Study of effect of surface texturing on

wear behavior of Journal Bearing

Material

Submitted by

Under the Supervision of

Mr. Vipin Kumar Sharma

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Maharaja Agrasen Institute of Technology

Rohini Sec-22, Delhi-110086

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MAHARAJA AGRASEN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Introduction
Surface texturing is the process of applying a specific type of pattern of roughness onto the
surface in order to change its properties. Texturing with features on multiple scales can be
applied, starting from the micro/ nanometer range extending up to millimetre range. This
enables many new applications of engineered surfaces, where specific surface texture can
be used to influence functional properties, e.g., wetting, tribological characteristics of
surfaces and optical properties. Generally, these surfaces are referred as functional
surfaces. Surface textured metal surfaces upper be used protect against to aerofoil’s and
aircraft engines the accumulation of ice, during high altitude fly as well as to make more
weather proof infrastructures.

Textures on the micro- and nana scale have a large effect on various material properties
such as wetting, reflection and absorption of radiation, friction, (cell) adhesion and many
more. The wetting properties of a surface are dependent on its surface tension and surface
texture. The texture amplifies the basic wetting property of a material. A hydrophobic
material can be changed to obtain super-hydrophobic properties; and a hydrophilic surface
gets even more hydrophilic after applying a texture. This can be used for example to
become super-wetting surfaces. Surface textures can change the absorption and reflection
of light, for example, to reduce glare of a surface. The self organizing LIPSS can be used to
create optical gratings. Textures can also be used to alter the tribological properties of
materials, for example, to reduce or increase the friction, or to reduce the wear between
sliding surfaces. Dimples are frequently used to improve lubrication in sliding contacts, as
they can create a hydrodymanic pressure, or function as an oil reservoir or wear particle
trap. There are a number of ways of surface texturing such as surface etching, laser surface,
end milling, casting and non-conventional machining processes.

Definition of the Surface Texturing

Another important aspect of design is the Surface Texturing. Surface texturing, which
can be either used in combination with the anti-reflection coating or used by itself, can
also be used for minimizing the reflection so as to improve performance and
efficiency. The added roughening to the surface can reduce reflection by the effect of
increased chance for the reflected light to bounce back to the surface, instead of reflecting
back to the surrounding air. As explained, Solar cells need it in order to reduce light
reflection off its surface, and also in order to enhance light trapping. An important
parameter for surface texturing is the Surface finish or surface topography, which is the
shape or nature of the surface as defined by the three different features, surface
roughness, lay and waviness. It describes the minor, local abnormalities of a surface from
the ideal flat surface.
 Surface texturing, either in combination with an anti-reflection coating or by itself, can also
be used to minimize reflection. Any "roughening" of the surface reduces reflection by
increasing the chances of reflected light bouncing back onto the surface, rather than out to
the surrounding air. Surface texturing can be accomplished in a number of ways. A single
crystalline substrate can be textured by etching along the faces of the crystal planes. The
crystalline structure of silicon results in a surface made up of pyramids if the surface is
appropriately aligned with respect to the internal atoms. One such pyramid is illustrated
in the drawing below. An electron microscope photograph of a textured silicon surface is
shown in the photograph below. This type of texturing is called "random pyramid" texture
and is commonly used in industry for single crystalline wafers. Another type of surface
texturing used is known as "inverted pyramid" texturing . Using this texturing scheme, the
pyramids are etched down into the silicon surface rather than etched pointing upwards
from the surface. A photograph of such a textured surface is shown below.

Every surface has some form of texture that takes the form of a series of peaks and
valleys. These peaks and valleys vary in height and spacing and have properties that are a
result of the way the surface was produced. For example, surfaces produced by cutting
tools tend to have uniform spacing with defined cutting directions Whilst those produced
by grinding have random spacing . In surface texture there are many factors that, when
combined, characterise a surface’s profile. For example:
 The microstructure of the material
 The action of the cutting tool
 The instability of the cutting tool on the material
 Errors in the machine tool guideways
Deformation due to stress pattern in the component.

th
e
Why do we measure surface texture?
We measure surface texture for two main reasons:
1. To try to predict the performance of the component.
2. To try to control the manufacturing process as the manufacturing process lever its signature
in the surface texture
3 Steps to Understanding Surface Texture

Analyzing Surface Texture

Surface texture is made up of many “shapes.” We can describe the shapes as a spectrum of
“wavelengths,” ranging from short wavelength features we call “roughness” to long
wavelength shapes we call “waviness” and “form.” Through surface texture measurement
we try to describe these shapes in terms of numbers. However, seeing the profile as well
as the numbers is often the key to really understanding what is happening with a surface.
In the images below a raw profile is divided into its major components: longer
wavelength waviness (top) and shorter wavelength roughness (bottom).
The blue profile in the top graph is referred to as the “primary” profile. It’s the raw profile
after the very shortest wavelengths have been filtered out.

