MODULE VI

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 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
SYSTEM

- Is a powerful set of tools for collecting, storing,

querying, analyzing and displaying geo spatial data
from the real world’
(1986)
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A Geographic Information System

A GIS is a layering
mapped
information in a
computer to help
us view our world
as a system

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What is GIS?

A Geographic Information
System is a collection of tools to
build, maintain, and use
electronic maps and associated
databases

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MVS/APA, CET
 RASTER AND VECTOR DATA MODELS

REAL WORLD
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

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GRID RASTER
MVS/APA, CET VECTOR
• Each layer is a geographic theme

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• Answer questions

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The GIS Data Model: Implementation
Geographic Integration of Information

Administrative Boundaries
Utilities

Zoning
Buildings
Parcels
Hydrography
Streets
Digital Orthophoto

• Data is organized by layers, coverages or themes (synonomous concepts), with

each layer representing a common feature.
• Layers are integrated using explicit location on the earth’s surface, thus
geographic location is the organizing principal.
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 From Maps to Information
More than just maps…
In a GIS, the maps have tables of data behind them.

This means when you

combine different maps
you combine data to get
the information you need.

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 Definition of GIS
• Powerful set of tools for
– collecting
– storing
– retrieving at will
– transforming
– and displaying
spatial data from the real world for a particular set
of purposes

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COMPONENTS OF GIS

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The five basic elements of a GIS
• A GIS is a 5-part
system:
– People
– Data
– Hardware
– Software
– Procedures

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 People
• People are the most important part of a GIS
• People define and develop the procedures
used by a GIS
• People can overcome shortcoming of the
other 4 elements, but not vice-versa

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 Data
• Data is the information used within a GIS
• Since a GIS often incorporates data from
multiple sources, its accuracy defines the
quality of the GIS.
• GIS quality determines the types of questions
and problems that may be asked of the GIS

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 Hardware
• The type of hardware determines, to an
extent, the speed at which a GIS will operate.
• Additionally, it may influence the type of
software used.
• To a small degree, it may influence the
types/personalities of the people working
with the GIS.

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 Software
• GIS software encompasses not only to the GIS
package, but all the software used for
databases, drawings, statistics, and imaging.
• The functionality of the software used to
manage the GIS determines the type of
problems that the GIS may be used to solve.
• The software used must match the needs and
skills of the end user.

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 GIS Functions
• Six Functions of a GIS
– Capture data
– Store data
– Query data
– Analyze data
– Display data
– Produce output

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 Capturing Data
 A GIS must be able to handle two fundamental data
types:
 Geographic data This type of data is coordinate based
and represents the physical distribution of elements in
the GIS
 Tabular data This type of data contains the attributes,
or characteristics, about elements in the GIS.
 Most features displayed in a GIS are composites of both
types of data. For example, a road may be drawn using
x,y coordinates, but the type of road, its name, and
construction features are stored as tabular data.

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Maps Satellite data Digital data Tabular data Soft ideas

Scanning Data transfer Key coding

Digitizing

Data Capture

Editing/cleaning

Re-projection

Generalization

Edge matching and rubber sheeting

Layering

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 Capturing Data (cont’d)
• The effectiveness of a GIS strongly relies on the input
of data.
• Data sources include:
– Paper maps (digitized)
– Coordinate input
– Digital data (obtained from outside sources)
– GPS (collected using a GPS system)
• A good GIS should support multiple formats for all
data types listed above.

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 Storing Data
• Geographic GIS data is stored primarily in one of 2
types:
– Raster, which is image based. A raster data model
assigns values to cells on a computer screen which
covers a specific location. The detail of a raster
data set is therefore dependant upon the size of
the cell used to represent a given area
(resolution).
– Vector, which is coordinate based model used to
represent real-world features.

