Measurement Concepts and

Classification of Sensors

MODULE 1
 Introduction- Why Sensors?

• Measurements are required everywhere and Sensors allow measurements by yielding

electric signals with embedded information

• Function of measurement systems:

• Independent of observer (objective)

• Experimentally based (empirical)

• Possible objectives of measurement:

• Process Monitoring & Control

(For e.g. Ambient temperature measurement, Gas & water volume measurement
AND Temperature and flow control)

• Assist Experimental engineering

(Study of temp distribns or force distribns)
 Structure of a measurement system
Structure of a measurement system can be described then in terms of
domain conversions and changes, depending on the direct or indirect nature
of the measurement method.

Direct physical measurements yield quantitative information about a

physical object or action by direct comparison with a reference quantity.
This comparison is sometimes simply mechanical, as in a weighing scale.
Indirect physical measurements the quantity of interest is
calculated by applying an equation that describes the law relating
other quantities measured with a device, usually an electric one.

For e.g.,
• Mechanical power transmitted by a shaft by multiplying the measured
torque and speed of rotation

• Electric resistance by dividing dc voltage by current

• Distance travelled by integrating the speed.

 ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE SENSORS
ABSOLUTE SENSORS
Detects a stimulus in reference to an absolute
physical scale that is independent of the measurement
SENSORS can be CLASSIFIED
conditions
(based on selection of Reference)
RELATIVE SENSORS
Produces a signal that relates to some special case
Examples:

TEMPERATURE SENSOR
Absolute sensor: THERMISTOR- ‘R’ directly relates to the absolute temperature scale of
Kelvin

Relative sensor: THERMOCOUPLE- Produces a ‘V’, which is a function of a temperature

gradient across the thermocouple wires

PRESSURE SENSOR
* Absolute pressure sensor produces signal in reference to vacuum – (an absolute
zero on a pressure scale.)

* Relative pressure sensor produces signal with respect to a selected baseline that is not
zero pressure, for example, to the atmospheric pressure.
• Sensors- Important part of everyday life now such as

 Domestic appliances,
 Industries,
 Transport,
 Health services,
 Defence equipment

• Instrumentation- Advances in processing and computation makes possible very

accurate control of Industrial Plants, Processes and Control.

• Essential requirements of instrumentation used for measurement

• Calibration
• Systematic Errors
• Repeatability & accuracy
Important aspects of Sensors

• Governing Physical principle of Sensors

• Design of Sensors

• Application

Sensor technologies are undergoing major change on account of micro- and

nanotechnologies supporting its growth and development

Modern Sensors (features)

• Higher sensitivity

• Smaller dimensions

• Better selectivity

• Lower prices
Sensors used to measure:
• Temperature

• Pressure

• Flow

• Gases and Chemicals

• Bio-sensors

• Motion detector

• Light

• Image sensor
 Some Definitions

Definition of sensor:
A device that produces a usable output in response to a specified signal or
stimulus also called ‘measurand’

OUTPUT Electrical quantity or mechanical or optical quantity

MEASURAND Physical Quantity, Property or Condition
• Natural sensors have an ‘electrochemical “ character--- based on Ion transport in
nerve fibres
• Man-made sensors—Information transmitted and processed in electrical form viz.
transport of electrons

Measured system not

to be perturbed by
measuring action!
Definition of transducer: A sensor
A transducer is a device that converts a signal from one physical form to a may not
corresponding signal having a different physical form. Therefore, it is an energy be a
transducer!
converter.

Other differences bet Sensor & Transducer:

• Efficiency of energy measurement (Imp. for Transducer ; not critical for Sensor)
• Linearity of response ( Imp. For Sensor; not significant for Transducer)

Definition of Actuator:
It is a device that converts an converts mechanical, fluid, thermal, or electrical energy
into mechanical motion. It is also called as “Output transducers “and are designed
mainly for power conversion.
In contrast, Sensors are intended to acquire information. It converts electrical signal into
generally nonelectrical energy.
 Functions and data flow in a measurement and control system

ADC

Sensors and actuators are transducers at the physical interface between electronic systems
and processes or experiments.
Signal conditioners
Are electronic circuits performing any of following functions: amplification, level shifting,
filtering, impedance matching, modulation, and demodulation.
 Data Domains
Data domains
Quantity used
to represent
or transmit
information.