In general, “surface texture” refers to the primary profile, roughness, waviness, and other
surface attributes such as the direction (“lay”) of the surface features. The term “surface
finish” typically refers to the “roughness” aspects of the surface—ignoring the shape and
underlying waviness. Be careful when dealing with only the “surface finish” as many
functional problems are related to waviness as well.

How do we get these profiles from a raw measurement?

Surface measurement can be understood through the use of 3 fundamental topics:

 Fitting
 Filtering
 Analysis.

Fitting
The first step in analyzing surface texture is removing the underlying shape, or “form,” of
the surface. In many cases, the surface is tilted relative to the measuring device. In other
cases, the surface may be nominally curved. In both instances, that underlying geometry
must be removed so that we can see the finer surface details without them being
dominated by this much larger shape. We do this by “fitting” a geometric reference such
as a line or an arc and then looking at how much the surface deviates above and below the
reference geometry (the “residuals”).

The image below shows the raw data from a measurement system in the top (gray)
profile. Superimposed on the raw data is the least squares fit line, which is used to remove
the tilt from the profile. The residuals (above and below the line) make up the blue
(primary) profile
Filtering
Once the geometry has been removed, we need to separate the longer wavelength
waviness and the shorter wavelength roughness. This is the most critical aspect of surface
measurement, and yet it is very often misunderstood. Filtering surface profiles involves
running a “smoothing” filter through the primary data. The amount of smoothing is based
on a “filter cutoff wavelength,” which separates roughness from waviness. Shorter
wavelengths fall into the roughness profile and longer wavelengths appear in the
waviness profile. The filtering settings in Omni Surf are found under Analysis > Filtering.
On the left are the settings for the Short Filter Cutoff wavelength (designated λs), which
removes the shortest wavelengths from the primary profile. On the right are the settings
for the Roughness Filter Cutoff wavelength (designated λc), which separates the
roughness from waviness.

The filter cutoff defines what will be called roughness and what will be called waviness.
We don’t have standard wavelengths that are considered roughness or waviness—the
choice is entirely dependent on the application. The shapes that we would consider
roughness and waviness on a precision optical surface might be different than those that
we would analyze on a turned metal surface. The application drives the choice of cutoff
wavelengths. Changing the roughness filter cutoff wavelength changes the amount of
“averaging” and “smoothing,” which can have a huge impact on roughness and waviness.
Making the cutoff value larger will include more wavelengths in the roughness profile and
less wavelengths in waviness. Making the roughness cutoff smaller will do the opposite,
and it will result in smaller roughness values… even though the real surface could be
very rough.
The image below shows how changing the roughness filter cutoff wavelength can lead to
very different profiles. The roughness profile on the bottom left gives twice the “average
roughness” (Ra) value of the profile on the bottom right. This is why specifications for
surface roughness parameters must include the intended short and roughness cutoff
wavelengths. Without them, the specification is essentially meaningless!

2. Analysis

Once we’ve separated the data into roughness and waviness profiles, we can analyze the
aspects of the texture that we care about. Numbers (parameters) provide one way to
analyze the data and to track parts and processes over time. But operating by numbers
alone is a lot like driving in the dark using only a compass and speedometer: you may get
where you’re going, but you’ll have no way to react to changes along the way.

Surface texture analysis is really a combination of exploring the profiles and tracking the
numbers. Software like OmniSurf and OmniSurf3D give you tools to do both. Rather than
simply reading a value from a gauge and making sure it matches a print, Omni Surf lets you
see the surface texture, so when the numbers change you can understand the reasons why.
The simplest roughness parameter is the “total” height of a given profile. This is the “peak-
to-valley” height of the profile. For the primary profile the total, peak-to- valley height is
designated “Pt.” For the waviness profile it is “Wt” and for the roughness profile it is “Rt”
(the first letter always designates the profile).

