LECTURE II and III

1 Ordered Pairs and Cartesian product

1.1 Ordered Pairs
Similar to the union and intersection of two sets, an other interesting set that can be
formed from two given sets is their Cartesian product .This idea is given by the French
mathematician Rene Descartes(1596-1650). He also invented the Cartesian coordinate
system.

A pair of object expressed in a particular order is known as ordered pair. Precisely,

we have the following definition.

Definition 1.1. Let A and B be two sets. Consider the pair (a, b), in which the first
component is from the set A and the second component is from the set B. Then (a, b)
is called an ordered pair. In an ordered pair the order in which the two elements are
written is important. Hence, (a, b) and (b, a) are different ordered pairs. Also, we notice
that
(a, b) = (c, d) ⇐⇒ a = c and b = d.
Remark 1.2. In general, (a, b) 6= (b, a).
Definition 1.3. For any two nonempty sets A and B. The Cartesian product of A and
B is denoted by A × B, is the set of all possible ordered pairs (a, b) such that a ∈ A and
b ∈ B. Symbolically, we write

A × B = {(a, b) : a ∈ A and b ∈ B}.

Example 1.4. Let A = {1, 2} and B = {a, b}. Then

A × B = {(1, a), (2, a), (2, a), (2, b)} and B × A = {(a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 1), (b, 2)}

A × A = A2 = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2)}

and

B × B = B 2 = {(a, a), (a, b), (b, a), (b, b)}.

Remark 1.5. Let A and B be two sets. Then

 (i) A × B = ∅ ⇐⇒ A = ∅ or B = ∅.

(ii) In general, A × B 6= B × A.

(iii) A2 = A × A.

(iv) The pair (a1 , b1 ) to be equal to (a2 , b2 ) if and only if a1 = a2 and b1 = b2 .

(v) If A has n elements and B has m elements, then A × B and B × A has m · n. In

general,

n(A × B) = n(A) · n(B) and n(A × A) = n(A) · n(A) = n2

where n(A) = number of elements in set A.

Given three sets A, B and C we can construct many Cartesian products from them:
for instance, the set A × D, where D = B × C; the set E × C, where E = A × B; and also
the set of all ordered triples (a, b, c) where a ∈ A, b ∈ B, and c ∈ C. These give us three
distinct sets, yet here also, we feel that these sets must be closely related. Of course, we
can continue this process with more and more sets. In general, the idea of a product of
sets can be extended to any finite number of sets in similar fashion. Thus, the Cartesian
product of n sets A1 , A2 , ..., An is given by

n
Y
A1 , A2 , · · · , An = Ai = {(a1 , a2 , · · · , an ) | a1 ∈ A1 , a2 ∈ A2 , · · · an ∈ An }.
i=1

Remark 1.6. Here we write some important observations:

(i) For A1 =, A2 = · · · = An = R, then the Cartesian product of n sets is denoted by

Rn = R × R × · · · R, it represents the n-dimensional space for n ≥ 1. It is also called
n-dimensional Euclidean space.

(ii) For n = 1, it is known as a Real line R.

(iii) For n = 2, we denote R2 = R × R = {(a1 , a2 ) | a1 ∈ R, a2 ∈ R}, it represents the

2-dimensional space(circle or plane).

(iv) For n = 3, we denote R3 = R × R × R = {(a1 , a2 , a3 ) | ai ∈ R, for i = 1, 2, 3}, it

represents the 3-dimensional space(sphare).

(v) The set {a1 , a2 , · · · , an } is called the set of n-tuples.

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2 Relations and Functions
The set of elements (a, a) in A × A is called the diagonal of A × A. This perticular set
A × A gives new name called ‘relation’ and generates many important properties. We
begin with a definition.

Definition 2.1. Let A and B be two nonempty sets. A binary relation or simply, a
relation from A → B is a subset of A × B.

Equivalently, any subset of A × B is a relation from A to B.

Assume that R is a relation from A → B. Then R is a set of ordered pairs where each
first component comes from A and each second component comes from B. That is, for
each pair a ∈ A and b ∈ B, exactly one of the following is holds:
(i) If (a, b) ∈ R; then we say “ a is R-related to b”, and written as aRb.
(ii) If (a, b) ∈
/ R; then we say “ a is not R-related to b”, and written as a 6 Rb.
The domain of a relation R from A to B is the set of all first components of the
ordered pairs which belongs to R, and so it is a subset of A. Mathematically, we write

dom (R) = {a ∈ A|(a, b) ∈ R for some b ∈ B}.

The range of R is the set of all second components and so it is a subset of B.
Symbolically, we write

Range (R) = {b ∈ B|(a, b) ∈ R for some a ∈ A}.

Sometimes R is a relation from a set A to itself, that is, R is a subset of A2 = A × A.
In such case, we say that R is a relation on A. In particular, we have the following:
Remark 2.2. Let A and B be two nonempty sets.
(i) A relation R on a set A is a subset of A × A.
(ii) R is relation from A to B ⇐⇒ R ⊆ A × B.
(iii) A relation from A to B is also known as a relation from A into B.
Definition 2.3. Let A and B be nonempty sets. A function from A to B is a subset, C,
of A × B such that for every x ∈ A there is a unique y ∈ B such that the ordered pair
(x, y) is in C. This is written as f : A → B, which is read:” f is a function from A into
B or f maps A into B. If f associates with an element x ∈ A, the element y of B, then
we write f (x) = y. Mathematically, we express as

f (x) = y or y = f (x) for all x ∈ A.

