Section 2

Units of Main Ideas

Scientists worldwide use SI

Measurement
measurements.

Prefixes added to SI base units

indicate larger or smaller
Key Terms quantities.
quantity derived unit conversion factor
SI volume dimensional analysis SI base units combine to form
weight density derived units.

Conversion factors change one

Measurements are quantitative information. A measurement is more than just a unit to another.
number, even in everyday life. Suppose a chef wrote a recipe, listing quantities
such as 1 salt, 3 sugar, and 2 flour. Cooks could not use the recipe without
more information. They would need to know whether the numbers 1, 3, and 2
represented teaspoons, tablespoons, cups, ounces, grams, or some other unit for >
salt, sugar, and flour, respectively.
Measurements represent quantities. A quantity is something that has
magnitude, size, or amount. A quantity is not the same as a measurement. For
example, the quantity represented by a teaspoon is volume. The teaspoon is a
unit of measurement, while volume is a quantity. A teaspoon is a measurement
standard in this country. Units of measurement compare what is to be measured
with a previously defined size. Nearly every measurement is a number plus a unit.
The choice of unit depends on the quantity being measured.
Many centuries ago, people sometimes marked off distances in the number
of foot lengths it took to cover the distance. But this system was unsatisfactory
because the number of foot lengths used to express a distance varied with the size
of the measurer’s foot. Once there was agreement on a standard for foot length,
confusion as to the actual length was eliminated. It no longer mattered who made
the measurement, as long as the standard measuring unit was correctly applied.

Main Idea
Scientists worldwide use SI measurements.
Scientists all over the world have agreed on a single measurement system
called Le Système International d’Unités, abbreviated SI. This system was
adopted in 1960 by the General Conference on Weights and Measures.
SI now has seven base units, and most other units are derived from these
seven. Some non-SI units are still commonly used by chemists and are
also used in this book.
SI units are defined in terms of standards of measurement. The
standards are objects or natural phenomena that are of constant value,
easy to preserve and reproduce, and practical in size. International
organizations monitor the defining process. In the United States, the
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) plays the main
role in maintaining standards and setting style conventions. For example,
numbers are written in a form that is agreed upon internationally. The
number seventy-five thousand is written 75 000, not 75,000, because the
comma is used in other countries to represent a decimal point.

Measurements and Calculations 31

 Main Idea
Prefixes added to SI base units indicate larger or
smaller quantities.
The seven SI base units and their standard abbreviated symbols are listed
in Figure 2.1. All the other SI units can be derived from these seven
fundamental units.
Prefixes added to the names of SI base units are used to represent
quantities that are larger or smaller than the base units. Figure 2.2 lists SI
prefixes using units of length as examples. For example, the prefix centi‑,
abbreviated c, represents an exponential factor of 10 –2, which equals
1/100. Thus, 1 centimeter, 1 cm, equals 0.01 m, or 1/100 of a meter.

Mass
As you learned in the chapter “Matter and Change,” mass is a measure of
the quantity of matter. The SI standard unit for mass is the kilogram. The
standard for mass defined in Figure 2.1 is used to calibrate balances all
over the world. A kilogram is about 2.2 pounds.

Figure 2.1

SI Base Units
Quantity Unit Unit
Quantity symbol name abbreviation Defined standard

Length l meter m the length of the path traveled by light in a vacuum during a time
interval of 1/299 792 458 of a second

Mass m kilogram kg the unit of mass equal to the mass of the international prototype of
the kilogram

Time t second s the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation correspond-
ing to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground
state of the cesium-133 atom

Temperature T kelvin K the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic temperature of the

triple point of water

Amount of n mole mol the amount of substance of a system which contains as many
substance elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram of
carbon-12

Electric I ampere A the constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel
current conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross section, and
placed 1 meter apart in vacuum, would produce between these
conductors a force equal to 2 × 10 –7 newton per meter of length

Luminous Iv candela cd the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a source that emits
intensity monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 × 1012 hertz and that
has a radiant intensity in that direction of 1/683 watt per steradian

32 Chapter 2
 The gram, g, which is 1/1000 of a kilogram, is more useful for measur-
ing masses of small objects, such as flasks and beakers. One gram is about
the mass of a paper clip. For even smaller objects, such as tiny quantities
of chemicals, the milligram, mg, is often used. One milligram is 1/1000 of
a gram, or 1/1 000 000 of a kilogram.