Unfortunately, the old adage “you get what you pay for” holds true here. The parameters,
Pt and Rt are often quite unstable since they can be influenced by dirt, vibration and other
things that are “outside the normal statistics” of the surface. On the other hand, the peak-
to-valley waviness, Wt, is considerably more stable as it is based on only the long
wavelengths and effects from dirt are “smoothed out.”
The most common roughness parameter is the average roughness, Ra. Many years ago,
this parameter was referred to as the “arithmetic average” (AA) or the “centerline
average” (CLA). Today we designate it “Ra” to be consistent with the rest of the roughness
(“R”) parameters.
Since the average roughness (Ra) is simply the “average distance” from the meanline, peaks
and valleys are treated the same way. So, very different profiles can all have the same Ra
value, as shown in the image below:
Second to Ra in terms of popularity is the “average peak-to-valley roughness” or “ten- point
roughness,” designated Rz. Rz has different definitions based on the standard that you are
working with. There are two basic definitions: one used in German (DIN) standards (and in
today’s ASME and ISO standards), and one used in Japanese (JIS) standards (and older ASME
and ISO standards). The DIN approach uses one peak and one valley in each sampling length,
while the JIS approach uses 5 peaks and 5 valleys in each sampling length (“Sampling
length” is the portion of the measurement used for calculating parameters such as Rz, Rpm,
or Rvm). As a result, the DIN values are always equal to or higher than the JIS values. Be sure
that you know which one you are using!
(a) Typical pressure distribution over a single texture with cavitation

(b) Texture functions under starved lubrication condition

(c) Typical pressure distributions over a stepped and partially textured slider
Texturing techniques
With the development of advanced fabrication techniques including additive
manufacturing over the years, complicated texture designs become more achievable with
great precision, repeatability, efficiently and cost-effectively. The texture features are not
limited to common geometries such as circular dimples and grooves, a mixture or
overlapped features with various geometries and scales can be produced on the same
function surface, such as hierarchical structures of bio-inspired surfaces As described in a
comprehensive review by Costa, texturing methods can be broadly divided into four
categories: adding material, removing material, material displacement and self-forming
methods ]. Benefits, limitations and the target applications of the most widely used
techniques are well summarized by Arslan . The choice of the texturing method for
certain applications has to meet the minimum standards such as compatibility with the
dimensions of the workpiece, compatibility with the required shape and grain size,
accuracy, safety of the substrate material, productivity and cost- effectiveness . Table 1
summarises the principle of the most widely used techniques in tribological studies, and
the materials been textured, as well as the feature scales they can achieve.

Material and scales of various texture manufacturing techniques used in tribological

studies.

Texturing
Techniques Principle material Feature scale

High
temperature
Laser surface material
texturing (LST) removal Metal [ Micro-

Ceramic Nano

Polymer

Micro-electric High
discharge temperature
machining material
(Micro EDM) removal Metal Micro-

Ceramic

Focused ion High

beam temperature Silicon Nano-
 Texturing
Techniques Principle material Feature scale

material
removal

Chemical
etching
Chemical material
texturing removal Metal] Micro]

Chemical
etching
Electrochemical material
texturing removal Metal Micro-

Ultrasonic Mechanical
machining (USM) material Metal

Ceramic Micro

Silicon Nano-

Composite

Shot
blasting/Abrasive Mechanical
jet machining material
(ABJ) removal Metal Micro

Ceramic

Additive Additive
manufacturing manufacturing Metal [ Micro

Material
Embossing moving Metal [ Micro

Thermal Self-forming
implantation by wear Metal [ Micro-]
 Stylus with a small tip (fingernail), a gauge or transducer, a traverse datum and a processor. The
surface is measured by moving the stylus across the surface. As the stylus moves up and down
along the surface, the transducer converts this movement into a signal which is then exported to
a processor which converts.
For correct data collection, the gauge needs to pass over the surface in a straight line such that
only the stylus tip follows the surface under test. This is done using a straightness datum. This
can consist of some form of datum bar that is usually lappedor precision ground to a high
straightness tolerance. On small portable instruments this is not always a good option and
can add to the expense of the instrument. In these cases, it is possible to use an alternative
means of datum

Methods of surface texturing

Laser surface texturing (LST)

Laser Surface Texturing is the most widely used technique by various researchers because
of its high controllability, high accuracy, eco-friendly nature, high efficiency, its ability to
process under room temperature and normal pressure .LST involves the absorption of
laser energy and then the elimination of material by rapid melting or vaporizing. Laser
surface treatment provides better repeatability with a good economy and no
contamination