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 Querying Data
 A GIS must provide tools by which its users can
answer questions.
 A query can be based upon the use of the GIS to
identify a specific feature OR its use to identify
features based on a specific set of conditions.
 Depending on the software used, queries can be as
simple as point and click or as complicated as writing
command-line programming code. In other words,
the type of questions to be asked determines the
type of GIS to be used.

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 Analyzing Data
• A GIS must be capable of answering questions
regarding the interaction of spatial
relationships.
• Inherent in analyzing the data is the ability to
ask the “right” questions, follow the correct
procedures, and correctly interpret the
results!

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 Analyzing Data (cont’d)
• There are three basic types of analysis:
– Proximity analysis queries the GIS about distances
between objects
– Overlay analysis joins different map layers of a GIS
together to answer a question
– Network analysis is used to answer questions
about how a group of objects function together.

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 Displaying the Data
• A GIS must allow a flexible environment for its
users to view the data.
• Data may be displayed in multiple formats,
but generally is viewed as either a graph,
table, or map.

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 Output
• A GIS must have the means to output the data
in usable formats
• Common forms of output include:
– Images
– Documents
– Paper maps
– The internet
– Files for use in other applications

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 Commonly used softwares
• ArcGIS, ArcView
• QGIS –Quantum GIS
• GRASS- Geographic Resources Analysis Support
System
• JUMP GIS - Java Unified Mapping Platform)
• TransCAD, CUBE
• SAGA GIS - System for Automated Geoscientific
Analysis
• ILWIS- Integrated Land and Water Information
System

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 DATA
• Information being used for the analysis
• Geospatial data is the data that describe both
the locations and the characteristics of spatial
features such as roads, land areas and
vegetation
• 1. Spatial data- represents location
• 2. Attribute data – represents characteristics

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 1. Spatial Data
• Represents locations of spatial features
• Stored in shape file
• A. Discrete features – individually
distinguishable features that do not exist
between observations
– Points (eg: Wells)
– Lines (eg: roads)
– Areas (eg: land use types)
• B. Continuous features – features that exist
spatially between observations
– Eg: Elevation, precipitation
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THEMATIC OVERLAY

1. TOPOGRAPHY
2. BOUNDARIES
3. VEGETATION
4. ROADS
5. RIVERS
6. SOILS

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 Spatial data
• Vector data
– uses points and their x,y coordinates to construct
spatial features of points, lines and areas
– Ideal for representing discrete features
• Raster data
– uses grid and grid cells to represent the spatial
variation of a feature
– Better for representing continuous features

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Spatial data

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 2. Attribute data
• Describes characteristics of spatial features
• Each cell has a value that corresponds to the
attribute of the spatial feature at that location
• Eg: a road segment has its attribute length,
width, type, speed limit
• Stored as database table

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 5. People
• People involved in the analysis and the
creation of information system
• Also involves users

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 GIS Operations
GIS activities grouped into
• Spatial Data Input
– Data entry
– Data editing
– Geometric transformation
– Projection and reprojection
• Attribute Data Management
– Data entry and verification
– Database management
– Attribute data manipulation
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 GIS Operations
Contd..

• Data Display
– Cartographic symbolisation
– Map design
• Data Exploration
– Attribute data query
– Spatial data query
– Geographic visualisation

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 GIS Operations Contd..

• Data Analysis
– Vector data analysis
– Raster data analysis
– Terrain mapping and analysis
– Viewshed and watershed
– Spatial interpolation
– Geocoding and dynamic segmentation
– Path analysis and network applications

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 GIS Operations
Contd..

