, these are the go-to
tools.
• You might come across different kinds, like ultrasonic sensors that measure without touching
the liquid, or float sensors that sit right in it and rise or fall with the level.
 Smoke and Gas Sensors
• One of the very useful sensors in safety related applications are Smoke and Gas Sensors.
• Almost all offices and industries are equipped with several smoke detectors, which detect any
smoke (due to fire) and sound an alarm.
• Gas Sensors are more common in laboratories, large scale kitchens and industries.
• They can detect different gases like LPG, Propane, Butane, Methane (CH4), etc.
• Now-a-days, smoke sensors (which often can detect smoke as well gas) are also installed in
most homes as a safety measure.
• The “MQ” series of sensors are a bunch of cheap sensors for detecting CO, CO2, CH4,
Alcohol, Propane, Butane, LPG etc.
 Microphone (Sound Sensor)
• A microphone, often used as a sound sensor, captures sound waves and converts
them into electrical signals.
• This transformation allows devices to analyze or amplify the sound.
• Microphones come in various types, such as dynamic, condenser, and ribbon
microphones, each suited for different applications.
• For example, condenser microphones are popular in studio settings for their
sensitivity and high-fidelity recordings.
• Analog microphones convert sound waves into a continuous electrical signal that
mirrors the sound. Digital microphones, on the other hand, convert sound into
digital data that can be easily processed by computers.
• You’ll find microphones in a wide range of applications, from smartphones and
computers where they help in communication, to professional audio equipment
and hearing aids.
 Alcohol Sensor
• As the name suggests, an Alcohol Sensor detects alcohol. Usually, alcohol sensors
are used in breathalyzer devices, which determine whether a person is drunk or
not. Law enforcement personnel uses breathalyzers to catch drunk-and-drive
culprits.
 PIR Sensor
• A PIR (Passive Infrared) sensor is your go-to gadget for detecting motion.
• It works by picking up infrared light from objects in its viewing area.
• Whenever something warm, like a person or animal, passes by, it notices the change in
infrared radiation and triggers a response.
• These sensors are a key part of security systems, lighting controls, and energy-efficient
devices.
• They’re fantastic for applications where you don’t want to bother with switching things on
and off manually.
• PIR sensors are simple but clever. They usually don’t output tons of data, just enough to tell
you if there’s movement or not.
• This makes them incredibly efficient and reliable for everyday use in homes and businesses.
• You’ll find them in alarm systems, automatic doors, and even in some toys, making them a
common yet invisible part of modern life.
How PIR sensor works? (Passive
Infrared Sensor)

Pyroelectric sensor generates energy

when exposed to heat!
 Fresnel
Lens
Contd.,
• When a living organism (Say Human or a
Horse) comes closer to the sensor (i.e. well
within the coverage), will emit heat as IR
Radiation (This is natural).
• The white cover (shield) is named Fresnel
Lens. Its work is to focus the IR signals on
to the sensor. (Which is the core
component)
 Touch Sensor
• We do not give much importance to touch sensors, but they became an integral part of our
life. Whether you know or not, all touch screen devices (Mobile Phones, Tablets, Laptops,
etc.) have touch sensor in them. Another common application of touch sensor is trackpads in
our laptops.
• Touch Sensors, as the name suggests, detect touch of a finger or a stylus. Often touch sensors
are classified into Resistive and Capacitive type. Almost all modern touch sensors are of
Capacitive Types as they are more accurate and have better signal to noise ratio.
 Color Sensor
• A Color Sensor is a useful device in building color sensing applications in the field of image
processing, color identification, industrial object tracking etc. The TCS3200 is a simple
Color Sensor, which can detect any color and output a square wave proportional to the
wavelength of the detected color.