Surface texturing or topographical design is one of the primary techniques to control

friction and wear performance of surfaces in tribological contact. Laser surface texturing
(LST), whereby a laser beam is used to produce regular arrays of dimpleson a surface, has
been demonstrated to reduce friction in conformal lubricated contacts. Friction and wear
behavior under boundary lubrication is also known to be dependent on the formation and
durability of the tribochemical film formed from lubricant additives. In this paper, the
effects of LST on the formation and durability of tribochemical films and its consequent
impacts on friction and wear behavior in various lubrication regimes were evaluated.
Friction and wear tests that cycled through different lubrication regimes were conducted
with both polished and LST treated surfaces using a synthetic lubricant with and without
model additives of ZDDP and MoDTC mixture. In the base oil without additives, LST
produced noticeable reduction in friction in all lubrication regimes. However, with low-
friction model additives, friction was higher in tests with LST due to significant differences
in the tribo chemical film formation in the polished and LST surfaces, as well as the sliding
counter face. Continuous tribo-films were formed on ball counter face rubbed against
polished surfaces while the films were streaky and discontinuous in ball rubbed against LST
surfaces.
lubricant additives. In this paper, the effects of LST on the formation and durability of
tribochemical films and its consequent impacts on friction and wear behavior in various
lubrication regimes were evaluated. Friction and wear tests that cycled through different
lubrication regimes were conducted with both polished and LST treated surfaces using a
synthetic lubricant with and without model additives of ZDDP and MoDTC mixture. In the
base oil without additives, LST produced noticeable reduction in friction in all lubrication
regimes. However, with low- friction model additives, friction was higher in tests with LST
due to significant differences in the tribochemical film formation in the polished and LST
surfaces, as well as the sliding counter face. Continuous tribo-films were formed on ball
counter face rubbed against polished surfaces while the films were streaky and
discontinuous in ball rubbed against LST surfaces. LST produced more wear on the ball

Laser surface structuring has been applied to a wide range of materials, including metals,
polymers, ceramics, and composites. It has been used for a variety of applications, such as
surface texturing for friction reduction in engine components , surface functionalization for
biomedical implants and surface patterning for optical and electronic devices . Recent
studies have focused on developing new techniques and methods for laser surface
structuring, such as combining it with other surface treatments, such as plasma treatment
or electrochemical deposition.
 Laser surface texturing (LST)

LST by direct laser ablation Laser ablation is a process of removing materials from a
solid surface by irradiating it with a laser beam. Upon the absorption of laser energy, the
laser- matter interaction leads to the evaporation of surface materials, which can be
further ionized to form a plasma at a high laser flux . During the laser ablation process,
localized materials loss is achieved, resulting in a surface texture with specific design
patterns, such as micro-dimples or grooves.
LST by means of direct laser ablation has been successfully applied to many engineering
materials. For instance, Baurngart et al. fabricated micro-bump patterns with a
diameter of around 20 μm on the ultra-smooth silicon disk by direct laser ablation
process. Wang metal. showed that a cone-array-like microstructure with a spike depth
up to 8 μm can be fabricated on a silicon waferby direct laser ablation. Hu metal.
carried out a study on under-water laser ablation of stainless steels, in which micro-
dimples with a diameter between 200−1000 μm were successfully fabricated on
sample surfaces. Fang metal. performed LST on an Al2O3/Mo laminated composite by
using a commercial pulsed Q-switched Nd: YAG laser with a wavelength of 355 nm.
Both micro-
dimples and micro-grooves were fabricated on the surfaces of the samples. Li et al.
created surface crater arrays on alumina ceramics. A schematic illustration of the set-up
for LST by laser ablation is illustrated in Fig. 1a, in which a textured groove is fabricated
on the surface of ZrO2 ceramics .A Nd-YAG laser with a wavelength of 1064 nm and a
pulse duration of 10 ns was used for laser processing. Fig. 1b shows the 3-D surface
profile of the sample after LST. It can be seen that a textured groove with a width of 30
μm and a depth of 12 μm is generated on the surface of the sample. LST by means of laser
ablation holds the advantages of high efficiency and controllability. However, its accuracy
and flexibility are sometimes limited by the laser type, laser beam size and pulse energy.