• GIS modelling
– Binary models
– Index models
– Regression models
– Process models

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 Map projections...............
• Allows us to use 2 D maps
• Allows us to work with plane or projected
coordinates rather than latitudes and
longitudes
– Computations with geographic coordinates
are complex and yield less accuracy in
distance measurements

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 Basic concepts and properties
• Change of properties will occur when we try to project
features on earth’s surface onto a piece of paper
• Some of the properties of the spherical earth will be
lost
– the areas and shapes of the features as they appear on the
paper will be changed
– directions and distances between individual features can
no longer be maintained after projection
• The idea of map projection is about preserving the
properties of real world features when they are
depicted on a paper

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Basic concepts and properties……..
• properties
– Area
– Shape
– Distance
– Direction
• Only some of the properties can be
maintained
• Map projections aim to preserve one or
more of the four properties
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 Types of map projections
• Based on projection surface
– Conic - cone
– Cylindrical -cylinder
– Azimuthal - plane
• Based on line of tangency
– Simple – one line of tangency for conic and cylindrical,
point of tangency for azimuthal
– Secant – two lines of tangency conic and cylindrical,
line of tangency for azimuthal
• Based on preserved property
– Conformal – preserves local angles and shapes
– Equivalent – preserves area
– Equidistant – maintains consistency of scale
– Azimuthal - retains accurate directions
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 Area
• Equal area or equivalent projection
– Any area measured on the map is equivalent to that measured
on earth
– By distorting shape of the graticule
– Allows size of the real world features to be visually compared on
the same area basis
– Distortion in shapes, distances and directions
– Employed to show spatial distributions and relative sizes of
spatial features such as political units, populations, land use and
land cover, soils, wetlands, wild life habitats, natural resource
inventories
– Examples: Alber’s Equal area conic projection, lambert
azimuthal equal area projection, Sinusoidal equal area
projection

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 Shape
• Maintain the correct shape by making the scale along
the meridian and the parallel the same in both
directions
• Relative local angles about every point on the map are
shown correctly
• The meridians intersect parallels at right angles
• Known as Conformal or orthomorphic
• Topographic mapping and navigation purposes
• Distorts area and distance
• Examples: Different Mercator projections, Lambert
conformal conic projection

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 Distance
• Achieved by selecting certain lines along which the scale remains
true
• Includes central meridian of cylindrical class projections or standard
parallels of conic class projections
• Known as equidistant
• Very sensitive to scale change
• Measurements away from the true scale are subject to distance
distortion due to changing scales
• Compromise between conformal and equal area projections
• Area scale increases more slowly than conformal projection
• Used in atlas maps
• Examples: Azimuthal equidistant projection, Equidistant conic
projections

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 Direction
• True direction map projection
– Direction measurements made on the map are the same as those on
the ground
– Inherent property of azimuthal class of projections since all meridians
pass through the poles
– Can be retained with one or two other properties
– Conformal map projections preserve shape and hence naturally
preserves true directions
– But accurate direction measurements possible only in one or two
directions
– Mercator projection preserves true direction in all directions and in all
parts of the map
– Useful property for air and sea navigation
– Examples: different variations of Azimuthal and Mercator projections

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 Simple
Projection
surface Reference
globe

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Secant case

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 (Aspect)

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 Map Projection Parameters
• Standard line – line of tangency between
projection surface and reference globe
– Standard parallel – parallel to equator
– Standard meridian – parallel to meridian
• Principal scale – scale of reference globe (ratio
of globe’s radius to earth’s radius)
– Applies only to standard line
• Scale factor – ratio of local scale to principal
scale (local scale applies to other parts of map
projection)
• Central lines – central parallel and meridian
• Centre of map projection- map origin
• False easting – assigned x-coordinate value
• False northing – assigned y-coordinate value
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 COORDINATE SYSTEMS
• Conventional method of recording position in
space
• A reference system is used to measure
horizontal and vertical distances on a map
• 1. Plane coordinate system
2. Geographic coordinate system
3. Projected coordinate system

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 PLANE COORDINATE SYSTEM
A. Plane Cartesian coordinates
B. Plane polar coordinates
C. Cartesian 3D coordinate system

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PLANE CARTESIAN COORDINATES

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 Plane polar coordinates

• One linear measurement and one angular

measurement

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Cartesian 3D coordinate system

