2 Things in IoT

A Sensor is an electronic device that is used to measure some sort of physical parameters
(e.g. temperature, pressure, light intensity, etc). The output of an electronic sensor is an
electrical signal that is either analog or digital.
Each sensor has a different working principle depending on the physical construction and the
physical parameter it’s actually measuring. The common thing between all sensors is they all
convert a physical parameter (such as temperature) to an electric signal. But each one has a
specific transfer function (for analog) or a specific communication bus as SPI, UART, etc (for
digital). These specific details are demonstrated completely in the datasheet for each sensor with
the typical connection diagram and how to interface it.
Classification of the sensors, they are divided in to Active and Passive. Active Sensors are those
which require an external excitation signal or a power signal.
Passive Sensors, on the other hand, do not require any external power signal and directly
generates output response.
The other type of classification is based on the means of detection used in the sensor. Some of
the means of detection are Electric, Biological, Chemical, Radioactive etc.
The next classification is based on conversion phenomenon i.e., the input and the output. Some
of the common conversion phenomena are Photoelectric, Thermoelectric, Electrochemical,
Electromagnetic, Thermooptic, etc.
The final classification of the sensors are Analog and Digital Sensors. Analog Sensors produce
an analog output i.e., a continuous output signal (usually voltage but sometimes other quantities
like Resistance etc.) with respect to the quantity being measured.
Digital Sensors, in contrast to Analog Sensors, work with discrete or digital data. The data in
digital sensors, which is used for conversion and transmission, is digital in nature.

Different Types of Sensors

The following is a list of different types of sensors that are commonly used in various
applications. All these sensors are used for measuring one of the physical properties like
Temperature, Resistance, Capacitance, Conduction, Heat Transfer etc.
1. Temperature Sensor
2. Proximity Sensor
3. Accelerometer
4. IR Sensor (Infrared Sensor)
5. Pressure Sensor
6. Light Sensor
7. Ultrasonic Sensor
8. Smoke, Gas and Alcohol Sensor
9. Touch Sensor
10. Color Sensor
 11. Humidity Sensor
12. Position Sensor
13. Magnetic Sensor (Hall Effect Sensor)
14. Microphone (Sound Sensor)
15. Tilt Sensor
16. Flow and Level Sensor
17. PIR Sensor
18. Touch Sensor
19. Strain and Weight Sensor

Temperature Sensor
One of the most common and most popular sensors is the Temperature Sensor. A Temperature
Sensor, as the name suggests, senses the temperature i.e., it measures the changes in the
temperature.

There are different types of Temperature Sensors like Temperature Sensor ICs (like LM35,
DS18B20), Thermistors, Thermocouples, RTD (Resistive Temperature Devices), etc.
Temperature Sensors can be analog or digital. In an Analog Temperature Sensor, the changes in
the Temperature correspond to change in its physical property like resistance or voltage. LM35 is
a classic Analog Temperature Sensor.
Coming to the Digital Temperature Sensor, the output is a discrete digital value (usually, some
numerical data after converting analog value to digital value). DS18B20 is a simple Digital
Temperature Sensor.
Temperature Sensors are used everywhere like computers, mobile phones, automobiles, air
conditioning systems, industries etc.
A simple project using LM35 (Celsius Scale Temperature Sensor) is implemented in this project.

Proximity Sensors
A Proximity Sensor is a non-contact type sensor that detects the presence of an object. Proximity
Sensors can be implemented using different techniques like Optical (like Infrared or Laser),
Sound (Ultrasonic), Magnetic (Hall Effect), Capacitive, etc.
Some of the applications of Proximity Sensors are Mobile Phones, Cars (Parking Sensors),
industries (object alignment), Ground Proximity in Aircrafts, etc.
Proximity Sensor in Reverse Parking is implemented in this Project

Infrared Sensor (IR Sensor)

IR Sensors or Infrared Sensor are light based sensor that are used in various applications like
Proximity and Object Detection. IR Sensors are used as proximity sensors in almost all mobile
phones.

There are two types of Infrared or IR Sensors: Transmissive Type and Reflective Type. In
Transmissive Type IR Sensor, the IR Transmitter (usually an IR LED) and the IR Detector
(usually a Photo Diode) are positioned facing each other so that when an object passes between
them, the sensor detects the object.
The other type of IR Sensor is a Reflective Type IR Sensor. In this, the transmitter and the
detector are positioned adjacent to each other facing the object. When an object comes in front of
the sensor, the infrared light from the IR Transmitter is reflected from the object and is detected
by the IR Receiver and thus the sensor detects the object.
Different applications where IR Sensor is implemented are Mobile Phones, Robots, Industrial
assembly, automobiles etc.
A small project, where IR Sensors are used to turn on street lights

Ultrasonic Sensor
An Ultrasonic Sensor is a non-contact type device that can be used to measure distance as well as
velocity of an object. An Ultrasonic Sensor works based on the properties of the sound waves
with frequency greater than that of the human audible range.

Using the time of flight of the sound wave, an Ultrasonic Sensor can measure the distance of the
object (similar to SONAR). The Doppler Shift property of the sound wave is used to measure the
velocity of an object.
Arduino based Range Finder is a simple project using Ultrasonic Sensor

Light Sensor
Sometimes also known as Photo Sensors, Light Sensors are one of the important sensors. A
simple Light Sensor available today is the Light Dependent Resistor or LDR. The property of
LDR is that its resistance is inversely proportional to the intensity of the ambient light i.e., when
the intensity of light increases, its resistance decreases and vise-versa.
By using LDR is a circuit, we can calibrate the changes in its resistance to measure the intensity
of Light. There are two other Light Sensors (or Photo Sensors) which are often used in complex
electronic system design. They are Photo Diode and Photo Transistor. All these are Analog
Sensors.

There are also Digital Light Sensors like BH1750, TSL2561, etc., which can calculate intensity
of light and provide a digital equivalent value.

Smoke and Gas Sensors

One of the very useful sensors in safety related applications are Smoke and Gas Sensors. Almost
all offices and industries are equipped with several smoke detectors, which detect any smoke
(due to fire) and sound an alarm.
Gas Sensors are more common in laboratories, large scale kitchens and industries. They can
detect different gases like LPG, Propane, Butane, Methane (CH4), etc.

Now-a-days, smoke sensors (which often can detect smoke as well gas) are also installed in most
homes as a safety measure.
The “MQ” series of sensors are a bunch of cheap sensors for detecting CO, CO2, CH4, Alcohol,
Propane, Butane, LPG etc. You can use these sensors to build your own Smoke Sensor
Application.

