2.4.1.

2 VOLUME BATCHING
1. For most small jobs, volume batching is adopted, i.e. the amount of each solid
ingredients is measured by loose volume using measuring boxes, gauge box, hopper
or wheel barrows.
2. The accuracy of any method of measurement in which a gauge box or hopper is filled
a certain level depends on:
a) Bulking of sand.
b) The closeness with which the material packs.
c) If the material packs closely with few air voids, the solid volume of material is
greater than if the material is packed loosely.
3. In volume batching, it is generally advisable to set the volumes in term of whole beg
of cement.
4. Sources of error in volume batching of aggregate are:
a) Variations in the solid volume of aggregate contained in a specified measured
volume. It can be minimized although it is difficult to eliminate it.
b) Error in measured volume. This error can reduced by careful attention to the
type of measure.

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2.4.2 MIXING OF CONCRETE:

1. Objective of mixing is to coat the surface of all aggregate particles

with the cement paste and blend the ingredients into a uniform
mass.
2. Since the natural occurring materials have variables properties, the
human factor becomes important.
3. The human should monitor visually the workability, homogeneity
and cohesiveness of each mix, as well as the consistency of
production.
4. Concrete mixing is usually done by mechanical means called mixer,
but sometimes the mixing of concrete is done by hand.
5. Machine mixing is more efficient and economical compared to hand
mixing.
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2.4.2.1 MACHINE MIXING:

1. It can either be in rotation or stirring operation.

2. The rotation operation is used in tilting drum mixer, non-tilting drum mixture, dual drum
mixer and continuous mixer, while the stirring operation is used in a pan type mixer.
3. Tilting Drum Mixer:
a) A tilting drum mixer is one whose drum in which mixing take place is tilted for
discharging.
b) The drum is conical or bowl shaped with internal vanes, and the discharge is rapid
and unsegregated so that these mixers are suitable for mixes of low workability and
for those containing large size aggregate.
4. Non-Tilting Drum Mixer:
a) A non tilting drum is one in which the axis of the mixer is always horizontal and
discharge take place by inserting a chute into the drum or by reversing the direction
or rotation of drum.
b) Because of slow rate of discharge, some segregation may occur.

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5. Dual Drum Mixer:
a) A dual drum is sometimes used in highway construction.
b) Here there are two drums in series, concrete being mixed part of the time in one
and then transferred to the other for the remainder of the mixing time before
discharging.
6. Continuous Mixer:
a) These are fed automatically by a continuous
weigh-batching system.

5
4

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2.4.2.2 HAND MIXING:

1. There are many occasions when the concrete has to be mixed with
hand, and because of this case uniformity is more difficult to
achieve, therefore particular care and effort are necessary.
2. The aggregate should be separated in a uniform layer on a hard,
clean and non-porous base.
3. Cement is then should be spread over the aggregate and the dry
material are mixed turning over from one end of the heap to another
and cutting with a shovel until the mix appear uniform.
4. The water is gradually added to trough formed by the uniform dry
mix and the mix is turned over until a homogeneous mixture of
uniform colour and consistency is obtained.

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2.5 TRANSPORTING OF CONCRETE
2.5.1 METHOD OF TRANSPORTING CONCRETE:
1. The method used to transport concrete depends on which one is the
lowest cost and easiest for the job size.
2. On small jobs, a wheelbarrow is the easiest way to transport concrete.
3. However, concrete can be handled and transported by many methods,
including use of chutes, a concrete truck, a concrete pump and a
crane.
4. The main consideration is selecting the type of equipment to be used
is an economic one, however, certain jobs require specialized
equipment and thus the cost is a secondary consideration.
5. The other considerations are; the segregation of aggregate, loss of
entrained air, loss of cement paste, change in slump and accumulation
of harmful materials.

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WHEELBARROW CHUTE (PELONGSOR)