• If you are interested in building a Color Sensor Application, checkout this

ARDUINO BASED COLOR DETECTOR project.
 Humidity Sensor
• If you see Weather Monitoring Systems, they often provide temperature as well as humidity
data. So, measuring humidity is an important task in many applications and Humidity
Sensors help us in achieving this.
• Often all humidity sensors measure relative humidity (a ratio of water content in air to
maximum potential of air to hold water). Since relative humidity is dependent on
temperature of air, almost all Humidity Sensors can also measure Temperature.
• Humidity Sensors are classified into Capacitive Type, Resistive Type and Thermal
Conductive Type. DHT11 and DHT22 are two of the frequently used Humidity Sensors in
DIY Community (the former is a resistive type while the latter is capacitive type).
• Checkout this tutorial with DHT11 HUMIDITY SENSOR ON ARDUINO.
 Gyroscope Sensor
• A gyroscope sensor measures the orientation and rotation of an object. It helps track how an
object is spinning or turning in different directions.
• Gyroscopes come in various forms, including mechanical, optical, and MEMS (Micro-
Electro-Mechanical Systems) gyroscopes.
• MEMS gyroscopes are the most common today, found in many consumer electronics.
• These sensors can be either analog or digital. Analog gyroscopes produce a continuous signal
that varies with the rotation, while digital gyroscopes convert this information into data that
can be easily read by devices.
• Gyroscope sensors are essential in many devices, from smartphones and gaming controllers
to drones and car navigation systems.
• They help with tasks like screen orientation, motion sensing, and maintaining stability in
flight.
 Piezoelectric Sensor
• A piezoelectric sensor measures changes in pressure, acceleration, temperature, strain, or
force by converting them into an electrical charge.
• It works using the piezoelectric effect, where certain materials generate an electric charge
when mechanically stressed.
• There are various types of piezoelectric sensors, such as those used for measuring vibration,
detecting impact, or monitoring pressure changes.
• These sensors are highly sensitive and can detect even minor changes in the environment.
• Piezoelectric sensors can be found in both analog and digital forms.
• Analog sensors produce a continuous signal that varies with the force applied, while digital
sensors convert this signal into readable data for easy analysis.
• You’ll find piezoelectric sensors in many applications, from musical instruments like electric
guitars to industrial machines, medical devices, and everyday items like microwave ovens,
where they help detect touch or vibration.
 RFID Sensor
• An RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) sensor uses radio waves to read and capture
information stored on a tag attached to an object.
• It helps in tracking and identifying items without needing direct contact or a line of sight.
• RFID sensors come in different types, such as passive RFID, which relies on the reader’s
signal for power, and active RFID, which has its own power source for a stronger signal and
longer range.
• These sensors can be found in both analog and digital formats. Analog RFID sensors
generate a continuous signal, while digital RFID sensors convert this signal into data that can
be easily processed by computers.
• You’ll see RFID sensors in various applications, from inventory management and asset
tracking in warehouses to contactless payment systems and even pet microchipping.
 Chemical Sensor
• A chemical sensor detects and measures the presence or concentration of chemical
substances in an environment.
• It converts this chemical information into an electrical signal for analysis.
• There are various types of chemical sensors, including electrochemical sensors, optical
sensors, and semiconductor sensors.
• Each type is suited for different applications. For example, electrochemical sensors are often
used for detecting gases like carbon monoxide or oxygen.
• Chemical sensors can be analog or digital. Analog sensors produce a continuous signal that
varies with the concentration of the chemical, while digital sensors convert this information
into digital data for easy processing and interpretation.
• You’ll find chemical sensors in a wide range of applications, from environmental monitoring
and industrial processes to medical diagnostics and safety systems in homes and workplaces.
 Gas sensor – MQ2/MQ5
• This sensor can detect H2, LPG, CH4, Alcohol and smoke.
• Due to its high sensitivity and fast response time,
measurements can be taken as quick as desired.
• When any flammable gas flows through this sensor the coil
inside this sensor burns and so, the resistance of the coil
decreases. Hence, the output voltage starts increasing, which
can be detected using a micro controller.
• Note: mq05 is not sensitive to smoke. Hence, mq2 is preferred
for smoke detection applications. Also, mq2 is not very good for
detecting the low-level LPG presence.
Contd.,
• The greater the gas concentration, the greater the
output voltage
• The lower the gas concentration, the lower the output
voltage
• The MQ-2 also has a potentiometer which helps to
adjust the sensitivity to smoke.
• With POT, One can change how sensitive it is to
smoke. This is called calibration.
MQ05 Working
• Most suitable for H2, LPG, Alcohol detection.
• Used in Home / Industry.
• Highly sensitive and can be tuned further as
well. (With POT).
• Analog Sensor – So A0 of the MCU to be used.
(Support for Digital Output is available in few
latest versions)
• The output voltage from the Gas sensor
increases when the concentration of gas
increases.
• Suitable for LPG detection.
Heartbeat Sensor
• This sensor monitor a person's heartbeat
accurately.
• The applications are mostly in the health
care domain.
• This Sensor is inexpensive
• This sensor reads analog data as we must
measure the exact count of heartbeat
instead of measuring whether a person an
alive or not
Gyro sensor
• This sensor is mostly used to find the posture or angle
of rotation of a body.
• These sensors can sense
• 1. Rotational motion
• 2. changes in orientations
• These sensors are fabricated with Inter integrated
circuit (I2C) bus which is the most sophisticated two-
way communication protocol.
• Typical applications of gyro sensors
• Angular velocity sensing
• Angle sensing
• Control mechanism
Gyro sensor
• Typical applications of gyro sensors
• Angular velocity sensing: Sensing the amount of angular
velocity produced.
• Example: checking athletic movement

