CHEMISTRY

INDEX
S. NO. PARTICULARS PAGE NO.
1. INTRODUCTION
2. FACTORS AFFECTING
RATE OF REACTION
3. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
4. CHANGE IN
CONCENTRATION WITH
TIME
5. COLLISION THEORY &

CONCLUSION
INTRODUCTION OF CHEMICAL KINETICS:-
Chemical kinetics, also known as reaction kinetics, the branch
of physical chemistry that is concerned with understanding the
rates of chemical reactions. It is to be contrasted with
thermodynamics, which deals with the direction in which a
process occurs but in itself tells nothing about its rate.
Chemical kinetics includes investigations of how different
experimental conditions can influence the speed of a chemical
reaction and yield information about the reaction's
mechanism and transition states, as well as the construction
of mathematical models that also can describe the
characteristics of a chemical reaction. It includes
investigations of how different experimental conditions can
influence the speed of a chemical reaction and yield
information about the reaction’s mechanism and transition
states, as well as the construction of mathematical models that
can describe the characteristics of a chemical reaction
Chemical reactions vary greatly in the speed at which they

occur. Some are essentially instantaneous, while others may
take years to reach equilibrium. The Reaction Rate for a given
chemical reaction is the measure of the change in
concentration of the reactants or the change in concentration
of the products per unit time. During the course of this
reaction, reactant A is consumed while the concentration of
product B increases. The reaction rate can be determined by
measuring how fast the concentration of A decreases, or by
how fast the concentration of B increases.
➢FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF REACTION:-

