OPTICAL FIBER

COMMUNICATIONS | UMAR
ZUBAIRI | TC-20031 NOTES
TC-315

SEMESTER 6
TELECOMMUNICATIONS ENGR. DEPT., NEDUET
Introduction

1
Introduction –
Information Transmission Channels
• Information can be transferred via,

• Wired Medium
• coaxial cable, copper wire, Unshielded Twisted Pair cable etc.
(Electrical signal based transmission).
• Optical Fiber (Light based transmission).

• Wireless Medium
• Radio Frequency or RF based wireless Systems.
• Laser Based Free Space Optical (FSO) Transmission systems.
2
Introduction –
Why use Optical Communication ?
• First known case of transfer of information by light was by Alexander
Graham Bell1 in 1980. His device is called the Photophone and used
sunlight to transfer speech signals.

• Transfer of information by light has the some disadvantages, namely it is

restricted to line of sight applications and is severely affected by
environmental disturbances such as fog, dust etc.

1. A. G. Bell, ‘Selenium and the photophone’, The Electrician, pp. 214, 215, 220, 221, 1880.
3
Introduction –
Example of Wired Media
• Copper based Transmission Media.

• Coaxial Cable Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable Shielded Twisted Pair Cable
4
Introduction –
Examples of Wireless Media
• Radio Frequency Based Transmission Media.

• TV Antenna Parabolic Reflector Telecom Radio Tower

Antenna Antennas
5
Introduction –
Examples of Optical Media

Optical Fiber Cable Optical Fiber Cable Laser Tx-Rx Device

(Single glass Core) (Multicore) (Free Space Optical
Communications)
6
Introduction –
Why use Optical Communication ?

• Communications at optical frequencies allows for higher bandwidth

compared to microwave or RF communications.

• Optical communications saw major development in the 1960s with the

development of LASER and Optical fiber cables.

7
Introduction –
Why use Optical Communication ?

• Lasers provide a coherent light source and the possibility of light

modulation at high optical frequencies in free space.

• Optical fibers act as dielectric waveguides for transferring light from one
point to the other. Early optical fibers had high attenuations and were not
efficient when compared to existing wired (coaxial cable) based systems.
They also had high jointing losses.

8
Introduction –
Why use Optical Communication ?
• Figure 1. below shows different Electromagnetic Radiation Spectrum.

9
Figure 1.
In-Class Exercise

• From figure 1. determine the optical wavelength range (Δλ) that is used for
optical communication ?

10
In-Class Exercise

• From figure 1. determine the optical wavelength range (Δλ) that is used for
optical communication ?

• Answer: The optical wavelength range is from 800nm to 1700 nm.

11
Introduction –
Optical Communication Spectral Bands
• Different Spectral (Wavelength) bands are used in optical communications,
BAND NAME Designation Band Wavelength (nm)
• Original band (O-Band): 1260nm to 1360nm.
• Extended Band (E-Band): 1360 nm to 1460nm.
• Short Band (S-band): 1460nm to 1530nm.
• Conventional band (C-Band): 1530nm to 1565nm.
• Long Band (L-Band): 1565nm to 1625nm
• Ultra-Long Band (U-Band): 1625nm to 1675nm.

12
Introduction –
Optical Transmission Windows

• There are three wavelength windows commercially used for optical

communications due to low attenuation.

• 1st Optical Window = 850nm region.

• 2nd Optical Window = 1310nm region.

• 3rd Optical Window = 1550nm region.

13
Introduction –
Optical Transmission Windows
• Early Applications in the late 1970s made use of 770nm to 910nm band
where there was a low loss window (1st optical window).

• Around the 1000nm region there was a spike in attenuation due to

absorption by water molecules. (See Figure 2. Next slide)

• Hence the only usable region was the 850nm one and is referred to as the
First Window.

14
• Figure 2.: Optical Windows
Comparison.

15
Introduction –
Optical Transmission Windows
• In the 1980s, Optical Fiber manufacturer were able to fabricate fibers with
low losses in the 1260nm to 1675nm region.

• This was mainly due to reducing the concentration of Hydroxyl ions and
metallic impurities in the fiber material.

• This region contains the Second (1310nm) and Third Optical (1550nm)
window with a spike in attenuation at approximately 1400nm.

• New light sources and optical amplifiers were also developed for these
wavelengths. 16
• Attenuation Vs Wavelength.

17
• Responsivity Vs Wavelength.

18
• Optical devices wavelength
Ranges

19
In-Class Exercise

• From Previous slide determine the Optical band of a PDFA ?

20
In-Class Exercise

• From Previous slide determine the Optical band of a PDFA ?

• Answer: O-Band

21
Introduction –
Applications of Optical Networks

• Over time there have been massive improvement in Laser and optical fiber
technologies. This has allowed us to implement these in commercial
applications nowadays.