Alcohol Sensor
As the name suggests, an Alcohol Sensor detects alcohol. Usually, alcohol sensors are used in
breathalyzer devices, which determine whether a person is drunk or not. Law enforcement
personnel uses breathalyzers to catch drunk-and-drive culprits.
Touch Sensor
We do not give much importance to touch sensors but they became an integral part of our life.
Whether you know or not, all touch screen devices (Mobile Phones, Tablets, Laptops, etc.) have
touch sensors in them. Another common application of touch sensor is trackpads in our laptops.
Touch Sensors, as the name suggests, detect touch of a finger or a stylus. Often touch sensors are
classified into Resistive and Capacitive type. Almost all modern touch sensors are of Capacitive
Types as they are more accurate and have better signal to noise ratio.

If you want to build an application with Touch Sensor, then there are low-cost modules available
and using those touch sensors, you can build TOUCH DIMMER SWITCH CIRCUIT USING
ARDUINO.

Color Sensor
A Color Sensor is an useful device in building color sensing applications in the field of image
processing, color identification, industrial object tracking etc. The TCS3200 is a simple Color
Sensor, which can detect any color and output a square wave proportional to the wavelength of
the detected color.

Humidity Sensor
If you see Weather Monitoring Systems, they often provide temperature as well as humidity data.
So, measuring humidity is an important task in many applications and Humidity Sensors help us
in achieving this.
Often all humidity sensors measure relative humidity (a ratio of water content in air to maximum
potential of air to hold water). Since relative humidity is dependent on temperature of air, almost
all Humidity Sensors can also measure Temperature.
Humidity Sensors are classified into Capacitive Type, Resistive Type and Thermal Conductive
Type. DHT11 and DHT22 are two of the frequently used Humidity Sensors in DIY Community
(the former is a resistive type while the latter is capacitive type).
Checkout this tutorial with DHT11 HUMIDITY SENSOR ON ARDUINO.

Tilt Sensor
Often used to detect inclination or orientation, Tilt Sensors are one of the simplest and
inexpensive sensors out there. Previously, tilt sensors are made up of Mercury (and hence they
are sometimes called as Mercury Switches) but most modern tilt sensors contain a roller ball.

A simple Arduino based title switch using tilt sensor

Thermocouple – They are made of two wires (each of different homogeneous alloy or metal)
which form a measuring junction by joining at one end. This measuring junction is open to the
elements being measured. The other end of the wire is terminated to a measuring device where a
reference junction is formed. The current flows through the circuit since the temperature of the
two junctions are different. The resulted milli-voltage is measured to determine the temperature
at the junction. The diagram of thermocouple is shown below.

Transducer
A transducer is an electrical device that is used to convert one form of energy into another form.
In general, these devices deal with different types of energies such as mechanical, electrical
energy, light energy, chemical energy, thermal energy, acoustic energy, electromagnetic energy,
and so on.
For instance, consider a mic we use in daily life in telephones, mobile phones, that converts the
sound into electrical signals and then amplifies it into the preferred range. Then, alters the
electrical signals into audio signals at the o/p of the loudspeaker.
Transducer Types and Its Applications
There are a variety of transducer types like pressure transducer, piezoelectric transducer,
ultrasonic transducer, temperature transducer, and so on.

Classification of Transducers
There are several ways in which you can classify transducers that include but not limited to the
role of the transducer, structure of the transducer or the phenomena of their working.
It is easy to classify transducers as Input Transducers or Output Transducers, if they are treated
as simple signal converters. Input Transducers measure non-electrical quantities and convert
them into electrical quantities.
Output Transducers on the other hand, work in the opposite way i.e. their input signals are
electrical and their output signals are non-electrical or physical like force, displacement, torque,
pressure etc.
Depending on the principle of operation, transducers can also be classified into mechanical,
thermal, electrical, etc.
Let us see the classification of transducers based on the following three ways:
 Physical Effect
 Physical Quantity
 Source of Energy

1. Classification based on Physical Effect

The first classification of Transducers is based on the physical effect engaged to convert the
physical quantity to electrical quantity. An example, is the change in resistance (physical
quantity) of a copper element in proportion to the change in temperature.
The following physical effects are generally used:
 Variation in Resistance
 Variation in Inductance
 Variation in Capacitance
 Hall Effect
 Piezoelectric Effect

2. Classification based on Physical Quantity

The second classification of Transducers is based on the physical quantity converted i.e. the end
use of the transducer after the conversion. For example, a Pressure Transducer is a transducer
that converts pressure into electrical signal.
Following is small list of transducers classified based on the physical quantity and corresponding
examples
 Temperature Transducer – Thermocouple
 Pressure Transducer – Bourdon Gauge
 Displacement Transducer – LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer)
 Level Transducer – Torque Tube
 Flow Transducer – Flow Meter
 Force Transducer – Dynamometer
 Acceleration Transducer – accelerometer

3. Classification based on Source of Energy

Transducers are also classified based on the source of energy. Under this category, there usually
two types of transducers:
 Active Transducers
  Passive Transducers

Active Transducers
In Active Transducers, the energy from the input is used as a control signal in the process of
transferring energy from power supply to proportional output.

For example, a Strain Gauge is an Active Transducer, in which the strain is converted into
resistance. But since the energy from the strained element is very small, the energy for the output
is provided by an external power supply.

Passive Transducers
In Passive Transducers, the energy from the input is directly converted into the output. For
example, a Thermocouple is a passive transducer, where the heat energy, which is absorbed from
input, is converted into electrical signals (voltage).

Characteristics of Transducers
The performance characteristics of a Transducer are key in selecting the best suitable transducer
for a particular design. So, it is very important to know the characteristics of transducers for
proper selection.
Performance characteristics of transducers can be further classified into two types:
 Static Characteristics
 Dynamic Characteristics

1. Static Characteristics
The static characteristics of a transducer is a set of performance criteria that are established
through static calibration i.e. description of the quality of measurement by essentially
maintaining the measured quantities as constant values of varying very slowly.
Following is a list of some of the important static characteristics of transducers.
 Sensitivity
 Linearity
 Resolution
 Precision (Accuracy)
 Span and Range
 Threshold
 Drift
  Stability
 Responsiveness
 Repeatability
 Input Impedance and Output Impedance

2. Dynamic Characteristics
The dynamic characteristics of transducers relate to its performance when the measured quantity
is a function of time i.e. it varies rapidly with respect to time.
While static characteristics relate to the performance of a transducer when the measured quantity
is essentially constant, the dynamic characteristics relate to dynamic inputs, which means that
they are dependent on its own parameters as well as the nature of the input signal.
The following are some dynamic characteristics that may be considered in selection of a
transducer.
 Dynamic Error
 Fidelity
 Speed of Response
 Bandwidth
Overall, both static and dynamic characteristics of a Transducer determine its performance and
indicate how effectively it can accept desired input signals and reject unwanted inputs.