1. NATURE OF REACTANT:-
The reaction rate varies depending upon what substances are
reacting. Acid/base reactions, the formation of salts and ion
exchange are usually fast reactions. When covalent bond
formation takes place between the molecules and when large
molecules are formed, the reactions tend to be slower.
The nature and strength of bonds in reactant molecules
greatly influence the rate of their transformation into
products.
2. PHYSICAL STATE:-
The physical state (solid, liquid, or gas) of a reactant is also an
important factor of the rate of change. When reactants are in
the same phase, as in aqueous solution, thermal motion brings
them into contact. However, when they are in different
phases, the reaction is limited to the interface between the
reactants. Reaction can occur only at their area of contact; in
the case of a liquid and a gas, at the surface of the liquid.
Vigorous shaking and stirring may be needed to bring the
reaction to completion. This means that the more finely
divided a solid or liquid reactant the greater its surface
area per unit volume and the more contact it with the other
reactant, thus the faster the reaction. To make an analogy, for
example, when one starts a fire, one uses wood chips and
small branches — one does not start with large logs right
away. In organic chemistry, on water reactions are the
exception to the rule that homogeneous reactions take place
faster than heterogeneous reactions.
3. SURFACE AREA OF SOLIDS:-
In a solid, only those particles that are at the surface can be
involved in a reaction. Crushing a solid into smaller parts
means that more particles are present at the surface, and the
frequency of collisions between these and reactant particles
increases, and so reaction occurs more rapidly. For
example, Sherbet (powder) is a mixture of very fine powder
of metallic acid (a weak organic acid) and sodium hydrogen
carbonate. On contact with the saliva in the mouth, these
chemicals quickly dissolve and react, releasing carbon
dioxide and providing for the fizzy sensation.
Also, fireworks manufacturers modify the surface area of
solid reactants to control the rate at which the fuels in
fireworks are oxidized, using this to create different effects.
For example, finely divided aluminium confined in a shell
explodes violently. If larger pieces of aluminium are used, the
reaction is slower and sparks are seen as pieces of burning
metal are ejected.
4. CONCENTRATION:-
The reactions are due to collisions of reactant species. The
frequency with which the molecules or ions collide depends
upon their concentration. The more crowded the molecules
are, the more likely they are to collide and react with one
another. Thus, an increase in the concentrations of the
reactants will usually result in the corresponding increase in
the reaction rate, while a decrease in the concentrations will
usually have a reverse effect. For example, combustion will
occur more rapidly in pure oxygen than in air (21% oxygen).
Let’s look at the reaction of nitrogen dioxide with fluorine to
give nitryl-fluoride .
2NO2 (g) + Fe2(s) 2NO2 F
The rate of this reaction has been observed to be proportional
to the concentration of nitrogen dioxide .
5. TEMPERATURE:-
Temperature usually has a major effect on the rate of a
chemical reaction. Molecules at a higher temperature have
more thermal energy. Although collision frequency is greater
at higher temperatures, this alone contributes only a very
small proportion to the increase in rate of reaction.
6. CATALYSTS:-
A catalyst is a substance that alters the rate of a chemical
reaction but remains chemically unchanged afterwards. The
catalyst increases the rate of the reaction by providing a
different reaction mechanism to occur with lower activation
energy. In autocatalysis a reaction product is itself a catalyst
for that reaction leading to positive feedback. Proteins that act
as catalysts in biochemical reactions are
called enzymes. Michaelis Menten kinetics describe the rate
of enzyme mediated reactions. A catalyst does not affect the
position of the equilibrium, as the catalyst speeds up the
backward and forward reactions equally.
7. PRESSURE
Increasing the pressure in a gaseous reaction will increase the
number of collisions between reactants, increasing the rate of
reaction. This is because the activity of a gas is directly
proportional to the partial pressure of the gas. This is similar
to the effect of increasing the concentration of a solution.
8. PRESENCE OF LIGHT :-
Light provides necessary activation energy to the starting
materials, therefore, most of the reactions becomes faster in
the presence of light. Example: Photosynthesis.
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS :-
The experimental determination of reaction rates involves
measuring how the concentrations of reactants or products
change over time. For example, the concentration of a reactant
can be measured by spectrophotometry at a wavelength where
no other reactant or product in the system absorbs light.
1. FAST REACTION:-
For faster reactions, the time required to mix the reactants and
bring them to a specified temperature may be comparable or
longer than the half-life of the reaction. Special methods to
start fast reactions without slow mixing step include.
Stopped flow methods, which can reduce the mixing time to
the order of a millisecond. Chemical relaxation methods such
as temperature jump and pressure jump, in which a pre-mixed
system initially at equilibrium is perturbed by rapid heating or
depressurization so that it is no longer at equilibrium, and the
relaxation back to equilibrium is observed. For example, this
method has been used to study the neutralization H3O+ +
OH− with a half-life of 1 μs or less under ordinary conditions.
• Flash photolysis, in which a laser pulse produces
highly excited species such as free radicals, whose
reactions are then studied.
2. EQUILIBRIUM:-
While chemical kinetics is concerned with the rate of a
chemical reaction, thermodynamics determines the extent to
which reactions occur. In a reversible reaction, chemical
equilibrium is reached when the rates of the forward and
reverse reactions are equal and the concentrations of the
reactants and Products no longer change.
3. FREE ENERGY:-
In general terms, the free energy change (ΔG) of a reaction
determines whether a chemical change will take place, but
kinetics describes how fast the reaction is. A reaction can be
very exothermic and have a very positive entropy change but
will not happen in practice if the reaction is too slow. If a
reactant can produce two different products, the
thermodynamically most stable one will in general form,
except in special circumstances when the reaction is said to be
under kinetic reaction control.
The kinetic isotope effect is the difference in the rate of a
chemical reaction when an atom in one of the reactants is
replaced by one of its isotopes.
CHANGE IN CONCENTRATION WITH TIME:-
A rate law simply tells you how the rate of reaction changes
as reactant concentrations change.
COLLISION THEORY
• Collision theory used to predict the
rates of chemical reactions, particularly
for gases.
• Collision theory used to predict the
rates of chemical reactions,
particularly for gases.
• Rate constants use to vary with
temperature.
• Consequently, the actual rate of a
reaction is significant temperature
dependent.
• The rate dependence on temperature
can by explained by the “Collision
Theory “.
• The collision theory assumes that for a
reaction to occur, reactant molecules
must collide with enough energy and
the proper orientation.
• The minimum energy of collision
required for two molecules to react is
called Activation Energy .
• CONCLUSION:-
The main aspects summarized in this presentation were:
• The different ways of expressing chemical reaction
rates.
• The factors that affects the rate of chemical
reactions
• The form and meaning of a rate law including the
ideas of reaction order and rate constant .
• The branch of physical chemistry that is concerned
with understanding the chemical rates .
• Factors affecting the rate of reaction:-
1. Nature of reactant.
2. Physical state.
3. Surface area of solids.
4. Concentration.
5. Temperature.
6. Catalyst.
7. Pressure.
8. Presence of light .
• Experimental methods:-
1. Fast reaction
2. Equilibrium
3. Free energy
• Collision theory:-
Collision theory used to predict the rates of chemical
reactions, particularly for gases. Collision theory used to
predict the rates of chemical reactions, particularly for
gases.
➢ BIBLLIOGRAPHY:-
• WWW.WIKIPEDIA.COM
• WWW.PEDRO JULIO.COM
• WWW.BRITANNICA.COM
• WWWCHEMGUIDE.COM

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INDEX

S. NO. PARTICULARS PAGE NO.

5. COLLISION THEORY &

Chemical reactions vary greatly in the speed at which they

➢FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF REACTION:-

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