Mass Versus Weight

Mass is often confused with weight. Remember, mass is a measure of the CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING
amount of matter. Weight is a measure of the gravitational pull on matter. Apply The gravity on the Moon is
Mass is determined by comparing the mass of an object with a set of 1/6 of Earth’s gravity. What would
standard masses on two sides of a balance. When the masses on each are your weight be on the moon? Would
the same, the sides balance. Unlike weight, mass does not depend on your mass on the Moon be different
gravity. Thus, weight changes as gravitational force changes, while mass from your mass on Earth? Explain.
does not change.
Mass is measured on instruments such as a balance, and weight is
typically measured on a spring scale. Taking weight measurements
involves reading the amount that an object pulls down on a spring. As the
force of Earth’s gravity on an object increases, the object’s weight in-
creases. The weight of an object on the Moon is about one-sixth of its
weight on Earth.

Figure 2.2

SI Prefixes
Prefix Unit abbreviation Exponential factor Meaning Example

tera T 1012 1 000 000 000 000 1 terameter (Tm) = 1 × 1012 m

giga G 109 1 000 000 000 1 gigameter (Gm) = 1 × 109 m

mega M 106 1 000 000 1 megameter (Mm) = 1 × 106 m

kilo k 103 1000 1 kilometer (km) = 1000 m

hecto h 102 100 1 hectometer (hm) = 100 m

deka da 101 10 1 dekameter (dam) = 10 m

100 1 1 meter (m)

deci d 10 –1 1/10 1 decimeter (dm) = 0.1 m

centi c 10 –2 1/100 1 centimeter (cm) = 0.01 m

milli m 10 –3 1/1000 1 millimeter (mm) = 0.001 m

micro µ 10 –6 1/1 000 000 1 micrometer (µm) = 1 × 10 –6 m

nano n 10 –9 1/1 000 000 000 1 nanometer (nm) = 1 × 10 –9 m

pico p 10 –12 1/1 000 000 000 000 1 picometer (pm) = 1 × 10 –12 m

femto f 10 –15 1/1 000 000 000 000 000 1 femtometer (fm) = 1 × 10 –15 m

atto a 10 –18 1/1 000 000 000 000 000 000 1 attometer (am) = 1 × 10 –18 m

Measurements and Calculations 33

 Figure 2.3

Metric Length The meter is the

SI unit of length, but the centimeter
is often used to measure smaller
distances. What is the length in cm
of the rectangular piece of aluminum
foil shown?

Length
The SI standard unit for length is the meter. A distance of 1 m is about the
width of an average doorway. To express longer distances, the kilometer,
km, is used. One kilometer equals 1000 m. To express shorter distances,
the centimeter, as shown Figure 2.3, is often used. The centimeter is about
the size of a paper clip. From Figure 2.2, on the previous page, you can see
that one centimeter equals 1/100 of a meter.

Main Idea
SI base units combine to form derived units.
Many SI units are combinations of the quantities shown in Figure 2.1.
Combinations of SI base units form derived units. Derived units are pro-
duced by multiplying or dividing standard units. For example, area, a
derived unit, is length times width. If both length and width are ex-
pressed in meters, the area unit equals meters times meters, or square
meters, abbreviated m2. Some derived units are shown in Figure 2.4. The
last column of Figure 2.4 shows the combination of fundamental units
used to obtain derived units. Figure 2.5, on the next page, shows a speed-
ometer measuring speed, another example of a derived unit.