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 GEOGRAPHIC COORDINATE SYSTEM
• Geodetic datum-numerical elements used to
define where the imaginary lines of latitude
and longitude lies on the earth surface
• WGS 84(world geodetic reference system 84)
• GRS 80 (geodetic reference system 80)

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Geographic Coordinate System

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 Sphere to ellipsoid

• Change shape and angle

• Change in location

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 Geographic coordinate systems
• Datum (ellipsoid) is the frame of reference
• When mapping, same datum used for
measuring should be used
• Frame of reference to be known while
downloading data from some other source
– To be specified in the software
– Can transform and change the coordinate system
afterwards

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 3. PROJECTED COORDINATE SYSTEMS
• UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR (UTM)
GRID SYSTEM
• UNIVERSAL POLAR STEREOGRAPHIC GRID
SYSTEM (UPS)
• STATE PLANE COORDINATE SYSTEM (SPC)

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 1. UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE
MERCATOR (UTM) GRID SYSTEM
• The UTM coordinate system uses the secant case Transverse
Mercator map projection, which minimizes shape distortions for
small geographic features.
• The UTM system divides the world into uniform zones with a
width of 6 degrees of longitude.
• The zones are numbered from 1 to 60 eastward, with zone 1
beginning at 180 degrees.
• Easting is measured from a zone’s central meridian, which is
assigned a false easting of 500,000 meters.
• Northing values in the southern hemisphere decrease southward
from a false northing of 10,000,000 meters at the equator

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• The scale factor at the central meridian is
0.9996.
• The standard meridians are placed 180kms
west and east of the central meridian
• The designation of UTM zone carries a
number and a letter
• Eg: UTM Zone 10N refers to the zone between
1260W and 1200W in the northern
hemisphere
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2. UNIVERSAL POLAR STEREOGRAPHIC
GRID SYSTEM (UPS)
• A conformal azimuthal projection, covers the
polar areas
• Centered on the pole and used for dividing the
polar area into a series of 100000 meter squares
• The UPS system is similar to the UTM system,
extending this universal system to polar regions.
• In this form, the map shows meridians as straight
radii of concentric circles representing parallels.

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 3.STATE PLANE COORDINATE SYSTEM(SPC)
• widely used as a grid system for land surveys.
• Uses coordinates in feet.
• Most states are divided into two or more overlapping state plane zones, each
with its own coordinate system and projection.
• A few smaller states use a single zone.
• The Lambert Conformal Conic projection is used for zones with a larger east-
west than north-south extent.
• Zones that are more elongated in the north-south direction are mapped
using the Transverse Mercator projection.
• Scale variations are minimized to provide an accuracy of one part in 10,000
for distance measurements. State Plane Coordinate tick marks and zone
• information can be found on U.S. Geological Survey topographic maps.
• With the development of the North American Datum 1983, a revised version
of
• the State Plane Coordinate System based on that datum was also developed.
Zones
• were redefined for some states, and northing and easting coordinates are
nominally
• in meters. However, some state and local governments require the use of
• feet as a measurement unit with SPCS83. To cover these variations, the TNT
• products provide two versions of each SPCS27 and SPCS83 zone, one in
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COMMONLY USED MAP PROJECTIONS

• MERCATOR
• TRANSVERSE MERCATOR
• LAMBERT CONFORMAL CONIC
• ALBERS EQUAL-AREA CONIC
• EQUIDISTANT CONIC

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 1. MERCATOR PROJECTION
• Aid for navigation
• The Mercator is a regular cylindrical projection (the
cylinder axis passes through the north and south poles).
• Meridians of longitude are shown as equally spaced
vertical lines, intersected at right angles by straight
horizontal parallels.
• The spacing between parallels increases away from the
Equator to produce a conformal projection.
• The scale is true along the equator for a tangent Mercator
projection

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 1. MERCATOR PROJECTION
• The poleward increase in spacing of parallels produces
great distortions of area in high-latitude regions. In fact,
the y coordinate for the poles is infinity
• so maps using the Mercator projection rarely extend
poleward of 75 degrees latitude.
• The Mercator projection remains in common use on
nautical charts. Because scale distorion is minor near the
equator, it also is a suitable conformal projection for
equatorial regions.