Quantity to be Mechanical Type of Output Signal

Measured Transducer (Mechanical)
Bimetallic Strip Displacement and Force
Temperature
Fluid Expansion Displacement and Force
Ring Balance
Displacement
Manometer
Pressure Metallic Diaphragms Displacement and Strain
Capsules and Bellows Displacement
Membranes Displacement
Spring Balance Displacement and Strain
Force Hydraulic Load Cell Pressure
Column Load Cell Displacement and Strain
Dynamometer Force and Strain
Gyroscope Displacement
Torque
Spiral Springs Displacement
Torsion Bar Displacement and Strain
Flow Obstruction
Strain and Pressure
Flow Rate Element
Pitot Tube Pressure
Manometer Displacement
Liquid Level
Float Elements Displacement, Force and Strain
 Different Types of Transducers
Basically, the two different types of Transducers are Mechanical Transducers and Electrical
Transducers. Mechanical Transducers are those which responds to changes in physical quantities
or condition with mechanical quantity. If the physical quantity is converted to an electrical
quantity, then the transducers are Electrical Transducers.

1. Mechanical Transducers
As mentioned earlier, mechanical transducers are a set of primary sensing elements that respond
to changes in a physical quantity with a mechanical output. As an example, a Bimetallic Strip is
a mechanical Transducer, which reacts to changes in temperature and responds with mechanical
displacement. The mechanical transducers are differentiated from electrical transducers as their
output signals are mechanical.
The output mechanical quantity can be anything like displacement, force (or torque), pressure
and strain. For any measuring quantity, there can be both mechanical and electrical transducers.
For example, we have seen Bimetallic Strip, which is a mechanical transducer and is used to
react to changes in temperature. In contrast, a Resistance Thermometer, also reacts to changes in
temperature, but the response is a change in resistance of the element. Hence, it is an electrical
transducer.

2. Electrical Transducers
As mentioned earlier, electrical transducers are those that respond to changes in physical
quantities with electrical outputs. Electrical Transducers are further divided into Passive
Electrical Transducers and Active Electrical Transducers.
The following table lists out a few electrical transducers (both passive and active).

Resistance Thermometers
Resistive Displacement Transducers
Resistive Transducers Resistive Strain Transducers
Resistive Pressure Transducers
Resistive Moisture Transducers
Passive Electrical Capacitive Moisture Transducers
Transducers Capacitive Transducers Capacitive Displacement Transducers
Capacitive Thickness Transducers
Inductive Displacement Transducers
Inductive Thickness Transducers
Inductive Transducers
Eddy-Current Inductive Transducers
Moving core Inductive Transducers
Active Electrical Photoelectric Transducers Photoconductive Transducers
Transducers Photoemissive Transducers
Photovoltaic Force Transducers
 Piezoelectric Strain Transducers
Piezoelectric Acceleration Transducers
Piezoelectric Transducers Piezoelectric Pressure Transducers
Piezoelectric Torque Transducers
Piezoelectric Force Transducers
Magnetostrictive Acceleration Transducers
Magnetostrictive
Magnetostrictive Force Transducers
Transducers
Magnetostrictive Torsion Transducers
Tachometers
Electromechanical Electrodynamic Pressure Transducers
Transducers Electrodynamic Vibration Transducers
Electromagnetic Flowmeters
Ionization Vacuum Gauge
Ionization Displacement Transducers
Nuclear Radiation Transducers
Ionization Transducers
Radioactive Vacuum Gauge
Radioactive Level Gauge
Radioactive Thickness Gauge
Electrochemical
Transducers
Hall-Effect Transducers
Thermoelectric Transducers

Applications of Transducers

1. Electromagnetic
 Antennas
 Hall-Effect Sensors
 Disk Read and Write Heads
 Magnetic Cartridges

2. Electromechanical
 Accelerometers
 Pressure Sensors
 Galvanometers
 LVDT
 Load Cells
  Potentiometers
 MEMS
 Linear and Rotary Motors
 Air Flow Sensors

3. Electrochemical
 Hydrogen Sensors
 Oxygen Sensors
 pH Meters

5. Electroacoustic
 Speakers (Loudspeakers, earphones)
 Microphones
 Ultrasonic Transceivers
 Piezoelectric Crystals
 Sonar
 Tactile Transducers

6. Photoelectric
 LED
 Photodiodes
 Photovoltaic Cells
 Laser Diodes
 Photoresistors (LDR)
 Phototransistors
 Incandescent and Fluorescent Lamps

7. Thermoelectric
 Thermistors
 Thermocouples
 RTD (Resistance Temperature Detectors)

8. Radioacoustic
 Radio Transmitters and Receivers
 G-M Tube (Geiger-Muller Tube)

Transducer Types and Its Applications

There are a variety of transducer types like pressure transducer, piezoelectric transducer,
ultrasonic transducer, temperature transducer, and so on.
Ultrasonic Transducer
The main function of the ultrasound transducer is to convert electrical signals to ultrasound
waves. This transducer can also be called capacitive or piezoelectric transducers.
Application of Ultrasonic Transducer
This transducer can be used to measure the distance of the sound based on reflection.
Temperature Transducer
A temperature transducer is an electrical device that is used to convert the temperature of a
device into another quantity like electrical energy or pressure or mechanical energy, then the
quantity will be sent to the control device for controlling the temperature of the device.
Application of Temperature Transducer
A temperature transducer is used to measure the temperature of the air such that to control the
temperature of several control systems like air-conditioning, heating, ventilation, and so on.

Piezoelectric Transducer
A piezoelectric transducer is a special kind of sensor, and the main function of this transducer is
to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. In the same way, electrical energy can be
transformed into mechanical energy.

Piezoelectric Transducer Applications

 This transducer is mainly used to detect the stick drummer’s impact on electronic drum pads.
And also used to detect the movement of the muscle, which can be named
acceleromyography.
 The load of the engine can be determined by calculating diverse absolute pressure, which can
be done by using these transducers as the MAP sensor in fuel injection systems.
 This sensor can be used as a knock sensor in automotive engine management systems for
noticing the knock of the engine.
Pressure Transducer
A pressure transducer is a special kind of sensor that alters the pressure forced into electrical
signals. These transducers are also called pressure indicators, manometers, piezometers,
transmitters, and pressure sensors.
Application of Pressure Transducer
The pressure transducer is used to measure the pressure of a specific quantity like gas or liquid
by changing the pressure into electrical energy. The different kinds of these transducers like an
amplified voltage transducer, strain-gage base pressure transducer, millivolt (mv) pressure
transducer, 4-20mA pressure transducer, and pressure transducer.

Actuator
An actuator is a machine component that is used for moving and controlling a system or
mechanism. To perform its operation, An actuator needs a control signal and a power source.
They are widely used in valves, gates, conveyors, automatic control systems, etc. A valve
actuator is a pneumatic, hydraulic, or electrically powered device that supplies force and motion
for opening and closing a valve. The actuators can only open and close the valve or enable
intermediate positioning. Some valve actuators contain switches or other means of remotely
displaying the valve position. They are available in a variety of sizes.

Classification of actuators based on the motion

The most apparent and basic classification of actuators is based on the type of motion that it
produces.

