CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO
ILLUMINATION

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• Light or visible light is defined as the electromagnetic radiation
with wavelengths between 380 and 750 nm which is visible to
the human eye..

• The sensation of color is due to the difference in

wavelength of the light radiations.
• White light, such as given by the sun, is composed of different colors
each having different wavelengths.
• The goal of artificial lighting is to create a visual environment that best
fulfills the functions intended, such as work, recreation, or rest.
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 The electromagnetic spectrum is the term used by scientists to
describe the entire range of light that exists. From radio waves to
gamma rays

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❖ Task/
Local
◼ Lighting a
small space
to perform a
specific task;
reading,
cooking,
eating. ❖ General lighting, Overall lighting or
. provides enough lighting to see
everything in the room. It softens
❖ Localized shadows and harsh contrasts. It is
/Decorative background lighting.
• Used to draw
attention to specific
areas or objects
Accent lighting should be 3 times brighter
than the general lighting, and can be
accomplished with increased bulb
wattage or a light-focusing fixture.
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 1.1 Illumination
➢Illumination is the process of lighting.
➢Terms used in Illumination
• Luminous Flux(F)
• Luminous Intensity (I)
• Illuminance (intensity of illumination) (E)
• Luminous efficiency (k)
• Luminance( L)
• Coefficient of utilization(CU)
• Maintenance Factor(MF)

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 Luminous Flux(F):
• It is the total quantity of light energy radiated
(produced) from a luminous body in the form of
light waves or is the time rate of flow of light
• It is measured in lumens(lm).
Typically only about 10% of the
power (flux) emitted from a light bulb
falls in the visible region. Visible light
is in wavelength range of about 0.7 to 0.4
micron

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Solid angle (ω):
• Solid angle was given by the ratio
of the area of the surface to the
square the distance between the area and
the point. i.e. A / r2.
Since the surface of a sphere has an area
equal to 4πr2;
∴ Total angle of a sphere in
Steradians will be ω

4πr2 / r2 = 4π Steradians

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 Luminous Intensity (I):
• The illuminating power of a light source.
• It is the amount of luminous flux emitted by a
source per unit solid angle.
• It is measured in candela (cd)or lumens per
Steradians.
i.e. I = F / ω,
1 𝐿𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛
1Candela =
𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠
Where, (ω) - the solid angle measured in
Steradians.
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Illuminance (intensity of illumination) (E)
• The level of illumination - normally taken on
the working plane
• it is the luminous flux received by a surface
per unit area of the surface.
• Its unit depends upon the units in which area
is measured.
• It is measured in lumens per square meter or
lux or Lx.
Mathematically, E = F/A

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Luminous efficiency (k):
• Luminous efficacy is a measure of how well a light source produces
visible light
• The ratio of lamp luminous flux divided by the power
consumed by the lamp
• a measure of unit lumens per watt (lm/W).
• Note: in some countries, luminous efficiency is substituted for
luminous efficacy. Luminous efficiency, however, is a unitless
measure (watts out / watts in) where luminous efficacy is not
(lumens out / watts in)..
Luminance, L:
• This is a measure of the objective brightness of a surface or a
light source
• The luminous intensity (I) per unit of the apparent area
of the source of light (or illuminated areas).
• L = I/A [cd/m2 ]

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 Glare
• It is excessive brightness
• Is any brightness with in the field of vision of such a
character as to cause discomfort, annoyance,
interference with vision or fatigue
• Can be direct or reflected. Direct glare is caused by
brightness of the luminaries while reflected glare is
glare and contrast reduction caused by reflection of
high brightness from glossy surfaces.

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 Color temperature
• Is an indication of color emitted from the source.
• is related to Correlated Color Temperature (CCT).
• CCT is a measurement on the degree Kelvin (K)

Reflectance
❖ is ratio of lumens reflected from the surface
to lumens incident to the surface.
❖ Reflectance of 0.2 to 0.5 is recommended on
work benches and desk tops.
❖ Reflectance of walls and ceilings are also
important in the design of illumination or
lighting
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 Color rendering
❖ is the relationship between the original color of the object and the color which it is
render by artificial light
❖ Color Rendering Index (CRI) is a method in which performance of test source is
compared to a standard reference source on eight color samples.
❖ The highest attainable CRI is 100. Lamps with CRIs above 70 are typically used in
office and living environments.

