Working Principles and Characterizations of

Photovoltaic Devices

Dr. Wilman Septina

Senior Researcher
K.R. Advanced Photovoltaic and Functional Electronic Devices
Pusat Riset Elektronika, Organisasi Riset Elektronika dan Informatika
Badan Riset dan Inovasi Nasional (BRIN)

Presentation for PLN 16 November

1 2022
Instructor introduction

Contact
Dr. Wilman Septina / Email : wilman.septina@brin.go.id

Education
PhD / Materials Engineering Science/ Osaka University, Japan
M.Eng / Materials Engineering Science/ Osaka University, Japan
B.Eng / Teknik Fisika / Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia
Experience
2022-now Senior researcher, Badan Riset dan Inovasi Nasional (BRIN), Indonesia
2018-2022 Junior researcher, Hawaii Natural Energy Institute, University of Hawaii, USA
2017-2018 Research fellow, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
2015-2017 Postdoctoral fellow, University of Zurich, Switzerland
Instructor introduction (research)
Instructor introduction (research)

Solution-processed Emerging Thin Photovoltaic-Photoelectrochemical

Film Photovoltaic Hydrogen production
Ink Electrodeposition

*U.S. DOE

J. Mater. Chem. A, 2017, 5, 23139–23145

Instructor introduction (research)
Photovoltaic research at Advanced Photovoltaic and
Functional Electronic Devices, BRIN
Contents
❑ PV Cells, Modules, Panels, Array
❑ Solar Cells vs Battery
❑ Semiconductors for solar cells
❑ General working principle of solar cells
❑ Working principle of silicon, thin film, and emerging PV
❑ Photovoltaic parameters
❑ General photovoltaic characterizations
❑ Advanced photovoltaic characterizations
Main Resources
PV cells, modules, panels
PV cells, modules, panels

• PV cell is two terminal device which conducts like a

diode in the dark and generates photovoltages when
charged by sun.

• Generates a DC photovoltage of 0.5 to 1 V.

• In short circuit, photocurrent of 10-30 mA/cm2.

PV cells, modules, panels

• To produce useful DC voltages, the cells are

connected in series and encapsulated into module.

Typically 36 cells
DC output voltage of 12 V under standard test condition.
PV cells, modules, panels
Panel

• Modules can be connected in parallel and series into

an array with a larger current and voltage output (PV
generator).

• PV generator must be integrated with a charge

storage system (battery) and power regulation.
Solar cells vs Battery

• The solar cell can take place of a battery in a simple electric

circuit.

Dark → does nothing

Light → voltage developed, analogous to the battery

Solar cells vs Battery

Battery
Voltage due to permanent electrochemical
potential difference between two phases in the
cell

Solar cell
Voltage from temporary change in electrochemical
potential due to light
Solar cells vs Battery

Battery
Power delivered is relatively constant

Solar cell
Power delivered depends on the incident light
intensity
Solar cells vs Battery

Battery
Completely discharged when it reaches the end of
its life

Solar cell
In principle never exhausted, it can be continually
recharged with light.
PV cells and power generation

How can solar cells generate current and voltage ?

The presence of electric-field at the

junction between two dissimilar
Semiconductors + Absorption of
light are the keys
 Semiconductor for solar cells

• Conventional PV cells consist of a junction between two dissimilar semiconducting

materials, known as `p` (positive)-type semiconductor, and `n` (negative)-type
semiconductor forming p-n junctions.

https://www.visualcapitalist.com/animation-how-solar-panels-work/
 Semiconductor for solar cells

• Most metals are good conductors of electricity. Other materials are good electrical
insulators.
Conductor Insulators Semiconductor

• Semiconductor needs extra energy (eg. thermal, sunlight) to conduct electricity.

 Semiconductor for solar cells

• The atoms in semiconductors for conventional PV are materials from either

group IV, or III-V semiconductors, or II-VI semiconductor.