• Angle sensing:
• Senses angular velocity produced by the sensor’s own movements.
• Angle are detected via integration operations by CPU
• Example: car navigation, game controllers and cellular systems

• Control mechanism:
• senses vibration produced by external factors and transmits vibration
data as electrical signal is to a CPU.
• Used in correcting the orientation or balance of an object
• Example: camera shake correction and vehicle controls.
Global positioning system (gps)
sensor
• (Gps) sensor is Used for acquiring the location
data of the place
• In this sensor gps device with antenna for
communications acts as an input and returns
latitude and longitude as output for tracking
location.
• Examples
• Ola, uber
color sensor
• This sensor used to detect the rgb coordinates of a
particular colour.
• The colour sensor works by shining a white light
on an object and then recording the reflected
colour.
ph sensor
• A pH sensor sensor used to detect the hydrogen
ion (h+) concentration of liquid.
• This sensor is one of the most essential tools that's
typically used for water measurements.
• This type of sensor can measure the amount of
alkalinity and acidity in water and other solutions
DHT 11 (Temperature
and humidity)
• Working voltage 3.3 v-5 v
• Humidity measurement range 20 percent -95
percent, humidity measurement error +-5
percent
• Temperature measurement range 0 -50,
measurement error +-2 degrees
• Same code for analog read, same method!!
• You should read the datasheet to interpret
the output.
Temperature Sensor - interface
Autopilot System in aircrafts.
 Sensor
Classifications
Sensor Classification
• Based on output:
• Analog and Digital

• Based on data types:

• Scalar and Vector
 Classification Of Sensors
• There are several classifications of sensors made by different authors and experts. Some are
very simple, and some are very complex.
• In the first classification of the sensors, they are divided into Active and Passive.
• Active Sensors are those which require an external excitation signal or a power signal.
• Passive Sensors, on the other hand, do not require any external power signal and directly
generates output response.
• The other type of classification is based on the means of detection used in the sensor.
• Some of the means of detection are Electric, Biological, Chemical, Radioactive etc.
 Classification Of Sensors

• The next classification is based on conversion phenomenon i.e., the input and the output.
Some of the common conversion phenomena are Photoelectric, Thermoelectric,
Electrochemical, Electromagnetic, Thermo-optic, etc.
• The final classification of the sensors are Analog and Digital, these produce an analog
output i.e., a continuous output signal (usually voltage but sometimes other quantities
like Resistance etc.) with respect to the quantity being measured.
• Digital, in contrast to Analog, work with discrete or digital data. The data in digital
sensors, which is used for conversion and transmission, is digital in nature.
 Analog Sensor
• The response or output of the sensor is some continuous
function of its input parameter
• example: temperature sensor, LDR, analog pressure sensor and
analog hall effect/magnetic sensor
• A LDR shows continuous variation in its resistance as a function
of intensity of light falling on it.
• Temperature sensor continuously changes in the temperature
are going to be sensed, measured and the output is going to be
an analog signal.
 Digital Sensor
• Responses in binary nature.

• Discrete digital values are given as outputs by these digital

sensors.