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 Coefficient of utilization(CU):
❖ Some times it is called utilization factor (UF)
❖This is a factor showing the ratio of the lumens
reaching on the working plane to the total lumens
generated by the source.

❖ It depends on:
– the dimension of the room to be illuminated,
– the reflectance of the walls, ceilings, and floors,
– the lamp output of reflectors and diffusers and
– the position of the lamp.
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 Cont…
• A room 8 m × 12 m is lighted by 15 lamps to a fairly uniform
illumination of 100 lm/m2. Calculate the utilization coefficient of
the room given that the output of each lamp is 1600 lumens.
Solution.
Lumens emitted by the lamps = 15 × 1600 = 24,000 lm
Lumens received by the working plane of the room = 8 × 12 × 100 = 9600 lm
9600
Utilization coefficient = = 0.4 or 40%.
24,000

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 Maintenance Factor:
➢ The light obtained from a light source may be affected by variables due to:

• Dust and dirt inside luminaire surfaces

• Aging of light bulbs emitting less light

• Cleaning of room surfaces, e.g. ceiling, wall

illumination under actual conditions
𝑀𝐹 =
illumination when everything is perfectly clean

• Total useful luminous flux that must reach the working plane, Taking into consideration of
utilization and maintenance factors express as

𝐸∗𝐴
Total lumens, 𝐹 =
𝑀𝐹∗𝑈𝐹

E = desired illumination in lm/m2 ;

A = area of working plane to be illuminated in 𝑚2
MF = maintenance factor ;
UF = utilization factor.

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 1.2 Light source and application
➢ Light is a form of energy, which is radiated or sent out from a
source in a waveform.
➢ Light sources can either be natural or artificial
➢ There are two types of electric light sources depending on the
principle of energy conversion
▪ filament type
▪ electric discharge types.
➢ The filament types can further be divided as
▪ incandescent lamps
▪ halogen lamps.
➢ Electric discharge lamps are classified as mercury vapor lams and
sodium vapor lamps, halide lamps, fluorescent lamps, etc

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 a. Incandescent lamps

• The incandescent lamp consists of:

➢ A glass bulb completely evacuated or gas filled .Its purpose is to
keep air away from the filament
➢ A fine wire known as filament. It is the high temperature melting
wire inside the bulb. When an electric current passes through
filament, heat is produced due to the 𝐼 2 𝑅 .AS the temperature of
the wire increases due to heating, it radiates heat as well as light
energy.
➢ Base of the lamp, is simply what holds the filament and bulb in
place and help external electric connection to the filament. In other
words it provides both mechanical attachment and electrical
connection
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 Cont…….
❖ Incandescent lamps are sensitive to voltage variations. For incandescent lamp of a
particular voltage rating, if a voltage lower than the rated voltage is fed to the lamp, it
will result in a dim light.

❖ The light will also be more yellow in color, and the lamp might last a little longer.

❖ The following is empirical formula relating the luminous output of a lamp and the
applied voltage.

➢ Where F is the incandescent lamp luminous flux output at voltage V and Fo is

luminous flux output at voltage Vo.

❖ The lamp wattage indicates the amount of power consumed by the lamp. Lamps with
higher wattage usually burn brighter.

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1.2. Halogen Lamps
❖ Halogen bulbs are a special type of incandescent bulb. It contains pressurized halogen
gas, producing a whiter, more intense light. They are usually smaller than a regular
bulb, but last longer and therefore are more expensive. They can become very hot
during use..
❖ The halogen gas will combine with tungsten atoms as they evaporate and redeposit them on
the filament wire instead of being deposited on the glass and darkening it.
❖ The inside of the bulb remains free of deposits and clean through the lamp life. The
technique increases the efficiency of the halogen lamps 12 to 24 lumens/Watt.