Materials Band gap

(eV)
Si 1.12
Ge 0.66
GaAs 1.43
InP 1.27
CdTe 1.44
CdSe 1.74
 Semiconductor for solar cells

Intrinsic semiconductor
• Semiconductors, such as Si, are made up of atoms bonded together to form a
uniform structure.
Semiconductor for solar cells

n-type semiconductor

• A semiconductor which has been doped to increase the density of electrons is

called n-type.

• In Silicon PV, it is made by introducing group V atom

(phosporous) so that Si has a surplus of free electrons
(negative electrical charge).
Semiconductor for solar cells

p-type semiconductor
• A semiconductor which has been doped to increase the positive charge carriers
(holes) relative to negatives is called p-type.

• It is made by introducing group III atom (eg. Boron).

 Semiconductor for solar cells

• p-n junctions are formed by joining n-type and p-type semiconductor materials.

(1) Electrons diffuse from the n-type to p-type side; holes flow from the p-type to
the n-type.

(2) The diffused electron and holes leave

behind exposed charges on dopant atom sites
(n-type : positive ion; p-type: negative ion)

https://www.circuitbread.com/tutorials/how-does-a-diode-work-part-1-the-pn-junction
Semiconductor for solar cells

(3) An electric field (E) forms between the positive ion in the n-type and negative
ion in the p-type (depletion region).

(4) In the depletion region, electric field quickly sweeps electron-hole

Separation of the electron-hole pair in solar

cell is achieved by the action of the electric
field.

https://www.circuitbread.com/tutorials/how-does-a-diode-work-part-1-the-pn-junction
Absorption of light in semiconductors

• One of the most important semiconductor properties for PV applications is

its band gap.

Materials Band gap

(eV)
Si 1.12
Ge 0.66
GaAs 1.43
InP 1.27
CdTe 1.44
CdSe 1.74
Absorption of light in semiconductors

• Light is consisting of a stream of tiny particles of energy, called photons.

The energy of photon (E) :

E = hc / λ E (eV) = 1240 / λ (nm)

h: Planck`s constant
Absorption of light in semiconductors
Band gap

(1) Eph < EG, Photons passing through as if it is

transparent. (not useful for PV)

(2) Eph = EG, Enough energy to create an electron hole

pair and are efficiently absorbed. (useful for PV)

(3) Eph > EG, Photons are strongly absorbed.

(useful for PV)
Absorption of light in semiconductors

• Band gap determines the spectrum of light that can be absorbed.

Silicon band gap (Eg)

https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aad4424
 Working principle of solar cell

Photovoltaic (PV) effect

• The photovoltaic effect is a process that generates voltage or electric current in
a PV cell when it is exposed to sunlight.

(1) The absorption of light photon creates an

electron-hole pair (carrier).
Working principle of solar cell

(2) The carriers are separated by the

electric field at the p-n junction and flow to
the external circuit.

(3) The electron meets with a hole and

completes the circuit.
Silicon solar cell (working principle)

https://www.nature.com/articles/am201082
Silicon solar cell (fabrication)

https://www.nature.com/articles/am201082

• Manufacturing silicon solar cells is energy-intensive which requires multiple

heating processes at temperature above 900 oC.
Silicon solar cell (fabrication)
Thin film solar cell (working principle)

CIGS solar cell CdTe solar cell

• They also works based on p-n junction, however, using two completely different
semiconductor materials (heterojunction).
Thin film solar cell (working principle)

• Fabricating thin film solar cells requires much less energy than silicon solar cells.
Thin film solar cell (fabrication)
 Emerging solar cell
• Most of emerging solar cells work NOT based on the classical p-n junction.

Organic solar cell

Cathode
Electron transport/ 2
ETL n-type semiconducting
1 Bulk heterojunction BHJ layer
Ag HTL
ITO Hole transport/ p-type
glass semiconducting layer 3

Polimer (Donor) C60 (Acceptor)

Emerging solar cell
Emerging solar cell

Dye-sensitized solar cell

• Considered as photoelectrochemical
cell, not based on p-n junction.

• Dye acts as light absorber.