• Some Application areas where Optical Fiber systems are used,

• Wavelength Routing networks.
• Undersea Fiber Optic Cables (eg. SEA-ME-WE)
• Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing DWDM.
• Metropolitan Area Networks.
• Local Area Network. 22
Introduction –
Applications of Optical Networks
• Wavelength Routing Networks
• Multiprotocol Lambda Switching (MPλS). Switching of different
wavelengths onto different interfaces.
• A switch is used to convert an incoming wavelength on an incoming
interface to an outgoing wavelength on the outgoing interface.
• The MPλS protocol requires mapping the incoming λ and incoming
interface to the outgoing λ and out going interface.
• This evolved to GMPLS. Covers λ-switching, Fiber Switching, TDM, Layer
2 switching.
• A Label is an arbitrary tag for a data packet.
23
Introduction –
Applications of Optical Networks
• Undersea Fiber Optic Cables (eg. SEA-ME-WE)
• SEA = South East Asia.
• ME = Middle East.
• WE = Western Europe.

24
Introduction –
Applications of Optical Networks
• Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing.
• It refers to switching individual wavelengths of light onto separate
paths (Optical Fibers) for onward routing. Add-Drop Multiplexers are
used for this purpose.
• Many Wavelengths are multiplexed onto the same fiber and are
demultiplexed at the receiver.

25
Advantages of Optical Fiber Communication
• Enormous potential bandwidth: The optical carrier frequency in the range
1013 Hz to 1016 Hz (generally in the near infrared around 1014 Hz or 105
GHz) yields a far greater potential transmission bandwidth than traditional
Wired cable systems.

• Electrical isolation: Optical fibers which are fabricated from glass, or

sometimes a plastic polymer, are electrical insulators and therefore, unlike
their metallic counterparts, they do not exhibit earth loop and interface
problems.

26
Advantages of Optical Fiber Communication
• Immunity to interference and crosstalk: Optical fibers form a dielectric
waveguide and are therefore free from electromagnetic interference
(EMI), radio-frequency interference (RFI), or switching transients giving
electromagnetic pulses (EMPs).

• Ruggedness and flexibility. Although protective coatings are essential,

optical fibers may be manufactured with very high tensile strengths. The
fibers may also be bent to quite small radii or twisted without damage.

27
Advantages of Optical Fiber Communication
• Signal security: The light from optical fibers does not radiate significantly
and therefore they provide a high degree of signal security. Signal security.
The light from optical fibers does not radiate significantly and therefore
they provide a high degree of signal security.

• Low transmission loss: The development of optical fibers over the last 20
years has resulted in the production of optical fiber cables which exhibit
very low attenuation or transmission loss in comparison with the best
copper conductors.

28
Advantages of Optical Fiber Communication
• System reliability and ease of maintenance: These features primarily stem
from the low-loss property of optical fiber cables which reduces the
requirement for intermediate repeaters or line amplifiers to boost the
transmitted signal strength.

29
Disadvantages of Optical Fiber Communication

• Difficult to Splice: Joining/splicing two optical fibers produces a splice loss

at the joint which can be significant if the splicing is not done properly.

• Cannot be Curved: The Optical fiber cables cannot be sharply curved. They
can break if bent sharply.

• Costly to Install: In certain applications the capital expenditure to install an

optical fiber network can be high.

30
 Optical Fiber
Communication
(TC-315)

Lecture # 02
Basic Optic Fiber Communication System
Basic Optic Fiber Communication System

Figure 2.: Basic Optical Fiber Communication System*.

*[Ref. Optical Fiber Communications By Keiser] 3
Basic Optic Fiber Communication System-
Block Diagram

Optical Optical Fiber Optical

Transmitter (Channel) Receiver

4
Basic Optic Fiber Communication System

• Main purpose of the Optical Transmitter is to convert Electrical signals into

optical form and launch the optical signal into the optical fiber for onward
transmission.

• This block consists of,

• Optical Source (Semiconductor Laser or Light Emitting Diodes).
• Modulator (Eg. Mach Zehnder Modulator).
• Channel Coupler.

5
Basic Optic Fiber Communication System

• An optical Signal is generated by the Laser or a Light Emitting Diode.

• The Optical Source can be modulated directly by (i) varying the injection
current incase of direct modulation or (ii) In external modulation the
output of the optical source is varied.

• A channel coupler (usually a micro-lens) focuses the optical signal onto

the entrance plane of an optical fiber with maximum possible efficiency.

6
Basic Optic Fiber Communication System

• Optical Fibers of various characteristics and types are used as the channel
in an optical communication system. In future lectures we will study their
characteristics and types.

• Optical Receiver converts the optical signal into electrical form for further
processing of data.