❖ As the result of high temperature halogen

lamps produce ultraviolet (UV) and infrared
(IR) energies than conventional incandescent
lamps.
❖ Bulb coatings are usually used to filter the
UV and reflect the IR back on to the filament
improving the efficiency. Halogen lamps
Typical halogen lamp
have a CRI of 100.
 2.Electric Discharge Lamps
2.1 Fluorescent lamp (Low pressure mercury vapour lamps):

➢Low- pressure mercury vapour lamp consists of:

▪ Glass tube filled with mercury vapour at low pressure.
▪ Is provided with two electrodes coated with electron emissive
material.
▪ The inner wall of the tube is coated with phosphor powder
which transforms ultraviolet radiation in to visible radiation or
light.

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➢ Certain materials, such as calcium phosphate, emit visible light
whenever they absorb ultra-violet light. This phenomenon is
known as fluorescence.
➢ Fluorescent lamps can be preheated, rapid start or instant start.
The preheated lamps are usually for fluorescent lamp with less
than 30W
➢ In pre-heated florescent lamps electrodes are heated during
starting but not during operation.
➢ This makes them more efficient. Voltage spikes may result during
starting and cause stress on the lamp resulting on shorter life
➢ The light output of a fluorescent lamp is 40- 70 lm/w and has an
average life of about 7500 hrs.

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 Cont…….

❖ The auxiliary equipment associated with the preheated florescent lamp

includes; the choke to supply high starting voltage and also limits the
current during operation, the starter, the capacitor to improve or correct
power factor deterioration as the result of the choke.
❖ Applying a high voltage between the main electrodes accelerates electrons
between the electrodes colliding with mercury and ionizes it. Ionized mercury
emits light energy and radiant energy in the UV range

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2.2. Compact Fluorescent Lamps
❖ work in the same principle as ordinary tube fluorescent lamps. The input voltage is
processed by inverters to produce high frequency voltage supply.
❖ The current limiting choke size and loss decrease as the frequency increases. Efficacy
of CFL is 4 to 5 times that of incandescent lamps and their life can be up to 8 times.

Typical Compact fluorescent lamp

2.3. High-Intensity Discharge Lamps
❖ are most power full lamps commonly used lighting system. They include mercury; high-
pressure sodium, metal halide, and low pressure sodium vapor lamps.
❖ All HID lamps generate light by passing a high pressure electron arc stream through a
gas vapor. Compared to fluorescent and incandescent lamps,
❖ produce a large quantity of light in a small package
 2.4. HID Mercury Vapour Lamps

❖ It includes an arc tube made of quartz to withstand high temperature and pressure of one
to ten atmospheres, two main operating electrodes located at opposite ends of the arc
tube, an outer tube a starting electrode connected in series with a starting resistor.
❖ Applying a high voltage between the main electrodes accelerates electrons between the
electrodes colliding with mercury and ionizes it. Ionized mercury emits light energy and
radiant energy in the UV range in the electromagnetic spectrum.

Fig. mercury vapor lamp, life in hours, color, efficacy

2.5. High pressure Sodium Lamps
❖ use sodium vapor in place of mercury vapor. It emits warm yellow (orange) light.
❖ Its efficiency is above 100 lum/W. Its life is around 10,000 hrs.
❖ Sodium HID lamps produce light by striking an electrical arc across tungsten electrodes
housed inside a specially designed inner glass tube. This tube is filled with both gas and
metals. The gas aids in the starting of the lamps.
2.6. Low-pressure Sodium lamps
❖ has highest efficacy of all commercially available lighting sources.
❖ Its efficacy is up to 180 lumens/watt. Low-pressure sodium lamps emit yellow light
and operate much like a fluorescent lamp and require ballast.

Metal Halides

❖ Metal halide or multi vapour lamps are HID lamps using various gases in addition to the
mercury and sodium to improve the light quality output to close to sunlight.
❖ The operating principle is that all vapors in the discharge produce its own color spectrum
covering entire visible range. They are less efficient and have CRI range 65-80. They
produce an even whiter, more natural light.

Various Lamp life range Various lamps Efficacy

 Illumination Laws
There are two major laws.
– Inverse square law
– cosine Law
Inverse square law:
• State that the illumination of the surface is inversely proportional to the square of it distance
from the source of light
𝐼
𝐸= 2
𝑑
• Where d = the distance from the light source.