Figure 2.4

Derived SI Units
Quantity Quantity symbol Unit Unit abbreviation Derivation

Area A square meter m2 length × width

Volume V cubic meter m3 length × width × height

_ kg mass  ​
Density D kilograms per cubic meter ​   ​ ​ _
m3 volume
_ kg mass    ​
Molar mass M kilograms per mole ​   ​ ​ __
mol amount of substance
3
​ __ volume   ​
Molar volume Vm cubic meters per mole ​ m  ​
_
mol amount of substance
Energy E joule J force × length

34 Chapter 2
 Some combination units are given their own names. For example, Figure 2.5
pressure expressed in base units is the following:
Using Derived Units to
kg/m•s2 Measure Speed The speed
The name pascal, Pa, is given to this combination. You will learn more that registers on a speedometer
about pressure in the chapter “Gases.” Prefixes can also be added to represents distance traveled per hour.
express derived units. For example, area can be expressed in cm2, square
CRiticaL ThiNKING
centimeters, or mm2, square millimeters.
Apply What derived SI units
are used to express speed?
Volume
Volume is the amount of space occupied by an object. The derived
SI unit of volume is cubic meters, m3. One cubic meter is equal to
the volume of a cube whose edges are 1 m long. Such a large unit is
inconvenient for expressing the volume of materials in a chemistry
laboratory. Instead, a smaller unit, the cubic centimeter, cm3, is
often used. There are 100 centimeters in a meter, so a cubic meter
contains 1 000 000 cm3.

​ 100 cm
1 m3 × _ ​ 100 cm
 ​× _ ​ 100 cm
 ​× _  ​= 1 000 000 cm3
1m 1m 1m
When chemists measure the volumes of liquids and gases, they often
use a non-SI unit called the liter. The liter is equivalent to one cubic
decimeter. Thus, a liter, L, is also equivalent to 1000 cm3. Another non-SI
unit, the milliliter, mL, is used for smaller volumes. There are 1000 mL in
1 L. Because there are also 1000 cm3 in a liter, the two units—milliliter
and cubic centimeter—are interchangeable. Figure 2.6 shows some of
these different volume measurements.

Figure 2.6

Comparing Liquid Volumes One liter contains 1000 mL of liquid, and 1 mL is

equivalent to 1 cm3. A small perfume bottle contains about 15 mL of liquid. There are
about 5 mL in 1 teaspoon. The volumetric flask (far left) and graduated cylinder (far right)
are used for measuring liquid volumes in the lab.

1 L = 1000 mL = 1000 cm3

1L
15 mL
1L 1 cm3 1000 cm3 15 mL

Measurements and Calculations 35

Figure 2.7 Density
A piece of cork is lighter than a piece of lead of the same size. Liquid
Relative Densities Density
is the ratio of mass to volume. Both mercury, as shown in Figure 2.7, is heavier than water. In other words,
water and copper shot float on different substances contain different masses per volume. This property
mercury because they are less dense is called density. Density is the ratio of mass to volume, or mass divided by
than mercury. volume. Density is expressed by the equation

critical thinking
Explain Using Figure 2.8, explain Density ​  mass  ​ or D = _
density = _ ​ m ​
volume V
where a diamond would be in the
layers in the graduated cylinder in
The quantity m is mass, V is volume, and D is density.
Figure 2.7.
The SI unit for density is derived from the base units for mass and
volume—the kilogram and the cubic meter, respectively—and can be
expressed as kilograms per cubic meter, kg/m3. This unit is inconveniently
large for the density measurements you will make in the laboratory. You
water will often see density expressed in grams per cubic centimeter, g/cm3, or
copper grams per milliliter, g/mL. The densities of gases are generally reported
shot either in kilograms per cubic meter, kg/m3, or in grams per liter, g/L.
Density is a characteristic physical property of a substance. It does not
mercury depend on the size of a sample because as the mass of a sample in-
creases, its volume increases proportionately. The ratio of mass to volume
is constant. Therefore, density is one property that can help to identify a
substance. Figure 2.8 shows the densities of some common materials. As
you can see, cork has a density of only 0.24 g/cm3, which is less than the
density of liquid water. Because cork is less dense than water, it floats on
water. Lead, on the other hand, has a density of 11.35 g/cm3. The density
of lead is greater than that of water, so lead sinks in water.
Note that Figure 2.8 specifies the temperatures at which the densities
were measured. That is because density varies with temperature. Most
objects expand as temperature increases, thereby increasing in volume.
Because density is mass divided by volume, density usually decreases
with increasing temperature.
Figure 2.8
Densities of Some Familiar Materials
Solids Density at 20°C (g/cm3) Liquids Density at 20°C (g/mL)

cork 0.24* gasoline 0.67*

butter 0.86 ethyl alcohol 0.791
ice 0.92† kerosene 0.82
sucrose 1.59 turpentine 0.87
bone 1.85* water 0.998
diamond 3.26* sea water 1.025**
copper 8.92 milk 1.031*
lead 11.35 mercury 13.6
† measured at 0°C ** measured at 15°C
* typical density