Rotary Actuator

The actuators that can provide a circular motion at their output can be classified under the
category of rotary actuators. Rotary actuators produce the rotating motion to operate valves like
ball, butterfly and plug valves.

Linear Actuators

The actuators that can provide motion in a straight line at their output can be classified under the
category of linear actuators. Linear actuators converts hydraulic, pneumatic or electric energy
into linear motion to operate valves like gate, globe, pinch, etc.
Categorizing actuators is quite complex, given their variety, so this is by no means an exhaustive
list of classification schemes. The most commonly used classification is based on energy type.
Actuators classified by energy type and some examples for each type. Again, this is not a
complete list, but it does provide a reasonably comprehensive overview that highlights the
diversity of function and design of actuators.
 • Hydraulic actuators
• The hydraulic actuators are used in robots handling heavy loads. These actuators can
produce very high force if we compared them with other actuators. These actuators are
deployed where higher speed, accuracy, and stability are required.

Pneumatic actuators
As you have seen in hydraulic actuators, they use a hydraulic fluid in the cylinder in order to
move the piston. The pressure applied to the fluid will move the piston. But in pneumatic
actuators, instead of hydraulic fluid, compressed air is moving the piston.

• Smart objects
Smart objects are any physical objects that contain embedded technology to sense and/or interact
with their environment in a meaningful way by being interconnected and enabling
communication among themselves or an external agent.
A smart object, as described is a device that has, at a minimum, the following four defining
characteristics
Processing unit: A smart object has some type of processing unit for acquiring data, processing
and analyzing sensing information received by the sensor(s), coordinating control signals to any
actuators, and controlling a variety of functions on the smart object, including the
communication and power systems. The specific type of processing unit that is used can vary
greatly, depending on the specific processing needs of different applications. The most common
is a microcontroller because of its small form factor, flexibility, programming simplicity,
ubiquity, low power consumption, and low cost.
Sensor(s) and/or actuator(s): A smart object is capable of interacting with the physical world
through sensors and actuators. As described in the previous sections, a sensor learns and
measures its environment, whereas an actuator is able to produce some change in the physical
world. A smart object does not need to contain both sensors and actuators. In fact, a smart object
can contain one or multiple sensors and/or actuators, depending upon the application.
Communication device: The communication unit is responsible for connecting a smart object
with other smart objects and the outside world (via the network). Communication devices for
smart objects can be either wired or wireless. Overwhelmingly, in IoT networks smart objects are
wirelessly interconnected for a number of reasons, including cost, limited infrastructure
availability, and ease of deployment. There are myriad different communication protocols for
smart objects. In fact, much of this book is dedicated to how smart objects communicate within
an IoT network
Power source: Smart objects have components that need to be powered. Interestingly, the most
significant power consumption usually comes from the communication unit of a smart object. As
with the other three smart object building blocks, the power requirements also vary greatly from
application to application. Typically, smart objects are limited in power, are deployed for a very
long time, and are not easily accessible. This combination, especially when the smart object
relies on battery power, implies that power efficiency, judicious power management, sleep
modes, ultra-low power consumption hardware, and so on are critical design elements. For long-
term deployments where smart objects are, for all practical purposes, inaccessible, power is
commonly obtained from scavenger sources (solar, piezoelectric, and so on) or is obtained in a
hybridized manner, also tapping into infrastructure power
Trends in Smart Objects
Size is decreasing: As discussed earlier, in reference to MEMS, there is a clear trend of
everdecreasing size. Some smart objects are so small they are not even visible to the naked eye.
This reduced size makes smart objects easier to embed in everyday objects.
Power consumption is decreasing: The different hardware components of a smart object
continually consume less power. This is especially true for sensors, many of which are
completely passive. Some battery-powered sensors last 10 or more years without battery
replacement.
Processing power is increasing: Processors are continually getting more powerful and smaller.
This is a key advancement for smart objects, as they become increasingly complex and
connected.
Communication capabilities are improving: It’s no big surprise that wireless speeds are
continually increasing, but they are also increasing in range. IoT is driving the development of
more and more specialized communication protocols covering a greater diversity of use cases
and environments.
Communication is being increasingly standardized: There is a strong push in the industry to
develop open standards for IoT communication protocols. In addition, there are more and more
open source efforts to advance IoT.

Sensor Networks
A sensor/actuator network (SANET), as the name suggests, is a network of sensors that sense
and measure their environment and/or actuators that act on their environment. The sensors and/or
actuators in a SANET are capable of communicating and cooperating in a productive manner.
Effective and wellcoordinated communication and cooperation is a prominent challenge,
primarily because the sensors and actuators in SANETs are diverse, heterogeneous, and
resource-constrained.

SANETs offer highly coordinated sensing and actuation capabilities. Smart homes are a type of
SANET that display this coordination between distributed sensors and actuators. For example,
smart homes can have temperature sensors that are strategically networked with heating,
ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC) actuators. When a sensor detects a specified
temperature, this can trigger an actuator to take action and heat or cool the home as needed.

While such networks can theoretically be connected in a wired or wireless fashion, the fact that
SANETs are typically found in the “real world” means that they need an extreme level of
deployment flexibility. For example, smart home temperature sensors need to be expertly located
in strategic locations throughout the home, including at HVAC entry and exit points.
The following are some advantages and disadvantages that a wireless-based solution offers:
Advantages:
Greater deployment flexibility (especially in extreme environments or hard-to-reach places)
Simpler scaling to a large number of nodes
Lower implementation costs
Easier long-term maintenance
Effortless introduction of new sensor/actuator nodes
Better equipped to handle dynamic/rapid topology changes
Disadvantages:
Potentially less secure (for example, hijacked access points)
Typically lower transmission speeds
Greater level of impact/influence by environment
Architecture of Wireless Sensor Network
Currently, WSN (Wireless Sensor Network) is the most standard services employed in
commercial and industrial applications, because of its technical development in a processor,
communication, and low-power usage of embedded computing devices. The wireless sensor
network architecture is built with nodes that are used to observe the surroundings like
temperature, humidity, pressure, position, vibration, sound, etc. These nodes can be used in
various real-time applications to perform various tasks like smart detecting, a discovery of
neighbor nodes, data processing and storage, data collection, target tracking, monitor and
controlling, synchronization, node localization, and effective routing between the base station
and nodes. Presently, WSNs are beginning to be organized in an enhanced step. It is not
awkward to expect that in 10 to 15 years that the world will be protected with WSNs with entree
to them via the Internet. This can be measured as the Internet becoming a physical n/w. This
technology is thrilling with infinite potential for many application areas like medical,
environmental, transportation, military, entertainment, homeland defense, crisis management,
and also smart spaces.
What is a Wireless Sensor Network?
A Wireless Sensor Network is one kind of wireless network that includes a large number of
circulating, self-directed, minute, low powered devices named sensor nodes called motes. These
networks certainly cover a huge number of spatially distributed, little, battery-operated,
embedded devices that are networked to caringly collect, process, and transfer data to the
operators, and it has controlled the capabilities of computing & processing. Nodes are tiny
computers, which work jointly to form networks.