A is area illuminated

• As a surface that is illuminated by a light source moves away from the light source, the
surface appears dimmer.
• In fact, it becomes dimmer much faster than it moves away from the source.
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 Illumination Laws
. Example 1.2 A point light source has an intensity of 1,000 candela and the light
falls perpendicularly on a surface. Calculate the illuminance on the surface if its
distance from the surface is: (i) two metres, (ii) four metres and (iii) six metres

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 Cosine Law (Lambert’s Cosine Law):
• This law states that the illuminance falling on any surface depends on the cosine of
the light’s angle of incidence, θ.
• This method allows us to calculate the illuminance with one or more lamps.
Eθ = Ecosθ.

Example2 .Two sources of candle power or luminous intensity 200 candela and 250
candela are mounted at 8 and 10 m, respectively. The horizontal distance between the
lamp posts is 40 m, calculate the illumination in the middle of the posts.
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 1.3 Lighting Design
❖ In order to determine the illumination level for a space to be illuminated,
we can go through three stages;
1. task definition or determination of illumination level for the application
2. selection of luminance Type
3. Lighting calculation

❖The illumination levels used by Illumination Engineering Society

of North America (IESNA) for different application spaces and the
illumination levels recommended by the Ethiopian Building Code
Standards (EBCS-10) are introduced to be used for the design of
lighting.
Luminaire: A complete lighting unit consisting of a light source such
as a lamp(s) with parts designed to position the light source and
connect it to the power supply.
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 Step One: Determination of illumination level for the
application
a. Determining the Illumination levels for tasks according to
IESNA
❖ According to IESNA illumination spaces are categorized into nine levels
which are denoted A through I Categories .
➢ A through C are application areas to be illuminated by general illumination.
➢ D through F are application spaces where luminance on task are used
➢ categories G through I general illumination plus local lightings are used.
For each category a range of illumination levels are defined

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 Categories A through C

• category A :Public space with dark surroundings like corridors

in the night, weighting rooms in medical diagnostics..etc
• category B :Spaces for simple orientation, short temporary
visits like dance halls, discotheque, dining halls, residence (for
conversation and relaxation, and entertainment), airport
concourse
• categorized in C :Working spaces where visual tasks are only
occasionally performed like corridors, lobbies, reception areas,
churches (main worship area) etc…

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 Categories D through F

• category D :Spaces where performance of visual tasks of high contrast or large size like
reading printed materials, typed originals, handwriting in ink, and good xerography; rough
bench and machine work; ordinary inspection and; rough assembly. Hotel (bedrooms, lobby
reading areas), residence (kitchens, laundries and sewing areas) etc…
• category E: Spaces where performance of visual tasks of medium contrast or small size:
reading medium pencil handwriting, poorly printed or reproduced material; medium bench
and machine work; difficult inspection; medium assembly. Bank (teller areas), churches
(altar, reredos), and classrooms (science laboratories), offices (for clerical task) etc…
• category F: Spaces with performance of visual task of low contrast or very small size such
as reading hand writing in hard pencil on poor-quality paper and very poorly reproduced
material; highly difficult inspection work, drafting (low contrast Mylar or velum, sepia
prints) lecture rooms (for demonstration) etc…

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 Category G through I

• Category G : Spaces with performance of very prolonged and

exacting visual task like the most difficult inspection works,
extra fine bench works and machine works, extra fine assembly
works. Example is operating table in Hospital.
• Category I : illumination is for spaces with performance of very
special visual task of extremely low contrast and small size like
for example surgical procedures and industrial cloths inspection
areas

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 b) Using the Ethiopian Building Code Standards (EBCS)

In Ethiopian Building Code Standards (EBCS-10) (P-70)illumination levels and light

qualities for applications have been indicated on tables. Tables 3-5 to 3-8 specify the
illumination levels, color appearance, color rendition and glare restrictions for different
applications.
 Step Two: Selection of Luminaire Type
❖ Two important factors for selection of luminaire for a particular application are cost and light
quality desired for the application
❑ Cost (Cost of lumen-hour)
❖ Cost is an important component in the selection of luminaries.. The following costs have to be
considered for decision:-
➢ The operating electricity cost in Birr per kilo-watt-hour
➢ The lamp replacement cost in Birr per lamp
➢ Initial luminaire cost with associated switchgear in birr
➢ Cleaning and maintenance cost in birr per year
➢ The frequency of usage of the light per day in hours