36 Chapter 2
 Density of Pennies

Procedure 5. Review your data for any large Materials

1. Using the balance, determine differences between trials that • balance
the mass of the 40 pennies could increase the error of your • 100 mL graduated cylinder
minted prior to 1982. Repeat results. Repeat those • 40 pennies dated before 1982
this measurement two more measurements. • 40 pennies dated after 1982
times. Average the results of • water
6. Use the average volume and
the three trials to determine the Safety
average mass to calculate the
average mass of the pennies.  ear safety
W
average density for each group
goggles and
2. Repeat step 1 with the 40 of pennies.
an apron.
pennies minted after 1982.
7. Compare the calculated
3. Pour about 50 mL of water into average densities with the
the 100 mL graduated cylinder. density of copper, listed in
Record the exact volume of the Figure 2.8.
water. Add the 40 pennies
minted before 1982. Discussion
CAUTION: Add the pennies 1. Why is it best to use the results
carefully so that no water is of three trials rather than a
splashed out of the cylinder. single trial for determining the
Record the exact volume of the density?
water and pennies. Repeat this 2. How did the densities of the
process two more times. two groups of pennies com-
Determine the volume of the pare? How do you account for
pennies for each trial. Average any difference?
the results of those trials to
determine the average volume 3. Use the results of this investi-
of the pennies. gation to formulate a hypoth-
esis about the composition of
4. Repeat step 3 with the 40 the two groups of pennies.
pennies minted after 1982. How could you test your
hypothesis?

Density
Sample Problem A A sample of aluminum metal has a mass of 8.4 g. The volume of
the sample is 3.1 cm3. Calculate the density of aluminum.

Analyze Given: mass (m) = 8.4 g

volume (V) = 3.1 cm3
Unknown: density (D)

PLAN ​  mass  ​
density = _
volume
8.4 g
Solve density = _
​   ​= 2.7 g/cm3
3.1 cm3

Continued
Measurements and Calculations 37
 Density (continued)

CHECK YOUR The answer has two significant figures to match the number of significant
WORK figures in the given values. The units are correct for density.

Answers in Appendix E

1. What is the density of a block of marble that occupies 310. cm3 and has a mass of 853 g?
2. Diamond has a density of 3.26 g/cm3. What is the mass of a diamond that has a volume of
0.351 cm3?
3. What is the volume of a sample of liquid mercury that has a mass of 76.2 g, given that the
density of mercury is 13.6 g/mL?

Main Idea
Conversion factors change one unit to another.
A conversion factor is a ratio derived from the equality between two different
units that can be used to convert from one unit to the other. For example,
suppose you want to know how many quarters there are in a certain
number of dollars. To figure out the answer, you need to know how
quarters and dollars are related. There are four quarters per dollar and
one dollar for every four quarters. Those facts can be expressed as ratios
in four conversion factors.
4 quarters 1 dollar  ​= 1 ​ __
0.25 dollar ​= 1 ​ _1 quarter
_
​   ​= 1 ​ _  ​= 1
1 dollar 4 quarters 1 quarter 0.25 dollar
Notice that each conversion factor equals 1. That is because the two
quantities divided in any conversion factor are equivalent to each other—
as in this case, where 4 quarters equal 1 dollar. Because conversion factors
are equal to 1, they can be multiplied by other factors in equations without
changing the validity of the equations. You can use conversion factors to
solve problems through dimensional analysis. Dimensional analysis is
a mathematical technique that allows you to use units to solve problems
involving measurements. When you want to use a conversion factor
to change a unit in a problem, you can set up the problem in the
following way.
quantity sought = quantity given × conversion factor
For example, to determine the number of quarters in 12 dollars, you
would carry out the unit conversion that allows you to change from
dollars to quarters.
number of quarters = 12 dollars × conversion factor
Next, you need to decide which conversion factor gives you an answer in
the desired unit. In this case, you have dollars and you want quarters. To
eliminate dollars, you must divide the quantity by dollars. Therefore, the
conversion factor in this case must have dollars in the denominator and
quarters in the numerator: 4 quarters/1 dollar.