• Electrolyte (I3-/I-) completes the

electrical circuit.

https://www.gamry.com/application-notes/physechem/dssc-dye-sensitized-solar-cells/
Emerging solar cell
 Emerging solar cell

Perovskite solar cell

https://www.cei.washington.edu/education/science-of-solar/perovskite-solar-cell/
 Emerging solar cell (fabrication)

Perovskite solar cell fabrication

http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/coatings10030237
Emerging solar cell

Tandem solar cell

One method to increase the efficiency → split the spectrum → optimised solar cell
for each spectrum
Emerging solar cell
Photovoltaic parameters
 Photovoltaic parameters
Current – Voltage (I-V) curve
• Performance of photovoltaics is evaluated from its I-V curve.
Photovoltaic parameters

Short-circuit current (ISC)

• The ISC depends on a number of factors:

(1) Area of the solar cells, it also

commonly referred as short-circuit
current density (JSC in mA/cm2)

https://www.pveducation.org/pvcdrom/solar-cell-operation/short-circuit-current
Photovoltaic parameters

(2) Light intensity

https://www.pveducation.org/pvcdrom/measuring-light-intensity

(3) Spectrum of the incident light. The

AM1.5 spectrum is the standard
spectrum.

https://www.pveducation.org/pvcdrom/solar-cell-operation/short-circuit-current
Photovoltaic parameters

(4) Optical properties of the solar cell,

its absorption and reflection.

JSC of ideal solar cell device

https://www.pveducation.org/pvcdrom/design-of-silicon-cells/optical-losses
 Photovoltaic parameters
Open-Circuit Voltage (VOC)

https://www.pveducation.org/pvcdrom/solar-cell-operation/open-circuit-voltage
Photovoltaic parameters

• The VOC depends on :

(1) Band gap, VOC increases as the band gap increases

(2) “Quality” of the p-n junction, existence of

defect, band alignment.
 Photovoltaic parameters
Fill Factor
• The "fill factor“ (FF), determines the maximum power from a solar cell.

https://www.pveducation.org/pvcdrom/solar-cell-operation/fill-factor
 Photovoltaic parameters
Efficiency
• Efficiency () is ratio of energy output from the solar cell (Pmax) to input energy
from the sun (Pin).

Pin =1000 W/m2

VOC = open-circuit voltage FF = fill factor

ISC = short-circuit current  = efficiency

• The efficiency is usually used to compare the performance of solar cells.

https://www.nrel.gov/pv/cell-efficiency.html
Photovoltaic parameters

Example of I-V
curve (certified)

VMP IMP
ISC

Fill Factor

VOC

0
Photovoltaic characterizations

Standard condition for PV testing

1) Light with AM (Air Mass) 1.5 spectrum

2) Light intensity of 1000 W/m2 (one-

sun)

3) Cell temperature of 25 oC
Photovoltaic characterizations
Air Mass
Photovoltaic characterizations
Standardised Solar Spectrum and Solar Irradiation
• To facilitate an accurate comparison between solar cells measured at different
times and locations, a standard spectrum and power density has been defined,

AM1.5Global AM1.5Direct
(direct and diffuse, 1000 W/m2) (only direct, 900 W/m2)

For flat plate cells or module For solar concentrator

Photovoltaic characterizations
 Photovoltaic characterizations
Solar Cell efficiency measurement kit
 Photovoltaic characterizations
Module efficiency measurement kit
 Photovoltaic characterizations
Solar simulator classification
(1) Spectral match
(2) Irradiance inhomogeneity : spatial uniformity over the illumination area
(3) Temporal Instability : stability over time.
Photovoltaic characterizations

Source: Newport

Xenon lamp
Photovoltaic characterizations

Halogen
Xenon
Advanced PV characterizations

UV-VIS spectroscopy Light beam induced current

Optical properties (reflectance,

transmission, absorption) PV Defect
Advanced PV characterizations

Photoluminiscence Electron beam induced current

Electron-hole (charge) separation

efficiency quality of p-n junction
Advanced PV characterizations

X-ray diffraction Scanning Electron Microscope

Crystal structure Micro or nano image

Thank you for your attention

Questions?