Typical Commercial Building Electric Usage

❑ Quality of light
➢ The allowable glare level, color rendering and the color of the light sources are important
parameters for the selection of a particular luminaire.
❑ Industrial safety standards
➢ industrial premises luminaires are chosen based on the required safety level, the building
architecture, and structure
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 Step Three: Lighting calculation
➢ A number of methods have been employed for lighting calculations
among which some may be mentioned as:
1. Watts per square meter method
2. Point to point or inverse –square law method
3. Lumen or Light flux method
Watts per Square Meter method: -
• Applicable for rough calculations.
• It consists in making an allowance of watts per square meter of area
to be illuminated.
• According to NEC 220- standard illumination is about 3 watt per ft2.
Example: -
• A house has an external dimension of 30ft by 50ft. If an 80w
fluorescent lamps, and 220V supply is used, determine the size of the
service wire and the number of lamps required.
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 Cont…
Solution:
A = 30ft X 50ft
= 1500ft2
• Total wattage required = 1500ft2 X 3w/ft2
= 4500w ⇒ 4.5Kw
• No of lamps required = 4.5Kw/80w = 56.1
⇒ 56 lamps - each 80w
• Current carrying capacity = 4.5Kw/220V = 20.5A
• Therefore, the size of the cable/ conductor will be
select to serve such current if there is no any
correction factor.
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 Point to point or inverse –square law method
▪ This method is applicable where the illumination at a point due to one or more
source of light is required This method of calculation is particularly suitable for
outdoor schemes.
▪ It may also be suitable for indoor schemes where the light reflected onto the
working plane from walls, ceilings etc., is negligible. the light intensity in a
given direction is found from polar diagrams supplied by manufacturers

➢ Lumens method
• It is the most advisable method to be used.
• The lumens method is generally used for uniform general lighting design.
▪ it is based on recommended illumination levels by relevant professional society.
▪ Lighting level is normally specified for working plane which is usually 0.8 to
0.85 meters above floor.
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 The following simple steps can be followed to use lumens
method of illumination design
➢ Step One: Determine the utilization factor (UF).
It depends on 3 factors:
1. Type of Luminaire .A luminaire with a concentrated light output
directed on the working plane will have a higher UF than a luminaire
with a dispersed light output.
2. Room index. This takes account of the length (L) and width (W) of the
room and the height of the luminaires above the working plane (Hm).
R.I. = L x W / (L + W) Hm
3. Reflectance of Room Surfaces. Bright colors with high reflectance
result in a higher UF. A high utilization factor will mean fewer lamps
are needed resulting in a more efficient energy usage and a lower capital
cost.
➢ Step Two: Determine Maintenance Factor (MF).
❖ Maintenance factor refers to the reduction in luminous flux output of the
luminaire
❖ MF in average varies from 0.5 to 0.8
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Step Three: Determine the number of luminaries required for the space

➢ Where E is illumination level required in lux,

A is total area of the room,
F is luminous flux generated by a luminaire ,
MF is maintenance factor and UF is utilization factor.
n is number of lamps per luminaire
N is the number of luminaire required
Step four: Distribute the luminaire uniformly for minimum lighting gradient on the
working area of the space.
❖ In the lighting distribution an important point to be checked is the maximum
distance possible between luminaries which are given by manufacturers of the
luminaire.
Luminaire: A complete lighting unit consisting of a light source such as a
lamp(s) with parts designed to position the light source and connect it to the
power supply.
1. The illumination in a drawing office 30 m × 10 m is to have a value of 250
lux and is to be provided by a number of 300-W filament lamps. If the
coefficient of utilization is 0.4 and the depreciation or maintenance factor
0.9, determine the number of lamps required. The luminous efficiency of
each lamp is 14 lm/W
Solution.
E = 250 lx,
A = 30 × 10 = 300 𝑚2 ;
MF = 0.4, UF = 0.9
250𝑙𝑚
𝐸∗𝐴 ∗300𝑚2
𝑚2
Total lumens, 𝐹 = 𝐹= = 208,333𝑙𝑚
𝑀𝐹∗𝑈𝐹 0.9∗0.4

Flux emitted/lamp = 300 × 14 = 4200 lm;

No. of lamps reqd.= 208,333/4200 = 50.