CONCRETE
TRUCK CONCRETE PUMP
CRANE
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A) CHUTE (Pelongsor):
1. Chute used to transport concrete from top to bottom without a part separation.
2. It made from PVC pipes or sometimes made of wood and metal.
3. The length of chute is limited to only 3m long.
4. It diameter approximately 300mm.
B) CONCRETE PUMP:
1. The use of pumps is one method that is quick, clean and economical, if carefully
planned.
2. Using the pipes 6” which is pumped from the concrete mix. Used for a large
quantity of concrete.
3. Can carry as far as 30m to 50m vertically and 300m to 500m horizontal
direction.
4. Consists of two types either in plunger pump or squeeze pump.
5. The concrete pump is usually used if there is problems like this:
a) The location of construction sites in urban areas is crowded, difficult to
use the truck and transportation equipment.
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 b) Limited road facilities.
c) Construction site near the existing building, difficulty entering the area or the
storage problem of raw materials.
d) The site location is not suitable for heavy machinery.
e) Lack of labor. The use of machinery tends for maximized productivity.
f) The contingency of project and need of permanent construction.
g) The construction of structures that is too high.
C) CRANE:
1. There are two types of crane namely as Tower Crane Bucket and Mobile Crane
Bucket.
2. Mobile Crane Bucket – Used for large projects and the construction of structures that
are very high. Where concrete is included in a large container equipped with a trap
door (pintu kolong) in the bottom and covered directly through the skip (langkau).
3. Tower Crane Bucket – Tower cranes used for building higher than 30 meters. Mobile
cranes are only limited to buildings with a height of 20 meters. Using skip depends on
the size of the load. Skip size is limited to a maximum size of 0:57m³ or 1394kg.

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2.5.2 READY MIX CONCRETE:

1. If instead of being batched and mixed on site, concrete is delivered for placing from a central
plant. It is referred to as ready-mixed or pre-mixed concrete.
2. This type of concrete is used extensively abroad as it offers numerous advantages in comparison
with other methods of manufacture:
a) Close quality control of batching which reduces the variability of the desired properties of
hardened concrete.
b) Use on congested sites or in highway construction where there is little space for a mixing
plant and aggregate stockpiles;
c) Use of agitator trucks to ensure care in transportation, thus prevention segregation and
maintaining workability
d) Convenience when small quantities of concrete or intermittent placing is required.
4. There are two categories of ready-mixed concrete: central-mixed and transit mixed or truck
mixed.
5. In the first category, mixing is done in a central plant and then concrete is transported in an
agitator truck.
6. In the second category, the materials are batched at a central plant but are mixed in a truck.
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2.6 PLACING OF CONCRETE

1. To secure a good concrete, it is necessary to make certain proportions, such as:

a) The ready mixed concrete must be placed as near to its final position as possible,
so that it is not too stiff to work.
b) When placing concrete, be careful not to damage or move formwork &
reinforcement.
c) Start placing from the corners of the formwork or, in the case of a sloping site,
from the lowest level.
d) Water should not be added after the concrete has left the mixer.
e) When placing concrete, care should be taken to drop the concrete vertically and
not great at height. Never allow the concrete to fall more than 1 to 1.5 meters.
f) The forms must be examined for correct alignment and adequate rigidity to
withstand weight of concrete.
g) The forms must be checked for tightness to avoid any loss of mortar which may
result in honeycombing.
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h) Wood form should be moistened before the concrete is placed, otherwise it will
absorb water from concrete and swell.
i) In addition, the forms should be oiled or lacquered to make form removal easier.
j) The inside of the form must be cleaned and treated with release agent to
facilitate their removal when concrete is set.
k) Avoid movement of reinforcing steel when placing the concrete.
l) Make sure reinforcing steel is clean and free of loose rust or mill scale at the
time concrete is placed.

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2.7 COMPACTING OF CONCRETE

1. WHAT IS COMPACTION: Compaction is done by shaking, or vibrating, the concrete which

liquefies it, allowing the trapped air to rise out. The concrete settles, filling all the space in the
forms.
2. WHEN TO COMPACT: Compaction must be done as concrete is placed, while it is still plastic.
Never let concrete dry-out and stiffen because it will be too hard to compact.
3. WHY COMPACT: Properly compacted concrete is more dense, strong and durable. Off-form
finishes will also be better.
4. Method of compaction can either be hand compaction or machine compaction:
a) Hand Rodding.
b) Machine Compaction. Examples are: Internal Vibrator – Pocker, External Vibrator –
Clamped to Formwork and Platform.

2.7.1 HAND COMPACTION

1. Hand compaction methods consists of rodding, tamping and spading with suitable
tools.
2. Concrete mix that normally use for hand compaction are of fairly workable mix if the
sections are at narrow and the reinforcement closely packed.
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2.7.2 MACHINE COMPACTION:

(A) EXTERNAL VIBRATOR:

I. SCREEDING:
 Screeding levels and compacts thin concrete slabs and the top layers of
thicker slabs.
 A screed board will not compact the concrete very well.
 Mechanical vibration or hand rodding is required to provide adequate
compaction.

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II. THE MECHANICAL SCREED:
 Concrete is screeded TWICE.
 The first screed levels the concrete roughly and compacts it.
 The second screed levels and compacts the concrete more.
 The screed is pulled along the top of the forms by two workers.
 Always keep a small amount, or surcharge, of concrete, in front of both
beams of the screed to avoid holes forming in the surface.
 If a hollow develops, the screed will not compact the concrete. The
mechanical screed compacts the concrete as it vibrates.