Wireless Sensor Network

The sensor node is a multi-functional, energy-efficient wireless device. The applications of
motes in industrial are widespread. A collection of sensor nodes collects the data from the
surroundings to achieve specific application objectives. The communication between motes can
be done with each other using transceivers. In a wireless sensor network, the number of motes
can be in the order of hundreds/ even thousands. In contrast with sensor n/ws, Ad Hoc networks
will have fewer nodes without any structure.
Wireless Sensor Network Architecture
The most common wireless sensor network architecture follows the OSI architecture Model. The
architecture of the WSN includes five layers and three cross layers. Mostly in sensor n/w, we
require five layers, namely application, transport, n/w, data link & physical layer. The three cross
planes are namely power management, mobility management, and task management. These
layers of the WSN are used to accomplish the n/w and make the sensors work together in order
to raise the complete efficiency of the network. Please follow the below link for Types of
wireless sensor networks and WSN topologies
Types of WSN Architectures
The architecture used in WSN is sensor network architecture. This kind of architecture is
applicable in different places such as hospitals, schools, roads, buildings as well as it is used in
different applications such as security management, disaster management & crisis management,
etc. There are two types of architectures used in wireless sensor networks which include the
following. There are 2 types of wireless sensor architectures: Layered Network Architecture, and
Clustered Architecture. These are explained as following below.
 Layered Network Architecture
 Clustered Network Architecture
Layered Network Architecture
This kind of network uses hundreds of sensor nodes as well as a base station. Here the
arrangement of network nodes can be done into concentric layers. It comprises five layers as well
as 3 cross layers which include the following.
The five layers in the architecture are:
 Application Layer
 Transport Layer
 Network Layer
 Data Link Layer
 Physical Layer
The three cross layers include the following:
 Power Management Plane
 Mobility Management Plane
 Task Management Plane
These three cross layers are mainly used for controlling the network as well as to make the
sensors function as one in order to enhance the overall network efficiency. The above mentioned
five layers of WSN are discussed below.

Wireless Sensor Network Architecture

Application Layer
The application layer is liable for traffic management and offers software for numerous
applications that convert the data in a clear form to find positive information. Sensor networks
arranged in numerous applications in different fields such as agricultural, military, environment,
medical, etc.
Transport Layer
The function of the transport layer is to deliver congestion avoidance and reliability where a lot
of protocols intended to offer this function are either practical on the upstream. These protocols
use dissimilar mechanisms for loss recognition and loss recovery. The transport layer is exactly
needed when a system is planned to contact other networks.
Providing a reliable loss recovery is more energy-efficient and that is one of the main reasons
why TCP is not fit for WSN. In general, Transport layers can be separated into Packet driven,
Event-driven. There are some popular protocols in the transport layer namely STCP (Sensor
Transmission Control Protocol), PORT (Price-Oriented Reliable Transport Protocol and PSFQ
(pump slow fetch quick).
Network Layer
The main function of the network layer is routing, it has a lot of tasks based on the application,
but actually, the main tasks are in the power conserving, partial memory, buffers, and sensor
don’t have a universal ID and have to be self-organized.
The simple idea of the routing protocol is to explain a reliable lane and redundant lanes,
according to a convincing scale called a metric, which varies from protocol to protocol. There
are a lot of existing protocols for this network layer, they can be separated into; flat routing and
hierarchal routing or can be separated into time-driven, query-driven & event-driven.
Data Link Layer
The data link layer is liable for multiplexing data frame detection, data streams, MAC, & error
control, confirm the reliability of point–point (or) point– multipoint.
Physical Layer
The physical layer provides an edge for transferring a stream of bits above the physical medium.
This layer is responsible for the selection of frequency, generation of a carrier frequency, signal
detection, Modulation & data encryption. IEEE 802.15.4 is suggested as typical for low rate
particular areas & wireless sensor networks with low cost, power consumption, density, the
range of communication to improve the battery life. CSMA/CA is used to support star & peer to
peer topology. There are several versions of IEEE 802.15.4.V.
The main benefits of using this kind of architecture in WSN is that every node involves simply in
less-distance, low- power transmissions to the neighboring nodes due to which power utilization
is low as compared with other kinds of sensor network architecture. This kind of network is
scalable as well as includes a high fault tolerance.
Clustered Network Architecture
In this kind of architecture, separately sensor nodes add into groups known as clusters which
depend on the “Leach Protocol” because it uses clusters. The term ‘Leach Protocol’ stands for
“Low Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy”. The main properties of this protocol mainly
include the following.
 Clustered Network Architecture
 This is a two-tier hierarchy clustering architecture.
 This distributed algorithm is used to arrange the sensor nodes into groups, known as clusters.
 In every cluster which is formed separately, the head nodes of the cluster will create the
TDMA (Time-division multiple access) plans.
 It uses the Data Fusion concept so that it will make the network energy efficient.
This kind of network architecture is extremely used due to the data fusion property. In every
cluster, every node can interact through the head of the cluster to get the data. All the clusters
will share their collected data toward the base station. The formation of a cluster, as well as its
head selection in each cluster, is an independent as well as autonomous distributed method.
Design Issues of Wireless Sensor Network Architecture
The design issues of wireless sensor network architecture mainly include the following.
 Energy Consumption
 Localization
 Coverage
 Clocks
 Computation
 Cost of Production
 Design of Hardware
 Quality of Service
Structure of a Wireless Sensor Network
The structure of WSN mainly comprises various topologies used for radio communications
networks like a star, mesh, and hybrid star. These topologies are discussed below in brief.
Star Network
The communication topology like a star network is used wherever only the base station can
transmit or receive a message toward remote nodes. There is a number of nodes are available
which are not allowed to transmit messages to each other. The benefits of this network mainly
comprise simplicity, capable of keeping the power utilization of remote nodes to a minimum.
It also lets communications with less latency among the base station as well as a remote node.
The main drawback of this network is that the base station should be in the range of radio for all
the separate nodes. It is not robust like other networks because it depends on a single node to
handle the network.
Mesh Network
This kind of network permits to the transmission of the data from one node to another within the
network that is in the range of radio transmission. If a node needs to transmit a message to
another node and that is out of radio communications range, then it can utilize a node like an
intermediate to send the message toward the preferred node.
The main benefit of a mesh network is scalability as well as redundancy. When an individual
node stops working, a remote node can converse to any other type of node within the range, then
forwards the message toward the preferred location. Additionally, the network range is not
automatically restricted through the range among single nodes; it can extend simply by adding a
number of nodes to the system.
The main drawback of this kind of network is power utilization for the network nodes that
execute the communications like multi-hop are usually higher than other nodes that don’t have
this capacity of limiting the life of battery frequently. Moreover, when the number of
communication hops increases toward a destination, then the time taken to send the message will
also increase, particularly if the low power process of the nodes is a necessity.
Hybrid Star – Mesh Network
A hybrid among the two networks like star and mesh provides a strong and flexible
communications network while maintaining the power consumption of wireless sensor nodes to a
minimum. In this kind of network topology, the sensor nodes with less power are not allowed to
transmit the messages.