7
Basic Optic Fiber Communication System-
Components
• A Basic Optical Fiber Communication System consists of the following,

1. Optical transmitter (Electrical to Optical Convertor i.e. laser).

• Direct Laser Modulation or External Modulation.

2. Optical Fiber. The optical channel.

• Glass Optical Fiber or Plastic Optical Fiber.
• Single Mode Fiber (SMF).
• Multimode Fiber (MMF).

8
Basic Optic Fiber Communication System-
Components
• A Basic Optical Fiber Communication System consists of the following,

3. Optical Amplifiers (Rare Earth metals based).

• EDFA (Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier-1500nm band).

• PDFA (Praseodymium Doped Fiber Amplifier-1300nm band).

• TDFA (Thulium Doped Fiber Amplifier-1400nm band) mainly used

for fiber lasers.
9
Basic Optic Fiber Communication System-
Components
4. Optical receiver (Optical to Electrical Convertor).

5. In addition, the Optical link may contain a Signal Regenerator (or

Regenerative Repeater) in addition to an optical amplifier. In this case the
following regenerator block is inserted in the optical channel,

Figure 3.: Basic Signal Regenerator.

10
Basic Optic Fiber Communication System-
Optoelectronic Regenerator

Figure 4.: Detailed Figure of Optoelectronic Regenerative Repeater*.

*[Ref.: Optical Fiber Communications: Principles and Practice by John Senior]. 11

Basic Optic Fiber Communication System-
Optoelectronic Regenerative Repeater

• The function of the regenerator circuit is to reconstitute the originally

transmitted digital pulse train without errors.

• A signal Regenerator is typically used in long haul optical networks due to

excessive distances between the transmitter and receiver. Performs
Optical to Electrical and then Electrical to Optical Conversions.

12
Basic Optic Fiber Communication System-
Optoelectronic Regenerative Repeater

• The attenuated and dispersed optical signal is first detected at the

regenerator, which consists of a photodiode and a low noise preamplifier.

• The electrical signal thus received is then conditioned. Phase, frequency,

voltage and timing correction is done on the signal down to the bit
interval. Equalization is also performed. This regenerates an exact replica
of the original data signal.

• The regenerated signal is converted to Optical signal via a transmitting

Laser and then launched into the optical fiber. 13
Basic Optic Fiber Communication System-
Optical Regenerator.
• Optical regenerator performs simultaneous optical amplification and signal
regeneration without any electrical to optical signal conversion. it can
achieve both optical signal reshaping and retiming. It overcomes optical
transmission losses.

• It is classified as,
• 1R (Reamplification)
• 2R (1R+R, Reamplification + Reshaping)
• 3R (2R+R, Reamplification + Reshaping + Retiming)
• 4R (3R+R, Reamplification + Reshaping + Retiming + Reallocation of
Wavelengths). 14
Basic Optic Fiber Communication System-
Optical Regenerator.

Figure 5.: Optical Regenerator*

*[Ref.: Optical Fiber Communications: Principles and Practice by John Senior] 15
Basic Optic Fiber Communication System-
Optical Regenerator.

• Figure 5 shows an Optical amplification/regeneration block schematic: 1R

regeneration at termination point A; 2R/3R regeneration at termination
point B; 3R+R or 4R regeneration at termination point C.

16
Basic Optic Fiber Communication System-
Optical Regenerator.

Figure 6.: Transmitted and Received Figure 7.: Various Stages of Optical
signal without any Amplification/regeneration*.
regeneration*.
*[Ref.: Optical Fiber Communications: Principles and Practice by John Senior] 17
In-Class Exercise

• With reference to the 2R regenerative block in Figure 7., what causes the
thickness in the vertical part of the signal ( i.e. low to high voltage and high
to low voltage) ?

18
In-Class Exercise

• With reference to the 2R regenerative block in Figure 7., what causes the
thickness in the vertical part of the signal ( i.e. low to high voltage and high
to low voltage) ?

• Answer: Timing Jitter. ?

19
Basic Optic Fiber Communication System
Optical Transmitter- Direct Modulation

Current Source for driving the

LASER / Optical Source
Digital Data

Driver

Optical
Channel
Optical Source Signal
Coupler
(Output)
20
Basic Optic Fiber Communication System
Optical Transmitter- Direct Modulation
• The laser/Optical Source is driven directly from the Electrical input (TTL
format data).

• For Logic Level “1” the Laser is turned on. For Logic Level “0” the Laser is
turned off.

• Fast switching Lasers are required.

• However, there is a limit to how fast the Laser can be switched between
different logic states. Fast switching results in “Chirping” in Lasers which is
detrimental to an Optical Communication System. 21
Basic Optic Fiber Communication System
Optical Transmitter- Direct Modulation

Optical Chirping

• Refractive index of the Laser cavity depends on Drive current. As drive

current changes from Logic “1” to Logic “0” and vice versa, the refractive
index also changes dynamically. Hence the resonant cavity characteristics
also change.