Two values
Information carried
by Signal amplitude

Information carried
by Time Relations
In the time domain, the coded variable cannot be measured- that is,
converted to the numerical domain- in a continuous way.
Most Sensors give electrical signal as OUTPUT

Advantages

• Variety of integrated circuits available for electric signal conditioning or modification

• Many options for information display / recording by electronic means to handle

numerical data and text, graphics, and Diagrams

• Energy need not be drained from the process being measured

(As electronic amplifiers used to amplify sensor output signals)

• Signal transmission is more versatile for electric signals

• Sensors can be designed for any nonelectric quantity

 Classification Criteria for Sensors

• Transduction principles using physical or chemical effects

• Primary Input Quantity (Measurand)

• Material and technology

• Application

• Property

Sensors and transducers D. Patranabis

Physical and Chemical Transduction Principles

Ref. Table 1.1 p2 Sensors and transducers D. Patranabis

 Types of energies and the corresponding measurands

Stimulus Measurand Stimulus Measurand

 Classification based on Applications
Sensors

Industrial process control, Non-industrial use

measurement and automation

Automobiles Medical Aircraft Consumer Other

products electronics sensors
(Misc.)
Classification based on Property
Material for sensors

Emerging Sensor technologies

 Sub-classification based on energy or power requirement:
 Active (Self-generating)
 Passive (Modulating)
SENSORS

Active Passive
(Self-Generating) (Modifiers/ Modulating)
Generates signal without need for any Passive sensors require external power for
external power supply their operation, which is called an
E.g. excitation signal.
* Photovoltaic Cells E.g.
* Thermocouples * Modulating ‘Voltage’ or ‘Current’ of
* Piezoelectric devices power supply-like Thermistor
* Diaphragm – Convert pressure / velocity
of sound waves into movements of solid
sheet.
 Positions of sensors in a data acquisition system

Data recorder,
Display, Alarm

Controls a
multiplexer &
ADC for
appropriate
timing and
send control
signals to the
actuator

Electric motor,
Solenoid, Relay,
Pneumatic valve Sensor 1 Noncontact
Sensors 2 and 3 Passive
Sensor 4 Active
Sensor 5 Internal to a data acquisition system
 Daily Life Examples

Where are all are SENSORS commonly used?

• Mobiles?
• At home?
• In cars?
• In markets?
• In Hospitals?
• Traffic and Environment monitoring?
 Multiple sensors,
Advanced safety Cars actuators, and
warning signals are
parts of the
advanced safety
vehicle

advanced safety vehicle

Washing Machine

Two Important Sensors:

Temperature Sensors-
THERMISTOR- Made of solid Semiconducting
material showing
• Shows positive temperature coefficient &
negative temperature coefficient
• High Sensistivity (~ 44,000 ppm/ C @ 25 C
• Small response time

Water level Sensor-

Based on switch to control how high tub fills…
Geysers
Thermostat is used as a control switch to
regulate the temperature of the water by adjusting
the heating duration of the element.

Principle: When the temperature is close to the set-

point on the thermostat, the element is switched off.

When the temperature of the geyser drops below

the set point, the element is switched on and the
water heated to the set point .
 References

• Ramon Pallas-Areny, John G. Webster, ‘Sensors and Signal

Conditioning’, John Wiley and Sons Inc., 2nd Edition, New York,
2000.

• Jacob Fraden, ‘Handbook of Modern Sensors- Physics, Design

and Applications’, Springer, 4th Edition, New York, 2010.

• Patranabis D. , ‘Sensors and Transducers’, Prentice Hall of

India, New Delhi, 2nd Edition, 2009.
 PBL
• Electronic Nose in gas leakage
• Monitoring Room Temperature
• Pressure Monitoring
• Intruder detector and alarm system
• Reverse Car Parking System
• Automatic wipers for car
• Water Tank Level Control
• Humidity Measurement
• Air Quality Measurement
• Heart Beat Measurement
• Fall Detection System
• Soil Moisture detection system