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2. A football pitch 120 m × 60 m is to be illuminated for night play by similar banks of
equal 1000 W lamps supported on twelve towers which are distributed around the ground
to provide approximately uniform illumination of the pitch. Assuming that 40% of the
total light emitted reaches the playing pitch and that an illumination of 1000 lm/m2 is
necessary for television purposes, calculate the number of lamps on each tower. The
overall efficiency of the lamp is to be taken as 30 lm/W.
Solution.
Area to be illuminated , 𝐴 = 120 × 60 = 7,200 𝑀2
𝐹 = 7,200 × 1,000 = 7.2 × 106 lm
Since only 40% of the flux emitted reaches the ground,
▪ the total luminous flux required to be produced is = 7.2 × 106 /0.4= 18 × 106 lm
▪ Flux contributed by each tower bank = 18 × 106 /12 = 1.5 × 106 lm
▪ Output of each 1000-W lamp = 30 × 1000 = 3 × 104 lm
▪ Hence, number of such lamps on each tower is

Flux contributed by each tower bank

▪ = 1.5 × 106 / 3× 104 = 50
Output of each 1000−W lamp 45
3. A drawing hall in an engineering college is to be provided with a lighting

installation. The hall is 30 m × 20 m × 8 m (high). The mounting height is 5 m

and the required level of illumination is 144 lm/m2. Using metal filament lamps,
estimate the size and number of single lamp luminaries and also draw their
spacing layout. Assume :Utilization coefficient = 0.6; maintenance factor =
0.75; space/height ratio=1 lumens/watt for 300-W lamp = 13,lumens/ watt for
500-W lamp = 16.
𝐸∗𝐴 30 ×20 × 144
Solution. Flux is given 𝐹 = = = 192,000 lm
𝑀𝐹∗𝑈𝐹 0.6 × 0.75

Lumen output per 500-W lamp = 500 × 16 = 8,000

∴ No. of 500-W lamps required = 192,000/8000 = 24
Similarly, No. of 300-W lamps required = 192,000/3900 = 49

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The 300-W lamps cannot be used because their number cannot be
arranged in a hall of 30 m × 20 m with a space/height ratio of
unity. However, 500-W lamps can be arranged in 4 rows of 6
lamps each with a spacing of 5 m both in the width and the length
of the hall as shown in Fig

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4. A drawing hall 40 m × 25 m × 6 high is to be illuminated with metal-filament gas-filled
lamps to an average illumination of 90 lm/m2 on a working plane 1 metre above the
floor. Estimate suitable number, size and mounting height of lamps. Sketch the spacing
layout. Assume coefficient of utilization of 0.5, depreciation factor of 1.2 and
spacing/height ratio of 1.2

40𝑀×25𝑀×90𝐿𝑀/𝑀2
Solution. Total flux required is 𝐹 = 1 =216,000lm
0.5×1.2
Lumen output of each 200-W lamp is 3200 lm, of 300-W lamp is 5,400 lm and of 500-W
lamp is 10,000 lm
216,000
No. of 200-W lamps reqd = 3,200 = 67

216,000
No. of 300-W lamps reqd = = 40
5400

216,000
No. of 500-W lamps reqd = = 22
10,000

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With a spacing/height ratio of 1.2, it is impossible to arrange both 200-W and 300-W
lamps. Hence, the choice falls on 500-W lamp. If instead of the calculated 22, we take
24 lamps of 500 wattage, they can be arranged in four rows each having six lamps as
shown in Fig. 49.42. Spacing along the length of the hall is 40/6 = 6.67 m and that
along the width is 25/4 = 6.25 m.

5) Estimate the number and wattage of lamps which would be required to illuminate a
workshop space 60 × 15 meters by means of lamps mounted 5 meters above the working
plane. The average illumination required is about 100 lux. Coefficient of utilization=0.4 ;
Luminous efficiency=16 lm/W. Assume a spacing/height ratio of unity and a candle
power depreciation of 20%.
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