• This results in dynamic changes in wavelength which dynamically broadens

the Laser Line width and is called optical Chirping i.e. Wavelength Jitter
and noise is added to Laser output. 22
Basic Optic Fiber Communication System
Optical Transmitter- Direct Modulation

Optical Chirping

• If Laser is modulated directly at high bit rates (10Gb/s or more) then the
laser can optically chirp.

• Chirping can be avoided if external modulators are used.

23
 Basic Optic Fiber Communication System
Optical Transmitter-External Modulation
Current Source for driving the
LASER / Optical Source Digital Data

Electrical
Driver Signal

Optical
Channel
Optical Source Modulator Signal
Coupler
(Output)
24
Basic Optic Fiber Communication System
Optical Transmitter- External Modulation
• The laser/Optical Source is kept switched on and output’s continuous
beam intensity.

• The (external) modulator does the beam switching as per the input data
i.e. Logic “1” or “0”.

• Fast beam switching can be accomplished. Hence, high speed data can be
transmitted.

• No “chirping” in Laser device as it is being continuously driven rather then

being switched. 25
In-Class Exercise

• What is the key difference between direct modulation and external

modulation?

26
In-Class Exercise

• What is the key difference between direct modulation and external

modulation?

Answer: in direct modulation the Laser is switched between states whereas

in external modulation the emitted laser beam is modulated and laser is
kept switched on constantly.

27
Components of Basic Optic Fiber Communication
System - Receiver

Optical
Digital Data
Signal Electronic
Signal
from Fiber Block

Channel
Photodetector Demodulator
Coupler

28
Components of Basic Optic Fiber Communication
System - Receiver
• An optical receiver converts the optical signal received at the output end
of the optic fiber back into the original electrical signal.

• This block consists of,

• Coupler.
• Photodiode.
• Demodulator.

29
Components of Basic Optic Fiber Communication
System - Receiver
• The Coupler focuses the received optical signal onto the photodetector for
maximum efficiency and minimum coupling loss.

• The photodetector converts light into electrical signal.

• The Photodetector has a Responsivity (R) having units A/w.
• R = Ip / Pin
• Ip = output current from the photodetector.
• Pin = Input optical power to the photodetector.

Pin Photodetector Ip
30
Components of Basic Optic Fiber Communication
System - Receiver
• Requirements of a photodetector,
• It should have high sensitivity.
• It should have fast response.
• It should exhibit low noise characteristics.
• It should be low cost.
• It should have high reliability.
• Its size should be comparable to the optic fiber core size.

• The demodulator block does signal processing and detection in the

electrical domain. Its output is the digital data signal for the user.
31
Components of Basic Optic Fiber Communication
System - Receiver
• Receiver sensitivity,
• It is defined as the minimum average received optical power for which
the Bit Error Rate (BER) of the optical receiver is 10-9.

• Compared to RF wireless systems in which 10-4 is considered an acceptable

BER. In optical communication systems 10-9 or below is considered an
acceptable BER value.

32
Reading Exercise for week 1
• Chapters 1,2 from Optical Fiber Communications by Gerd Keiser.
• Chapters 1,2,12 from Optical Fiber Communications: Principles and
Practice by John Senior.

33
 Optical Fiber
Communication
(TC-315)

Lecture # 03
Optic Fiber Theory
Optical fiber Cable

• Consists of three parts,

1. The Core.
2. The Cladding
3. The Buffer Coating/Protective Coating

Optical Fiber cable

Optical fiber Cable

• Light transfer in an Optical Fiber works on the principle of Total internal

reflection. For total internal reflection n1>n2, where,
• n1 is the refractive index of the Core.
• n2 is the refractive index of the Cladding.
Optical fiber Cable

• Light travels in the core of an Optical Fiber.

• Light entering the cladding is considered a loss.
Optical Fiber Material Requirements
• There are some basic requirements that a material selected for fabricating
optical fibers must fulfill. The material must be such that,

• Fabrication of long and thin optical fibers is convenient.

• Material must be transparent at a particular optical wavelength in

order for the fiber to guide light efficiently.

• Compatible materials having slightly different refractive indices for core

and cladding must be used.
Optical Fiber Material Requirements
• Plastics and Glass satisfy the requirements and are commercially used for
optical fiber fabrication.

• Mostly glass fibers (Silica-SiO2) are preferred due to having less

attenuation compared to plastic fibers.

• Glass Optical Fibers can be high loss fibers with large cores used for short
communication distance or they can be low loss fibers used for long haul
applications.
Glass Optical Fibers
• Glass optical fibers are made by fusing mixtures of metal oxides, sulfides
or selenides. This results in a material that is a randomly connected
molecular network rather than a well defined ordered structure.