38 Chapter 2
Thus, you would set up the calculation as follows:
? quarters = 12 dollars × conversion factor
4 quarters
= 12 dollars × _​   ​= 48 quarters
1 dollar
Notice that the dollars have divided out, leaving an answer in the desired
unit—quarters.
Suppose you had guessed wrong and used 1 dollar/4 quarters when
choosing which of the two conversion factors to use. You would have an
answer with entirely inappropriate units.
2
​ 3 dollars ​
​  1 dollar  ​= _
? quarters = 12 dollars × _
4 quarters quarter
It is always best to begin with an idea of the units you will need in your
final answer. When working through the Sample Problems, keep track of
the units needed for the unknown quantity. Check your final answer
against what you’ve written as the unknown quantity.

Deriving Conversion Factors

You can derive conversion factors if you know the relationship between
the unit you have and the unit you want. For example, from the fact that
deci- means “1/10,” you know that there is 1/10 of a meter per decimeter
and that each meter must have 10 decimeters. Thus, from the equality
1 m = 10 dm, you can write the following conversion factors relating
meters and decimeters.

​  1 m  ​  and ​ _
_ 10 dm
0.1 m ​  and ​ _
10 dm dm m ​
The following sample problem illustrates an example of deriving
conversion factors to make a unit conversion. In this book, when there is
no digit shown in the denominator, you can assume the value is 1.

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Sample Problem B Express a mass of 5.712 grams in milligrams and in kilograms.

Analyze Given: 5.712 g

Unknown: mass in mg and mass in kg
The equality that relates grams to milligrams is
1 g = 1000 mg

PLAN The possible conversion factors that can be written from this equality are
_1000 mg 1g
​  g ​ and ​ _ ​
1000 mg

Continued
Measurements and Calculations 39
 Solve To derive an answer in mg, you’ll need to multiply 5.712 g by 1000 mg/g.
1000 mg
5.712 g × _
​  g  ​ = 5712 mg

The kilogram problem is solved similarly.

1 kg = 1000 g
Conversion factors representing this equality are
1 kg 1000 g
​ _ ​ and _
​   ​
1000 g kg
To derive an answer in kg, you’ll need to multiply 5.712 g by 1 kg/1000 g.
1 kg
5.712 g × ​ _ ​ = 0.005712 kg
1000 g

CHECK YOUR The first answer makes sense because milligrams is a smaller unit than grams,
WORK and therefore there should be more milligrams. The second answer makes
sense because kilograms is a larger unit than grams, and therefore there
should be fewer kilograms.

Answers in Appendix E

1. Express a length of 16.45 m in centimeters and in kilometers.

2. Express a mass of 0.014 mg in grams.

Section 2 Formative ASSESSMENT

Reviewing Main Ideas 4. Write conversion factors for each equality.
a. 1 m3 = 1 000 000 cm3
1. Why are standards needed for measured
quantities? b. 1 in. = 2.54 cm
c. 1 µg = 0.000 001 g
2. Label each of the following measurements by the
d. 1 Mm = 1 000 000 m
quantity each represents. For instance, a mea-
surement of 10.6 kg/m3 represents density. 5. a. What is the density of an 84.7 g sample of an
a. 5.0 g/mL f. 325 ms unknown substance if the sample occupies
b. 37 s g. 500 m2 49.6 cm3?
c. 47 J h. 30.23 mL b. What volume would be occupied by 7.75 g of
this same substance?
d. 39.56 g i. 2.7 mg
e. 25.3 cm 3 j. 0.005 L
Critical Thinking
3. Complete the following conversions.
6. INFERRING CONCLUSIONS A student
a. 10.5 g = ____ kg converts grams to milligrams by multiplying
b. 1.57 km = ____ m 1g
by the conversion factor ​ _______
1000 mg
​. Is the student
c. 3.54 µg = ____ g performing this calculation correctly?
d. 3.5 mol = ____ µmol
e. 1.2 L = ____ mL
f. 358 cm3 = ____ m3
g. 548.6 mL = ____ cm3

40 Chapter 2