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 2. TRANVERSE MERCATOR PROJECTION
• The Transverse Mercator projection is a
conformal cylindrical projection with the cylinder
rotated 90 degrees with respect to the regular
Mercator projection.
• The cylinder is tangent to a central meridian of
longitude around its entire circumference.
• The central meridian and equator are straight
lines, but all other meridians and parallels are
complex curves.
• Scale is constant along any meridian.
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2. TRANVERSE MERCATOR PROJECTION
• Transverse Mercator projection is useful only
for narrow bands along the central meridian
• It forms the basis for the Universal Transverse
Mercator Coordinate System
• In the United States the Transverse Mercator
projection is also used in the State Plane
Coordinate System for states
• Gauss Conformal and Gauss-Kruger are
European names for the Transverse Mercator
projection
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 3. LAMBERT CONFORMAL CONIC
• constructed with a developable surface that
intersects the globe along two standard parallels
(SECANT)
• Scale is true along the standard parallels, smaller
between them, and larger outside them
• Area distortion is also relatively small between
and near the standard parallels
• useful for mid-latitude regions

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 4. ALBERS EQUAL-AREA CONIC
• commonly used to map large areas in the mid-latitudes
• there are two standard parallels
• The parallels are concentric circular arcs with equally-
spaced meridians intersecting them at right angles.
• The change in spacing between are more widely spaced
between the standard parallels, and more closely spaced
outside them.
• Each parallel has a constant scale, with true scale along
the standard parallels, smaller scale between them, and
larger scale outside them.
• The Albers Conic Equal-Area projection has been used by
the U.S. Geological Survey for a number of small-scale
maps of the United States, using latitude 29.5º and 45.5º
north as standard parallels.
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 5. EQUIDISTANT CONIC

• Also called simple conic projection

• Preserves the distance property along all
meridians and one or two standard parallels
• Uses the same parameters as the Lambert
conformal conic

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 Geometric Transformation
• Process of using a set of control points and
transformation equation to register a digitised
map, a satellite image, or an aerial
photograph onto a projected coordinated
system.
• A geometric transformation can convert rows
and columns (of remotely sensed data) to
projected coordinates

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• Process of conversion
– map to map transformation (for manually
digitised or scanned image)
– Image to map transformation ( for remotely
sensed data)
– Both uses set of control points to establish a
mathematical model for conversion

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 ROOT MEAN SQUARE ERROR
• Quantitative measure that determine the
quality of geometric transformation
• Estimates the displacement of the actual and
estimated locations of the control points
• To ensure the accuracy of the transformation,
the error should be within a tolerance value
• The same accuracy is assumed for the entire
map

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 Transformation Methods
• Equiarea transformation
– Allows rotation of the rectangle and preserves its shape
and size
• Similarity transformation
– Allows rotation of the rectangle and preserves its shape
but not size
• Affine transformation
– Allows angular distortion of the rectangle but preserves
the parallelism of lines
• Projective transformation
– Allows both angular and length distortions, allowing the
rectangle to be transformed into an irregular quadrilateral

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 Vector Data Analysis
• Buffering
– Creates two areas
– Around points, arcs or lines,
– Applied for regulations, Restriction,Accessibility analysis
• Overlay
– Combines geometries and attributes of two feature layers
to create an output
– Overlaid in the same coordinate system
– Point-in- polygon, line-in- polygon, polygon-on-polygon
overlay
– Union, intersect, symmetrical difference, identity
– Applied for areal interpolation

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Intersect (AND)

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Union (OR)

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