• It requires high temperature to enter the molten state.

• Simple glass optical fiber is the Silica (SiO2) fiber having a refractive index
of 1.458 at 850nm.
Glass Optical Fibers
• Glass based fibers have,

1. High transparency in the visible and Infra-red regions.

2. Good Chemical Durability.
3. Low Thermal Expansion. Hence Resistance to breakage from thermal
shock.
4. Resistance to deformation at high temperatures.
5. Glass remains solid to several hundred degrees Centigrade. At very
high temperatures it softens up and becomes a viscous liquid.
Glass Optical Fibers
• The principle raw material for Silica is sand.

• Glass composed of pure silica is also referred to as

• Silica Glass.
• Fused Silica.
• Vitreous Silica.
Plastic Optical Fibers
• Plastic Optical Fibers can be used for short distance communication
due to having high loss / attenuation compared to glass fiber.

• They can be used in environments where their greater mechanical

strength offers an advantage compared to glass fibers.
Refractive index changes in Glass Optical Fiber
• The refractive index of the core or cladding in an optical fiber can be
changed by adding Fluorine or Oxides (dopants) to it.

• Popular materials added to change refractive indices are B2O3, GeO2, P2O5
to silica.

• Adding GeO2 or P2O5 increases the refractive index.

• Adding Fluorine or B2O3 decreases the refractive index.

Refractive index changes in Glass Optical Fiber

Variation in Refractive index as a Function of doping concentration in Silica Glass.

In class Exercise

Q) The optical fiber transfers light by working on the principle of total

internal reflection where n1 > n2. Given that the Cladding is made of SiO2,
What material will be doped to silica to fabricate the core of the fiber ?
In class Exercise

Q) The optical fiber transfers light by working on the principle of total

internal reflection where n1 > n2. Given that the Cladding is made of SiO2,
What material will be doped to silica to fabricate the core of the fiber ?

Answer)
Since the cladding is made of SiO2, hence its refractive index (n2) will be
approximately 1.45. For total internal reflection we require n1>n2.

To increase the refractive index of the core (n1) we can dope it with GeO2.
Types of Glass Optical Fibers
• There are three types of Glass Optical Fibers,

• Halide Glass Optical Fibers.

• Active Glass Optical Fibers.

• Chalgenide Glass Optical Fibers.

Types of Glass Optical Fibers
• There are three types of Glass Optical Fibers,

• Halide Glass Optical Fibers.

• Active Glass Optical Fibers.

• Chalgenide Glass Optical Fibers.

Halide Glass Fibers
• Fluoride glasses used for Optical fibers.

• Fluoride belong to the general family of halide glasses. Anions are from
elements of Group VII of the periodic table (Fluorine, chlorine, bromine
and iodine).

• A Particular fluoride glass is ZBLAN.

• ZBLAN is composed of ZrF4 (54%), BaF2 (20%), LaF3 (4.5%), AlF3 (3.5%) and
NaF (18%). This forms the core of the glass fiber.
Halide Glass Fibers
• ZHBLAN material is used for the Cladding of the glass fiber. In this the ZrF4
is partially replaced by HaF4.

• Exhibit low attenuations of 0.01 dB/km to 0.001dB/km.

• Fabricating Long Lengths of there optical fibers is difficult.

Halide Glass Fibers
• Ultrapure materials must be used in fiber fabrication.

• Fluoride glass is prone to devitrification (process of crystallization in a

formerly crystal-free glass).

• Hence, fiber formation techniques must avoid the formation of

microcrystallites.
Active Glass Fibers
• The concept is to dope rare earth elements (atomic number 57 to 71) in
low concentration to the glass to form the optical fiber.

• This new fiber can perform amplification, attenuation and phase

retardation on the light passing through it.

• Doping can be done on both silica and Halide glass.

• Common Materials used are Erbium and Neodymium. Ionic concentration

is kept low (0.005 to 0.05 mole percent).
Active Glass Fibers
• How it works ?

• An optical source which emits at the doped fibers absorption

wavelength is used to excite electrons to higher energy levels.

• These electrons then drop to lower energy levels and emit light in the
fluorescence wavelength having a narrow optical spectrum.
In Class Exercise

Q) Can you give an example of a device (mentioned in previous lectures)

which makes use of an Active Glass Fiber ?
In Class Exercise

Q) Can you give an example of a device (mentioned in previous lectures)

which makes use of an Active Glass Fiber ?

Answer) Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier (EDFA)

Chalgenide Glass Fibers
• Used in All-optical switches and Fiber Lasers.

• Exhibits high optical nonlinearity.