This permits to maintenance least power utilization.

But, other network nodes are allowed with the capability of multi-hop by allowing them to
transmit messages from one node to another on the network. Usually, the nodes with the multi-
hop capacity have high power and are frequently plugged into the mains line. This is the
implemented topology through the upcoming standard mesh networking called ZigBee.
Characteristics of Wireless Sensor Network
The characteristics of WSN include the following.
 The consumption of Power limits for nodes with batteries
 Capacity to handle node failures
 Some mobility of nodes and Heterogeneity of nodes
 Scalability to a large scale of distribution
 Capability to ensure strict environmental conditions
 Simple to use
 Cross-layer design
Advantages of Wireless Sensor Networks
The advantages of WSN include the following
 Network arrangements can be carried out without immovable infrastructure.
 Apt for the non-reachable places like mountains, over the sea, rural areas, and deep forests.
 Flexible if there is a casual situation when an additional workstation is required.
 Execution pricing is inexpensive.
 It avoids plenty of wiring.
 It might provide accommodations for the new devices at any time.
 It can be opened by using centralized monitoring.
Wireless Sensor Network Applications
Wireless sensor networks may comprise numerous different types of sensors like low sampling
rate, seismic, magnetic, thermal, visual, infrared, radar, and acoustic, which are clever to monitor
a wide range of ambient situations. Sensor nodes are used for constant sensing, event ID, event
detection & local control of actuators. The applications of wireless sensor networks mainly
include health, military, environmental, home, & other commercial areas.

WSN Application
• Network Topologies

Among the access technologies available for connecting IoT devices, three main topology
schemes are dominant: star, mesh, and peer-to-peer. For long-range and short-range
technologies, a star topology is prevalent, as seen with cellular, LPWA, and Bluetooth networks.
Star topologies utilize a single central base station or controller to allow communications with
endpoints.
For medium-range technologies, a star, peer-to-peer, or mesh topology is common, Peer-to-peer
topologies allow any device to communicate with any other device as long as they are in
range of each other. Obviously, peer-to-peer topologies rely on multiple full-function devices.
Peer-to-peer topologies enable more complex formations, such as a mesh networking topology.

What is Network Topology?

Network topology refers to the manner in which the links and nodes of a network are arranged to
relate to each other. Topologies are categorized as either physical network topology, which is the
physical signal transmission medium, or logical network topology, which refers to the manner in
which data travels through the network between devices, independent of physical connection of
the devices. Logical network topology examples include twisted pair Ethernet, which is
categorized as a logical bus topology, and token ring, which is categorized as a logical ring
topology.
Physical network topology examples include star, mesh, tree, ring, point-to-point, circular,
hybrid, and bus topology networks, each consisting of different configurations of nodes and
links. The ideal network topology depends on each business’s size, scale, goals, and budget. A
network topology diagram helps visualize the communicating devices, which are modeled as
nodes, and the connections between the devices, which are modeled as links between the nodes.

Types of Network Topology

There are several different logical and physical network topologies from which administrators
can choose to build a secure, robust, and easily maintainable topology. The most popular
configurations include:

 Bus network topology -- Also known as backbone network topology, this configuration
connects all devices to a main cable via drop lines. The advantages of bus network
topology lie in its simplicity, as there is less cable required than in alternative topologies,
which makes for easy installation.
 Mesh network topology -- A dedicated point-to-point link connects each device on the
network to another device on the network, only carrying data between two devices.
 Ring network topology -- Two dedicated point-to-point links connect a device to the two
devices located on either side of it, creating a ring of devices through which data is
forwarded via repeaters until it reaches the target device.
 Star network topology -- The most common network topology, star topology connects
each device in the network to a central hub. Devices can only communicate with each
other indirectly through the central hub.
 Hybrid network topology -- Any combination of two or more topologies is a hybrid
topology.
 Tree network topology -- This topology consists of a parent-child hierarchy in which star
networks are interconnected via bus networks. Nodes branch out linearly from one root
node, and two connected nodes only share one mutual connection.
 Mesh Topology

Mesh is the type of network where each node is connected to every other node. A mesh
network provides a high amount of redundancy when it comes to network links
 A mesh topology comprises multiple IoT devices that connect directly, dynamically, and
non-hierarchically to as many other devices as possible. The devices of a mesh network
cooperate with one another to efficiently route data from producers to consumers within
the network.
 Specifically, in a mesh network, messages travel from one IoT device to another until
they reach their destination
  mesh IoT networks are used to extend the coverage of popular short-range wireless
protocols (e.g., Zigbee and WirelessHART).

star Topology
In the star network configuration, every node (endpoint) connects to a single central device. The
nodes cannot directly communicate with each other; they communicate through the central
device. The central device acts as a server, whereas the nodes act as the clients. This is one of the
most common configurations and one of the easiest to set up. It is simple to add and remove
devices without disrupting the network. The biggest challenge with this kind of network is it has
a single point of failure (i.e., the central computer); if the central computer fails, the network
fails.

Bus Topology
In the scope of bus topology, IoT devices are connected through a single cable, which is
conveniently called a bus. A bus network enables a device to transmit data to any other device,
much in the same way a public transportation bus enables passengers to get in and get out at any
stop.
Ring Topology
A ring topology resembles a closed-loop bus, which enables devices to transmit data in a single
direction. Following the initiation of data transmission, every node passes the data to the next
node until the data reaches its intended destination
Hybrid Topology
In several cases, IoT deployers combine two or more topologies in an integrated IoT solution.
The rationale behind this combination is to leverage the advantages of more than one topology.
Such combinations are commonly characterized as hybrid topologies.
Peer-To-Peer Topology
 In a Peer-To-Peer Network, the “peers” are computer systems that are connected to each other
via the Internet. Files can be shared directly between systems on the network without the need
for a central server. In other words, each computer on a P2P network becomes a file server as
well as a client.

In a peer-to-peer network, individual devices (or nodes) can talk directly with one another
without the need for a central server. However, it is not typically feasible for each node to be
directly connected to each other node, so instead they connect to some subset of nodes.
In a mesh network, each node in a peer-to-peer network also functions as a router. This
routing layer allows you to directly address nodes to which you are not directly connected,
because intermediate nodes will pass the message along until it reaches the target node. The
message is only passed to the next node (or nodes) which are closer (topologically) to the
intended target, so the data is not broadcast to the entire network like peer-to-peer.
A P2P network does not increase the total bandwidth available, it just uses the bandwidth
better.
In a mesh network, users form new infrastructure by connecting directly (and often through
multiple alternate pathes), and the network no longer looks like a tree. A mesh network
increases the system's total bandwidth.