• Designs to overcome the disadvantages of analog sensors. along

with the analog sensor it also comprises of extra electronics for
bit conversion.

• example: passive infrared (pir) sensor and digital temperature

sensor (ds1620).
 Scalar Sensor
• Detects the input parameter only based on its magnitude.
• The response of the sensor is a function of magnitude of the
input parameter.
• Not affected by the direction of the input parameter.
• example: temperature, gas, strain, color, and smoke sensors.
• Temperature sensor is a scalar sensor because irrespective of
which orientation you put, temperature sensor or in which
direction you are taking it, it is going to give you the magnitude
value. only the changes in the magnitude of the temperature.
 Vector Sensor
• The response of the sensor depends not only on the magnitude,
but also on the direction
• example : accelerometer, gyroscope, magnetic field, and motion
detector sensors, camera sensor
• The camera sensor or the accelerometer sensor whose values are
dependent on the orientation on the direction and so on direction
in which the sensor is being put and the weight is measuring.
 Actuators
• Actuators are basically the muscle behind a mechatronics system
that accepts a control command (mostly in the form of an electrical
signal) and produces a change in the physical system by
generating force, motion, heat, flow, etc.

• Actuators are the outputs for the device—the motors, lights, and so
on, which let your device do something to the outside world.

• Actuator is a device that coverts energy into motion or mechanical

energy. therefore, an actuator is a specific type of a transducer.
 Contd..
• Electrical Actuators:
• Electric motors
• DC servo motors
• AC motors
• Stepper motors
• Hydraulic Actuators:
• Use hydraulic fluid to amplify the controller command signal (crane
drives, self-driven cranes, wheel motors in military vehicles so
on…...)
• Pneumatic Actuators:
• Use compressed air as the driving force (including engine control,
transmission control, and braking systems)
 DC
Servomot
ors
Stepper
Motors
 Sensor characteristics
 An ideal sensor should possess a combination of desirable characteristics to
provide accurate, reliable, and useful measurements for a robot's specific
application
 Key characteristics include high sensitivity, wide range and field of view,
high resolution and precision, good accuracy and repeatability, linear
response, sufficient bandwidth and sampling rate, and low noise and
interference
 In practice, real sensors often involve trade-offs between these
characteristics, and the choice of sensor depends on the specific
requirements and constraints of the robot's task and environment
 Sensor characteristics
Static characteristics:
The properties of the system after all transient effects have settled
to their final or steady state:
Accuracy
Discrimination (Resolution)
Precision
Errors
 Drift
Sensitivity
 Linearity
Hysteresis (backslash)
 Sensor characteristics
Dynamic characteristics:
The properties of the system transient response to an input:
Zero order systems
First order systems
Second order systems
 Dynamic characteristics
• The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which are
changing rapidly with time is called dynamic
characteristics.

various dynamic characteristics are:

• Speed of response
• Measuring lag
• Fidelity
• Dynamic error
87
 Accuracy

• It is the degree of closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true
value of the quantity to be measured --- ability of an instrument to show the exact
reading
• Higher the accuracy, lower the error

• error = true value - measured value

• The accuracy can be expressed in following ways:
1. Point accuracy: This is the accuracy of instrument specified only at one point of scale. It
does not give any information about the accuracy at any other point on the scale.
2. Accuracy as percentage of scale range: When an instrument as uniform scale, its
accuracy may be expressed in terms of scale range.
3. Accuracy as percentage of true value: The best way to conceive the idea of accuracy is
to specify it in terms of the true value of the quantity being measured.

89
 Accuracy

• Absolute error or static error (e) = Yn – Xn where Yn : true value and

Xn: measured value
• %error or relative error= (absolute value / true value) *100 = (e/Yn) * 100
= (Yn – Xn)/Yn *100
• Accuracy A = 1-
• %accuracy a = 100% - % error = A * 100%

90
 Problem on finding accuracy

Q1) The expected value of the voltage across a resistor is 80V. However, the measurement gives a
value of 79V. Calculate (a) absolute error (b) % error (c) relative accuracy (d) % accuracy
• Ans) Absolute error (e) = Yn – Xn = 80-79 = 1V
• %error = (e/Yn) * 100 = 1/ 80 *100 = 1.25%
• Relative Accuracy A = 1- = 1- = 0.9875
• %accuracy a = 100% - % error = A * 100% = 98.75%