• Contains a Chalcogen element (S, Se or Te) and one other element such as
P, I, Cl, Br, Cd, Ba, Si or Tl for adjusting the mechanical, thermal and optical
properties of the glass.
Chalgenide Glass Fibers
• As2S3 is a popular Chalgenide glass material.

• As40S58Se2 is used for core in single mode fibers. As2S3 is used in the
cladding.

• Losses are generally 1dB/m.

Plastic-Clad Optical Fiber
• Optical fibers for long haul applications have a glass / silica core followed
by a glass / silica based cladding. These have low losses over long
distances.

• However for short distance applications less expensive Optical fiber having
silica core and a plastic cladding can be used. Losses are significantly
greater than all glass based optical fibers.

• These fibers are referred to as Plastic-Clad Silica (PCS) Fibers.

Plastic-Clad Optical Fiber
• Quartz is commonly used for the silica core. Silicone resi is commonly used
for the cladding and has refractive index 1.405 at 850nm.

• Another cladding material is perflouronated Ethylene Propylene (Teflon

FEP). Refractive index 1.338.

• Used for Step Index Fibers.

Plastic Optical Fiber
• All Plastic multimode step index fibers are used for short distance
communication.

• Also referred to as Polymer Optical Fibers (POF).

• Core can be made of,

• Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA-POF).
• Perflouronated Polymer (PFP-POF)
Plastic Optical Fiber
• Compared to silica optical fibers the core diameters of plastic fibers are 10-
20 times larger.

• They exhibit greater optical signal attenuations compared to glass fibers.

• They are more tough and durable.

 Optical Fiber
Communication
(TC-315)

Lecture # 04
Optic Fiber Theory
Optical Fiber Fabrication
• Before understanding the working of an Optical Fiber, we must understand
how a fiber which is 125µm thick is fabricated.

• For reference please note that the human hair is roughly 100µm thick.
Optical Fiber Fabrication
The Optical Fiber is Fabricated or ‘Drawn’ in a Fiber Drawing Tower. Shown
below,
Fiber Drawing Apparatus- Components
• It consist of the following components,
• Preform (is drawn into the optical fiber),
• Precision Feed Mechanism.
• Clamp.
• Drawing Furnace.
• Fiber Thickness Monitor.
• Elastic Coating Applicator.
• Takeup Drum.
Optical Fiber Fabrication
• The Main component which results in the optical fiber Drawing techniques
is the ‘Preform’.

• A preform is a clear glass rod or tube which is typically around 10 to 25mm

in diameter and 60 to 120cm long in length. This is fed to the Fiber
drawing apparatus to from the optical fiber.
Optical Fiber Fabrication
• Preform can be fabricated using Vapor Phase Oxidation Process. This can
be achieved using any of the four methods,
• Outside Vapor Phase Oxidation (OVPO).
• Vapor Phase Axial Deposition (VAD).
• Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition (MCVD).
• Plasma Activated Chemical Vapor Deposition (PCVD).

• An Optical Fiber can be fabricated directly using the Direct Melt Method of
which the following technique is used,
• Double Crucible Technique.
Fiber Drawing Apparatus
• Fiber Drawing Apparatus.
Fiber Drawing Apparatus- Working
• The Preform is first attached to the precision feed mechanism via a clamp.

• The Precision feed mechanism inserts the preform into a circular heater
also called a drawing furnace. Temperature may be 2000 to 2200oC.

• This heats up the preform end and softens it to the point where it can be
drawn into a thin filament. This thin filament is the optical fiber.
Fiber Drawing Apparatus- Working
• The Takeup Drum is positioned at the bottom of the tower. The turning
speed of the takeup drum plays an important role as

• It determines how fast the optical fiber is drawn and hence the thickness
of the fiber.

• An optical thickness monitor is used to provide feedback to control the

rotation speed of the takeup drum.
Fiber Drawing Apparatus- Working
• An elastic coating applicator is used to coat the bare fiber with as elastic
coating.

• This coating protects the bare fiber from external contaminants such as,
• Dust.
• Water Vapor.
In Class Exercise

Q) Why do you need to coat a bare optical fiber ?

In Class Exercise

Q) Why do you need to coat a bare optical fiber ?

Answer)
To Protect the fiber from contaminants such as Dust and Water Vapor.
To ruggedize (resistance to wear, stress, and abuse) the optical fiber and
provide it some mechanical strength.
Preform Making Techniques

• As mentioned in previous few slides, the preform can be formed by,

• Outside Vapor Phase Oxidation (OVPO).
• Vapor Phase Axial Deposition (VAD).
• Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition (MCVD).
• Plasma Activated Chemical Vapor Deposition (PCVD).
Outside Vapor Phase Oxidation (OVPO)

OVPO Process

[Figure Ref: Optical Fiber Communication by Gerd Keiser.]