Enable Internet of Things Technologies

IoT primarily exploits standard protocols and networking technologies. However, the major
enabling technologies and protocols of IoT are RFID, NFC, low-energy Bluetooth, low-energy
wireless, low-energy radio protocols, and LTE-A. These technologies support the specific
 networking functionality needed in an IoT system in contrast to a standard uniform network of
common systems.

• Internet of Things enabling technologies are

1. Wireless Sensor Network

2. Cloud Computing
3. Big Data Analytics
4. Communications Protocols
5. Embedded System

wireless sensor network

A wireless sensor network comprises of distributed device with sensor which are used to monitor
the environmental and physical conditions. A WSN consists of a number of end-nodes and
routers and a coordinator. End Nodes have several sensors attached to them in node can also act
as routers. Routers are responsible for routing the data packets from end-nodes to the
coordinator. The coordinator collects the data from all the nodes. Coordinator also act as a
gateway that connects the WSN to the internet.
Cloud Computing
Cloud computing is a trans-formative computing paradigm that involves delivering applications
and services over the Internet Cloud computing involves provisioning of computing, networking
and storage resources on demand and providing these resources as metered services to the users,
in a “pay as you go” model. C loud computing resources can be provisioned on demand by the
users, without requiring interacyions with the cloud service Provider. The process of
provisioning resources is automated. Cloud computing resources can be accessed over The
network using standard access mechanisms that provide platform independent access through the
use of heterogeneous client platforms such as the workstations, laptops, tablets and smartphones.
Big Data Analytics
Big Data analytics is the process of collecting, organizing and analyzing large sets of data
(called Big Data) to discover patterns and other useful information. Big Data analytics can help
organizations to better understand the information contained within the data and will also help
identify the data that is most important to the business and future business decisions.
Some examples of big data generated by IoT systems are described as follows:
 Sensor data generated by IoT system such as weather monitoring stations.
 Machine sensor data collected from sensors embedded in industrial and energy systems for
monitoring their health and detecting Failures.
 Health and fitness data generated by IoT devices such as wearable fitness bands
 Data generated by ioT systems for location and tracking of vehicles
 Data generated by retail inventory monitoring systems
Characteristics
 Big data can be described by the following characteristics:
 Volume – The quantity of generated and stored data. The size of the data determines the value
and potential insight, and whether it can be considered big data or not.
 Variety – The type and nature of the data. This helps people who analyze it to effectively use the
resulting insight. Big data draws from text, images, audio, video; plus it completes missing
pieces through data fusion.
 Velocity – In this context, the speed at which the data is generated and processed to meet the
demands and challenges that lie in the path of growth and development. Big data is often
available in real-time. Compared to small data, big data are produced more continually. Two
kinds of velocity related to Big Data are the frequency of generation and the frequency of
handling, recording, and publishing.
 Veracity – It is the extended definition for big data, which refers to the data quality and the data
value. The data quality of captured data can vary greatly, affecting the accurate analysis.

Communication protocols
Communication protocols form the backbone of IoT systems and enable network connectivity
and coupling to applications. Communication protocols allow devices to exchange data over the
network. Multiple protocols often describe different aspects of a single communication. A group
of protocols designed to work together are known as a protocol suite; when implemented in
software they are a protocol stack.
Embedded Systems
As its name suggests, Embedded means something that is attached to another thing. An
embedded system can be thought of as a computer hardware system having software embedded
in it. An embedded system can be an independent system or it can be a part of a large system. An
embedded system is a controller programmed and controlled by a real-time operating system
(RTOS) with a dedicated function within a larger mechanical or electrical system, often with
real-time computing constraints. It is embedded as part of a complete device often including
hardware and mechanical parts. Embedded systems control many devices in common use today.
Ninety-eight percent of all microprocessors are manufactured to serve as embedded system
component.
An embedded system has three components −
 It has hardware.
 It has application software.
 It has Real Time Operating system (RTOS) that supervises the application software and provide
mechanism to let the processor run a process as per scheduling by following a plan to control the
latencies. RTOS defines the way the system works. It sets the rules during the execution of
application program. A small scale embedded system may not have RTOS.

Internet communication protocols are published by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).
The IEEE handles wired and wireless networking, and the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) handles other types. The ITU-T handles telecommunication protocols and
formats for the public switched telephone network (PSTN). As the PSTN and Internet converge,
the standards are also being driven towards convergence.

These supporting technologies are there to ensure the data from IoT devices can be collected,
stored, and analysed. However, let’s take a closer look at the enabling technologies for the
Internet of Things.

RFID (Radio Frequency Identification)

RFID provides a simple, low energy, and versatile option for identity and access tokens,
connection bootstrapping, and payments. RFID technology employs 2-way radio transmitter-
receivers to identify and track tags associated with objects.

Application of RFID technology in IoT is extremely broad and diverse. RFID tags are primarily
used to make everyday objects communicate with each other and the main hub and report their
status. Retail, manufacturing, logistics, smart warehousing, and banking are among the major
industries using RFID Internet of Things solutions.

Micro -Electro- Mechanical System

Micro Electrical Mechanical System is popularly called as MEMS. As the name implies, MEMS
refers to the components made up of the combination of electrical and mechanical elements in
micro level. There are so many materials are used for manufacturing micro level components.
Some of the examples are Silicon, Ceramics, Polymers, etc. MEMS are micron-size devices that
can sense or manipulate the physical world. MEMS are created using micro machining
processes, similar to those used to produce integrated circuit IC devices. This allows a two- or
three-dimensional mechanical system to be created in the same small area typical of an IC
device. Since the fab process is similar to IC fabrication, MEMS are typically created on silicon
wafers, but can also use other substrate types as well. Due to size, tens of thousands of these
devices can be fabricated on a single wafer. MEMS/sensors are packaged for accelerometers,
gyroscopes, magnetometers, microphones and sensors including pressure, temperature, infrared,
biomedical, chemical and gas.

NFC (Near Field Communication)

Similar to RIFD, NFC is also a simple, low energy solution for IoT. NFC consists of
communication protocols for electronic devices, typically a mobile device and a standard device.

With a straightforward tap-and-go mechanism, NFC makes it simple and intuitive to connect two
different IoT devices. Because NFC chips must be in close proximity of each other to initiate a
transaction, NFC is a clear sign that the user intends to take a certain action. The short-range of
NFC also protects against unauthorised access by hackers.
Bluetooth Low Energy (BLE)

This technology supports the low-power, long-use need of IoT function while exploiting a
standard technology with native support across systems. Bluetooth Low Energy is well suited to
relatively short-range communications scenarios that involve low-to-medium throughput.
Telemetry, fitness and health, and human interface device (HID) applications are key targets for
this technology.