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(B) INTERNAL VIBRATOR:
Internal vibration is done with a mechanical vibrator or
poker vibrator. The POKER is put into concrete and
vibrates it from the inside.
I. METHODS:
 Make sure there are enough workers so some can compact while others
continue to place.
 Put the poker into the concrete QUICKLY.
 Take the poker out very SLOWLY otherwise a hole, or weak spot, may be left
in the concrete.

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  The SIZE of the poker determines how much concrete is vibrated at one time.
 The area vibrated at one time is called the RADIUS OF ACTION.
 This can be seen by over what radius air bubbles rise to the surface.
 The radius of action will be greater with a LARGER poker and more-workable
concrete.
 Always compact in a definite pattern so the radius of action overlaps and covers the
whole area of the concrete.
 The poker should be long enough to reach and enter into the layers of concrete under
the one being compacted.
II. PRECAUTIONS:
 Taking the poker out TOO QUICKLY will leave a hole in the concrete.
 To close the hole, vibrate near the hole and take the poker out VERY SLOWLY.
 NEVER touch the form face with the poker as it can damage the formwork and the
concrete.
 NEVER touch the reinforcement with the poker.
 NEVER spread or move concrete sideways with the poker, always use a shovel.
 NEVER leave the poker running when not in use.
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III. HOW LONG TO COMPACT:
 For concrete of average workability (ie slump of 80 mm) with a poker size
between 25–75 mm, concrete should usually be vibrated for between 5 and 15
seconds.
 It is worse to UNDER-VIBRATE than to OVER-VIBRATE concrete.

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2.8 CURING OF CONCRETE

(A) WHAT IS CURING:

i. Curing means to cover the concrete so it stays MOIST.
ii. By keeping concrete moist the bond between the paste and the aggregates gets
stronger.
iii. Concrete doesn’t harden properly if it is left to dry out.
(B) WHEN TO CURE:
i. Curing is done just after finishing the concrete surface, as soon as it will not be
damaged.
ii. When curing, leave the formwork in place to help reduce water loss. In hot weather
(above 30°C), or during high winds and low humidity, concrete can dry out easily.
iii. In these conditions take extra care while curing.
(C) WHY CURE:
i. Concrete that is cured are LESS LIKELY TO CRACK, More DURABLE and STRONGER.
ii. Cured concrete has a surface that wears better, lasts longer and better protects the
steel reinforcement. The concrete can carry more weight without breaking.
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(D) HOW TO CURE:
I. WATER CURING:
 Curing by flooding, ponding or mist spraying is widely used.
 It is the most effective curing method for the prevention of mix water
evaporation.
 This method is not always practical, however because of job conditions.
 Continuous sprinkling with water is also excellent method of curing.

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II. COVER WITH PLASTIC SHEET:
 Another way to cure concrete is to cover with PLASTIC SHEETS to slow down
water loss.
 This method is easy and cheap.
 The only problem is that the sheets may cause concrete to become darker in
places.
 To avoid this keep concrete EVENLY moist.
 The sheets must be held down to stop them blowing away and the concrete
surface drying out.
 The sheets can be overlapped and stuck together and/or held down with
sand, timber or bricks.
 Always check under the plastic from time to time to make sure the concrete is
EVENLY moist.
 If it feels dry, sprinkle with water and put back the plastic sheets carefully.
 Condensation on the underside of the plastic is a good sign.

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III. CHEMICAL MEMBRANES:
 Chemical can be sprayed on the surface to cure concrete.
 Liquid membrane-forming curing compounds retard or prevent the
evaporation of moisture from the concrete.
 The chemical application should be made as soon as the concrete is finished.
 If there is any delay in the application, the concrete must be kept moist until
the membrane is applied.
 The membrane curing compound must not be applied when there is free
water on the surface or after the concrete is dry.
 Sodium silicate solution is one of the chemical curing.

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 IV. STEAM CURING:
 In steam curing, the heating of the concrete products is caused by steam
either at low or high pressure.
 The method ensures even heating of products all over, even if the space
between the stacked precast concrete products is very small.
 Steam curing is more favorable to mix of concrete with low water cement
ratio than mixes with higher water-cement ratio.
(E) HOW LONG TO CURE
a) Concrete keeps getting HARDER AND STRONGER over TIME.
b) Household concrete jobs MUST be cured for at least 3 DAYS.
c) For better strength and durability, cure concrete for 7 DAYS.
d) The LONGER concrete is cured, the closer it will be to its best possible
strength and durability.

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