Outside Vapor Phase Oxidation (OVPO)
• OVPO Process has the following components,

• Bait Rod or Mandrel.

• Rotating mechanism.

• Constituents that are injected from burners.

Outside Vapor Phase Oxidation (OVPO)
• Commercial OVPO method was used to produce Optical fibers having
approximately 20 dB/km loss characteristics. Corning Glass Works also
produced Optical fibers from OVPO. (Fun Fact: Corning now develops Gorilla
Glass for Electronic Devices. Also Find the link Between Pyrex Cookware and
Corning Company. Visit Corning.com for more insight in Fiber and optics
Development).

• A layer of SiO2 particles called ‘soot’ are deposited from a burner onto a
graphite or ceramic ‘mandrel’. This mandrel is also called the ‘bait rod’. It is
rotated. The burner is moved in a back and forth motion for even deposition
of the particles (cylindrical symmetry of particle deposition).
Outside Vapor Phase Oxidation (OVPO)
• Also called Outside Vapor-Phase Deposition (OVD) Process.

• The Glass soot adheres to the bait rod.

• Layer by Layer a cylindrical porous glass preform is built up over the bait
rod.

• Both Step index or Graded index Optical Fibers can be drawn from the
preform made using OVPO.

• OVPO It is also referred to as a lateral deposition technique.

Outside Vapor Phase Oxidation (OVPO)
• The dimensions of the core and cladding can be incorporated into the
preform by controlling the constituents of the metal halide vapor stream
during the deposition process. As shown in the figure.

[Figure Ref: Optical Fiber Communication by Gerd Keiser.]

Outside Vapor Phase Oxidation (OVPO)
• After the deposition process, the mandrel is removed and the porous tube
is vitrified in a dry environment at 1400oC to form a clear glass preform.
This process is also referred to as sintering.

(Sintering: Transformed to a homogeneous

glass mass by heating without melting.)

[Figure Ref: Optical Fiber Communication by Gerd Keiser.]

Outside Vapor Phase Oxidation (OVPO)
• The preform contains a central hole which collapses during the fiber
drawing process. See figure.

[Figure Ref: Optical Fiber Communication by Gerd Keiser.]

Vapor Phase Axial Deposition (VAD)

VAD Process

[Figure Ref: Optical Fiber Communication by Gerd Keiser.]

Vapor Phase Axial Deposition (VAD)
• Components that VAD process consist of,

• Pulling Machine.

• Seed Rod.

• Vessel consisting of Ring Heater.

• Enclosure (Reaction Chamber) consisting of different sensors and inlet

tubes through which vaporized constituents are injected from burners
and react to form silica soot by flame hydrolysis.
Vapor Phase Axial Deposition (VAD)
• The SiO2 particles are deposited onto the end surface of a silica glass rod
which as the seed for this process.

• The porous preform is grown in axial direction by moving the rod upward.

• Similar to OVPO method, the bait rod in the VAD method is rotated
continuously to maintain cylindrical symmetry of particle deposition.

• In the zone melting region, the porous preform is heated into a solid glass
preform from which an optical fiber can be drawn.
Vapor Phase Axial Deposition (VAD)
• It is an Axial Deposition method.

• The resulting preform can be drawn into Optical fiber via fiber drawing
apparatus.

• Both Step index and graded index fibers can be drawn.

Vapor Phase Axial Deposition (VAD)
• Advantages over OVPO,

• The preform has no central hole.

• Preform can be fabricated in continuous lengths.
• Deposition chamber and zone melting ring heater are enclosed in the
same enclosure which permits fabrication which is free from
environmental contaminants.
• Can form low loss fibers. Loss can be as low as 0.35 dB/km at 1300nm
and 0.21 dB/km at 1550nm.
Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition (MCVD)

MCVD Process
[Figure Ref: Optical Fiber Communication by Gerd Keiser.]
Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition (MCVD)
• Pioneered at Bell Laboratories.

• MCVD Process has the following components,

• Bait Tube (hollow silica tube).

• Rotating Mechanism.

• Burners (Oxygen Hydrogen Flame).

Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition (MCVD)
• MCVD Process is widely used to produce low loss Graded index fiber.

• Loss can be as little as 2.8 dB/km at 820nm, 0.45 dB/km at 1300nm and 0.35
dB/km at 1500nm (graded index germanium phosphosilicate fibers).
0.2 dB/km at 1550nm for GeO2 doped Silica single mode fibers.

• Also Known as an inside vapor-phase oxidation (IVPO) technique. This is

because instead of using a bait rod, the preform is grown by injecting soot
within a hollow silica tube (bait tube).

• This silica tube may be used as the cladding material or it may be used as a
supporting material for the preform structure.
Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition (MCVD)
• The Oxygen-hydrogen flame produces a hot zone (1400 to 1600oC) which
causes reactions and results in reducing the impurity (OH) concentration.