91
 Precision

• It is the measure of reproducibility i.e., given a fixed value of a

quantity, precision is a measure of the degree of agreement
within a group of measurements.
• Capability of an instrument to show the same reading when
used each time.
• Precision can be expressed mathematically as
P= 1-
where Xn = value of nth measurement and = average set of
measurement

93
 Problem on finding precision

Q2) The below table shows the set of

10 measurements that were recorded measurement
number
measurement
value Xn
in the laboratory. Calculate the 1 98
precision of the 6th measurement. 2 101
3 102
4 97
= 1005/10 = 5 101
100.5 6 100
7 103
8 98
Precision of 6 measurement = 1 -
th
9 106
=1- 10 99

= 0.995
94
 Sensitivity of sensor
measurements
 Sensitivity refers to the minimum change in the
measured quantity that a sensor can detect, determining
its ability to capture small variations in the environment
 High sensitivity allows a sensor to respond to subtle
changes, which is important for tasks requiring precise
measurements or detection of small features
 However, overly sensitive sensors may be more
susceptible to noise and interference, requiring careful
calibration and signal processing techniques
 Sensitivity

• The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to which the instrument
responds. It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the output of an instrument to a change in
the value of the quantity to be measured.

• Mathematically it is expressed as,

• Inverse sensitivity or deflection factor = 1/ sensitivity

Qn) An ammeter requires a change of 2A in its coil to produce a change in deflection of pointer
by 5mm. Determine sensitivity and deflection factor
Ans)

= 5mm/ 2A = 2.5 mm/A

deflection factor = 1/ sensitivity = 1/ (2.5mm/A) = 0.4A/mm
98
 Resolution and precision
 Resolution is the smallest change in the measured quantity
that a sensor can distinguish, determining the level of detail in
the sensor's output
 Precision refers to the degree of reproducibility or consistency
in a sensor's measurements when measuring the same
quantity under the same conditions
 High resolution and precision are essential for applications
requiring detailed and reliable measurements, such as object
recognition, localization, and fine manipulation tasks
 Resolution

• Resolution: It is the smallest increment of quantity being measured which can

be detected with certainty by an instrument.
• So, if a nonzero input quantity is slowly increased, output reading will not
increase until some minimum change in the input takes place. This minimum
change which causes the change in the output is called resolution.
• The resolution of an instrument is also referred to as discrimination of the
instrument. The resolution can affect the accuracy of the measurement.

100
 Problems on Resolution

• A 0- 100V voltmeter has 200 scale divisions which can be read to ½ division.
Determine the resolution of the meter.
Ans) 1 scale division = FSD/ no. of divisions = 100/200 = 0.5V
Resolution = ½ x scale division = ½ x 0.5 = 0.25

101
 Calibration
•There are many sensors available but to get the best possible sensor with
optimal value of accuracy, the sensor needs to be calibrated in the device
where it will be used.
•It is an adjustment or set of adjustments made on a sensor or device to
make that device function accurately and error free.
•For instance, we must measure the pressure with an accuracy ± 5 pa, and a
given sensor is rated with an accuracy of ± 10 pa.
•Can we use this pressure sensor? Yes, we can, but the given sensor needs to
be calibrated, and we must find out its initial transfer function during
calibration.
•In the calibration method, we must find out its variables.
•These variables describe the complete transfer function and should be
identified before calibration.
•Calibration of linear devices is calculated by equation (1.1) and variable 'a'
 Calibration
•To get constant values in the equation with good accuracy, the linear transfer
function is calculated as v=a+b(p).
•To find constants 'a' and 'b', a sensor can be exposed with two pressure values
(p1 and p2) with respect to their corresponding output voltages (v1 and v2)

then we get v1=a+b(p1) and v2=a+b(p2),

and the constants are calculated as

•b=v1−v2p1−p2 and a=v1−bp1
•and pressure of calibration can be computed as
•p=v−ab
•The calibration error is a type of inaccuracy which is accepted by manufacturers
during the time when the devices or sensors are calibrated in the factory.
•This obtained error is not uniform and can change during the process of
Thank You!