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 In this notation, an element x is called the independent variable and y is called the
dependent variable, since the value of y will depend on the value of x. The element f (x)
in B is called the image of x under f or value of f at x. In definition of a function, the
set A is called the domain of f , and the set f (A) = {f (x)|x ∈ A} is called the range of
f . The range of f is a subset of B, i.e., f (A) ⊆ B. The set B is said to be codomain or
range set of f .

Example 2.4. Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {a, b} and R = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, b)}. Since we
have

A × B = {(1, a), (1, b), (2, a), (2, b), (3, a), (3, b)}.
Here we see that R ⊆ A × B and hence R is relation from A to B. Further, we write

1Ra, 1Rb, 2Rb.

Moreover, the domain of R is {1, 2} and the range of R is {a, b}.

Example 2.5. Let A = {1, 2, 3}, B = {a, b} and R = {(1, b), (1, c), (a, b)}. Then R is
not a relation from A to B, since R 6⊆ A × B.

Example 2.6. Consider Q, the set of rational numbers and R is the relation ‘is less than
(<)’. Then, clearly 2R4 (since 2 < 4), but 4R2. This means (2, 4) ∈ R, but (4, 2) 6∈ R.
Hence, R ⊆ Q × Q.

Example 2.7. Let N, the set of natural numbers and R is the relation ‘is multiple of ’.
Then, clearly 9R3, since (9, 3) ∈ R i.e., 9 is multiple of 3. However, 3R9 6∈ R. Hence,
R ⊆ N × N.

Exercise 2.8. Let N be the set of natural numbers and R the relation {(a, a2 )| a ∈ N}.
State whether the following are true or false:

(i) 2R4 (ii) 4R2 (iii) 5R25 (iv) 9R3

Exercise 2.9. Let A = {1, 2, 4} and B = {4, 8} be two sets. Next, let R is a relation
from A to B such that R = {(1, 4), (1, 8), (2, 4), (2, 8), (4, 8)}. Is R is relation ? If answer
is yes, then find the relation.

Soultion: Given A = {1, 2, 4}, B = {4, 8} and R = {(1, 4), (1, 8), (2, 4), (2, 8), (4, 8)}.
(i): To check R is relation or not
Here it is clear that R ⊆ A × B and hence R is relation from A to B.

(ii): To find the relation

Since the first component in each ordered pairs is less than from the second components,
that is, (2, 4) ∈ R =⇒ 2 is less than 4. Hence, the relation ‘is less than’.

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Remark 2.10. Let A be a nonempty set. Then, a subset f of A × A is a function
f : A → A if and only if each a ∈ A appears as the first component in exactly one ordered
pair in f .
Exercise 2.11. Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4} be a set of four elements. Determine whether OR
not each relation is a function from X → X?
(i) f = {(2, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (3, 2), (4, 4)}

(ii) g = {(3, 1), (4, 2), (1, 1)}

(iii) h = {(2, 1), (3, 4), (1, 4), (2, 1), (4, 4)}.
Soultion: To check about part (i). Given, f = {(2, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (3, 2), (4, 4)}. Here we
see that two different ordered pairs (2, 3) and (2, 1) have the same numver 2 as their first
component. Therefore, f is NOT function.

To check (ii). Similarly, we can prove that g is not function.

To check (iii). Given, h = {(2, 1), (3, 4), (1, 4), (2, 1), (4, 4)}. In this function 2 appered
twice but in same ordered pair (2, 1) and (2, 1) respectively. That is, 2 appeared exactly
in ordered pair (2, 1). Hence, h is function.

Total Number of Relations

Let A and B be two finite sets consist of n and m elements. Then we have

|A × B| = |A|.|B| = n.m,
where A = number of elements in A. Therefore, total number of relation from A to B is
2nm .

3 Inverse relations: R−1

Definition 3.1. Let A and B be two nonempty sets and R be a relation from A to B.
The relation R−1 from B to A is called inverse relation of R. Mathematically, we write

R−1 = {(b, a)| a ∈ A, b ∈ B}.

Remark 3.2. Let A and B be two nonempty sets and R be a relation from A to B.
(i) (a., b) ∈ R ⇐⇒ (b, a) ∈ R−1 .

(ii) dom (R−1 ) = range (R), and range (R−1 ) = dom (R).

(iii) (R−1 )−1 = R.

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Example 3.3. Let A = {1, 2, 3}, and B = {a, b} be two sets. Consider R =
{(1, a), (1, b), (2, b)} is relation from A to B. Then, the inverse relation R−1 is given
by

R−1 = {(a, 1), (b, 1), (b, 2)}.

Moreover, the domain of R is {1, 2} and the range of R is {a, b}. Also, we have

the domain (R−1 ) = {a, b}

and
the range(R−1 ) = {1, 2}.

Exercise 3.4. Let R = {(1, −1), (2, 0), (3, 1), (5, 3)} be a relation. Then

(i) find R−1 .

(ii) find dom (R−1 ).

(iii) find range (R−1 ).

Soultion: Given R = {(1, −1), (2, 0), (3, 1)(5, 3)}. Then, we have

R−1 = {(−1, 1), (0, 2), (1, 3), (3, 5)}.

Hence, by the definition of domain and range of the inverse relation, we obtain

dom (R−1 ) = {−1, 0, 1, 3} and range(R−1 ) = {1, 2, 3, 5}.