• This results in a preform which can produce low loss fibers.

• The bait tube in the MCVD method is rotated continuously to maintain

cylindrical symmetry of particle deposition. This also ensures uniform
heating.

• Particles are deposited on a layer by layer basis forming a sintered film. A

film may be 10µm thick.
Modified Chemical Vapor Deposition (MCVD)
• For the case where the silica tube is the cladding then only the particles
which have the properties of the core of the fiber are deposited inside the
tube.

• For the case where the tube is just used as a support structure, both the
cladding and core are grown inside the tube layer by layer.

• After the deposition process is completed the temperature is increased to

the range of 1700oC to 1900oC. This collapses the tube and gives a solid
preform.
Plasma Activated Chemical Vapor Deposition (PCVD)

PCVD Process
[Ref.: Optical Fiber Communication by John Senior]
Plasma Activated Chemical Vapor Deposition (PCVD)

• 3D view of the PCVD

apparatus.
Plasma Activated Chemical Vapor Deposition (PCVD)
• Plasma: Using a combination of high temperature, low pressure and
electromagnetic energy source, gas molecules can be ionized into ions and
electrons. Since electrons have smaller mass, they will move much faster
than ions. It is also referred to as the fourth state of matter. Plasma is also
conductive due to presence of electrons.

• Non-isothermal Plasma: Although having less mass, the electrons can

attain high speeds when the electromagnetic field is increased. Such high
speeds causes generation of heat in the plasma. Such plasma is called non-
isothermal plasma. This heat causes the chemical reactions to take place in
the Bait tube and the particles form clear glass without sintering.
Plasma Activated Chemical Vapor Deposition (PCVD)
• Pioneered by Scientists at Philips Research.

• A variation of MCVD process. It also uses a (Quartz/Silica) bait tube inside

which the SiO2 along with dopant particles are deposited directly without
sintering. No soot formation within the tube.

• This is achieved through the use of a moving microwave resonator (2.45

GHz) which produces plasma inside the tube.

• Tube is also heated from outside at 1000oC to 1200oC so as to reduce

mechanical stress in the growing glass films.
Plasma Activated Chemical Vapor Deposition (PCVD)
• This process enables deposition of many layers/films of material to make
the preform. Layers can be deposited very accurately and quickly.

• Many layers (2000-5000) can be added.

• This gives a smooth Graded index profile compared to MCVD.

• After reaching the desired glass thickness, the tube is collapsed into a
preform.
Plasma Activated Chemical Vapor Deposition (PCVD)
• Very Low loss Optical fibers can be produced.

• Both Step index and Graded index fibers can be drawn from the preform.

• Provides very good graded index profile. Provides low pulse dispersion
(less than 0.8ns/km). Loss of 3 dB/km to 4 dB/km at 850nm.

• Molecules formed in a reaction zone are deposited directly on the inner

walls of the tube. The three stages i.e. Chemical reaction, particle
deposition and glass formation takes place simultaneously.
Direct Melt Method for Optical Fiber-
Double Crucible Technique

Double Crucible Method

[Ref. Optical Fiber Communication by Gerd Keiser]
Double Crucible Technique
• One of the oldest glass making techniques which was used to make Optical
fibers.

• Fibers are drawn directly without the step of making the preform.

• Core and Cladding Materials are made separately in the form of rods by
melting mixtures of purified powders.

• These rods are used as feedstock for the two concentric crucibles.

• The inner crucible contains molten core glass.

Double Crucible Technique
• The outer crucible contains molten cladding glass.

• Fibers are drawn from the molten state through orifices at the bottom of
the two concentric crucibles.

• Silica crucibles are mostly used in preparing glass feed rods.

• Double concentric crucibles, used in the furnace, are made of platinum to

avoid contamination to feed stock.

• This method can produce silica/Chalgenide/halide glass fibers.

Double Crucible Technique
• It lacks precision control over fiber refractive index profile. Mainly used to
produce large core diameter fibers (200µm) which are hardly used nowadays.

• Both step index and graded index fibers can be drawn.

• Pulse dispersion values are from 1 to 6ns/km.

• Attenuations are from 5 to 20dB/km at 0.85µm

• A continuous production technique. Fiber is melted together and drawn in

one setup.
Week 02 Reading Exercise
• Chapter 2 of Optical fiber communication by Gerd Keiser.

• Chapter 3 and 4 of Optical fiber communication: principles and Practice by

John Senior.
Optical Fiber Communications | Umar Zubairi | TC-20031 Notes

1
Optical Fiber Communications | Umar Zubairi | TC-20031 Notes

2
Optical Fiber Communications | Umar Zubairi | TC-20031 Notes

2πa
• V2 = � λ
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2πa
• V2 = � λ
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