BLE can also be used for real-time asset location tracking, indoor way finding and customer
engagement experience.

A key advantage of using Bluetooth Low Energy is that it enables direct interaction with a wide
range of modern smartphones without the need for any intermediary. All major smartphone
platforms, including Android and Apple iOS, provide powerful and accessible APIs to enable the
development of Bluetooth Low Energy applications.

Low Energy Wireless

Power is a problem for IoT developers – and communication links are one of the most power-
hungry elements of a typical system. Whilst sensors and other peripherals can be powered down
for long periods of time, communications, particularly receivers, often need to be kept in
listening mode for transmissions.

Low-energy wireless not only reduces consumption but also extends the life of the device
through less use. This reduces the cost and inconvenience of replacing either the devices or their
batteries. A great solution is to power the system from energy in the environment, such as solar
power.

Low Energy Radio Protocols

An alternative to low energy wireless can be low energy radio, or lower power radio (LPR) as it
is sometimes referred to. LPRs offer low power consumption and are seen as an affordable
alternative.

Some of the most important requirements of a communications link for connecting IoT devices
are wide supply voltage, low power consumption, ultra-low standby current, long-range, and
conformance to an international standard, which is probably one of the most desirable
requirements as it proves that the device is reliable and of a high standard.

LTE-A (LTE Advanced)

LTE-A, or LTE Advanced, delivers an important upgrade to LTE technology by increasing not
only its coverage but also reducing its latency and raising its throughput. It gives IoT a
tremendous power through expanding its range, with its most significant applications being
vehicle, UAV, and similar communication.

The latest version of LTE standard is LTE-A Pro. Whilst previous versions of LTE operated like
a highway of information, with small packets of data traveling from one location to the next,
LTE-A Pro operates more like a blisteringly fast, multi-story ‘superhighway’. When you choose
an LTE-A Pro embedded module for your IoT devices, you will see massive increases in data
speed, capacity, and efficiency.

NEC and IoT technology

NEC provide solutions that utilise these IoT technologies, like BLE, for tracking assets with
Juniper Mist Wireless access points that have built-in BLE sensors. These solutions can also be
utilised for indoor wayfinding and turn by turn directions.

NEC also incorporates BLE in our iQuarantine solution – providing a way to stop the spread of
COVID-19.

NEC are also currently developing pay by face solutions that can utilise BLE as dual-factor
authentication and enhanced customer experience with proximity sensing to alert customers with
targeted marketing and digital signage.
IEEE 802.15.4
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) supports many working groups to
develop and maintain wireless and wired communications standards.

The 802.15.4 category is probably the largest standard for low-data-rate WPANs. It has many
subcategories. The 802.15.4 category was developed for low-data-rate monitor and control
applications and extended-life low-power-consumption uses. The basic standard with the most
recent updates and enhancements is 802.15.4a/b, with 802.15.4c for China, 802.15.4d for Japan,
802.15.4e for industrial applications, 802.15.4f for active (battery powered) radio-frequency
identification (RFID) uses, and 802.15.4g for smart utility networks (SUNs) for monitoring the
Smart Grid. All of these special versions use the same base radio technology and protocol as
defined in 802.15.4a/b.

The 802.15.4 standard defines the physical layer (PHY) and media access control (MAC) layer
of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model of network operation. The PHY defines
frequency, power, modulation, and other wireless conditions of the link. The MAC defines the
format of the data handling. The remaining layers define other measures for handing the data and
related protocol enhancements including the final application.
Most networking systems, both wired and wireless, use the OSI communications model. Most
systems also use at least the first four layers, but many do not use all seven layers.

The 802.15.4 standard uses only the first two layers plus the logical link control (LLC) and
service specific convergence sub-layer (SSCS) additions to communicate with all upper layers as
defined by additional standards.

The 802.15.4 standard defines the star and peer-to-peer common network topologies.

For data security, the IEEE 802.15.4 standard employs the Advanced Encryption Standard
(AES) with a 128-bit key length as the basic encryption technique. Activating such security
measures for 802.15.4 significantly alters the frame format and uses a few of the payloads.
The very first phase in activating AES encryption is to use the Security Enabled field in the
Frame Control part of the 802.15.4 header. For safety, this field is a single bit which is
assigned to 1. When this bit is set, by taking certain bytes from its Payload field, a field
known as the Auxiliary Security Header is formed following the Source Address field.
Standardization and alliances –

It specifies low-data-rate PHY and MAC layer requirements for wireless personal area
networks (WPAN).

Advantages of IEEE 802.15.4 :

IEEE 802.15.4 has the following advantages –

 cheap cost
 long battery life,
 Quick installation
 simple
 extensible protocol stack
Disadvantages of IEEE 802.15.4 :

IEEE 802.15.4’s drawbacks include –

 IEEE 802.15.4 causes interference and multipath fading.
 doesn’t employ a frequency-hopping approach.
 unbounded latency
 interference susceptibility
Applications of IEEE 802.15.4 :

IEEE 802.15.4 Applications –

 Wireless sensor networks in the industry
 Building and home automation
 Remote controllers and interacting toys
 Automotive networks

Zigbee
Zigbee is a wireless technology developed as an open global standard to address the unique
needs of low-cost, low-power wireless IoT networks. The Zigbee standard operates on the IEEE
802.15.4 physical radio specification and operates in unlicensed bands including 2.4 GHz, 900
MHz and 868 MHz.
ZigBee is a standard that addresses the need of very low-cost implementation of Low power
devices with Low data rate for short-range wireless communications.
Types of ZigBee Devices:
 Zigbee Coordinator Device – It communicates with routers. This device is used for
connecting the devices.
 Zigbee Router – It is used for passing the data between devices.
 Zigbee End Device – It is the device that is going to be controlled
General Characteristics of Zigbee Standard:
 Low Power Consumption
 Low Data Rate (20- 250 kbps)
 Short-Range (75-100 meters)
 Network Join Time (~ 30 msec)
 Support Small and Large Networks (up to 65000 devices (Theory); 240 devices
(Practically))
 Low Cost of Products and Cheap Implementation (Open Source Protocol)
Operating Frequency Bands (Only one channel will be selected for use in a network):
1. Channel 0: 868 MHz (Europe)
2. Channel 1-10: 915 MHz (US and Australia)
3. Channel 11-26: 2.4 GHz (Across the World)
Zigbee Network Topologies:
 Star Topology (ZigBee Smart Energy)
 Mesh Topology (Self Healing Process)
 Tree Topology
Architecture of Zigbee:

Zigbee architecture is a combination of 6 layers.

1. Application Layer
2. Application Interface Layer
3. Security Layer
4. Network Layer
5. Medium Access Control Layer
6. Physical Layer
Zigbee Applications:
1. Home Automation
2. Medical Data Collection
3. Industrial Control Systems