LST by laser interference

Laser interference, also known as direct laser interference patterning (DLIP),
serves as another effective LST approach in which a periodic pattern of features is
created by means of the interference of coherent laser beams [49,50]. During the
laser beam interfering process, the surface material of the samples is locally melted
the position of maximum interference which corresponds to the highest laser
intensity. The materials transfer from the interference maxima to the minima
positions due to the surface tension gradient caused by temperature gradient .
Periodic surface geometries, such as line, dot, and cross-like patterns, can be
fabricated on the surfaces of various materials by DLIP . The gap between the
texture features fabricated by laser interference is determined by the laser
wavelength, laser-target distance, and the distance between the two laser beams
[50,53]. LST by means of laser interference has also been applied to various
engineering components. For instance, Aguilar-Morales et al. utilized laser
interference to fabricate a high aspect-ratio line-like and pillar-like periodic
structure on stainless steels. Bieda metal. used the direct laser interference method
to fabricate one and two dimensional periodic micro patterns on 100Cr- steel
surfaces. A schematic view of the setup in their experiment is shown in Fig. 2a. The
primary coherent laser beam was split into several beams by one or two
beam splitters. The beams were recombined to interfere on the sample’s
surface with highly reflective mirrors. A mechanical shutter and a
telescope system were used to control the number of pulses and beam
size, respectively. The laser- processed surface morphologies with
periodic grooves were shown in scanning electron microscope (SEM)
images in Fig. 2b-d. It can be observed that line-like surface patterns were
developed on the sample surface due to the periodic variation of the laser
intensity.
Moreover, increasing the laser intensity from 0.8 to 1.6 J/cm2 resulted in
more pronounced and deeper patterns due to a higher amount of melted
materials. Compared with laser ablation, laser interference brings a higher
texture resolution and a smaller heat affected zone .
Moreover, it allows the producing of some complex texture features by
adjusting the angles of the sub-beams, laser wavelength, and pulse energy
shows comparison of different surface texturing techniques in terms of
structure size and fabrication speed . As observed in Fig. 3, laser interference
can reach a fabrication speed of 0.1 m2 /min with a structure size ranging
from 1 to 100 μm, which demonstrates the superior processing efficiency as
compared to lithography and laser ablation. The most prominent advantage
of laser interference as compared with LST with direct laser ablation is its
capability to fabricate texture feature with a high resolution. Choi metal.
showed that uniform dot patterns with the half pitch size of around 190 nm
can be fabricated on a silicon substrate by laser interference. It should be
noted that materials processed by laser interference texturing can be locally
ablated at the position of maximum interference if sufficient laser energy is
utilized . Alamri metal. showed that both laser ablation and melting process
could be involved in the process of producing surface patterns, depending on
the type of processed materials, laser duration time, and laser pulse energy.
However, since laser ablation is always accompanied with surface
roughening effect and low texture resolution, most of the laser interference
texturing study for improving the tribological performance of metallic
materials were carried out via laser induced- remelting .
Therefore, laser interference texturing is excluded from direct laser ablation
in the current text of this paper. Despite the advantages offered by LST via
direct laser ablation and laser interference, the heating effect in these
approaches may lead to undesired by-products such as material
degradation, phase transformation, and thermal-induced tensile residual
stresses. Several studies demonstrate that surface patterning of steels
through laser ablation is often accompanied with phase transformation . For
instance, Syed et al.
showed that the ferrite phase in a low carbon steel was transformed into a
harder phase of martensite or bainite after LST by direct laser ablation. Even
though the phase with a high strength level can contribute to the increased
wear resistance , it might lead to the formation of surface cracks and
generation often sile residual stress, resulting in a poor durability of
processed samples . Moreover, surface oxidation is another critical concern .
As demonstrated by Martinez metal. [69], a layer of titanium dioxide was
produced on the surface of UNS R56400 titanium alloy processed by laser
ablation, leading to a nearly 20 %decrease of COF

LST by laser shock processing

To tackle the challenges of laser ablation and laser interference novel LST
techniques based on laser shock processing (LSP) have been developed in recent
years. LSP is an advanced laser-based surface engineering process, in which laser-
induced shockwave is utilized to introduce compressive residual stress as well as
surface hardening effect on the target surface . The surface texture is generated by
laser shock induced plastic deformation without a thermal effect . A schematic view
of LST by LSP is shown in . The target material is covered with an opaque coating to
absorb the laser energy. A transparent confinement is laid on the coating. During
the LSP process, laser pulse interacts with the opaque coating instead of the target
material, resulting in the formation of laser-induced plasma.
The expansion of the plasma is restricted by a transparent confinement, leading to
the generation of laser-induced shockwave (with a high peak pressure on the order
of GPa) propagating into the target material. Once the shockwave pressure exceeds
the dynamic yield strength of the target materials, ultrahigh strain rate plastic
deformation (105 /s–106 /s) occurs on the surface of processed samples . As a
result, surface texture with micro or mini-dimples can be created by LSP, as shown
in . Several shown that LSP could effectively improve the wear resistance of
metallic materials . The main mechanism responsible for the improved wear
resistance is the combined effect of the surface hardening and residual stress
 LST by laser shock processing

Effects of laser parameters on surface texturing

In the LST processes, besides the selection of laser types, the surface
morphology and feature sizes can be controlled by adjusting the laser
processing parameters, such as laser power intensity, laser spot size,
and pulse repetition frequency. Understanding their effects on surface
texturing will be beneficial for the optimal design of LST processes, and
therefore the tribological performance of processed materials.
(a)different kind of texture feature shapes
(b)texturing parameters during LST process
(c)The effect of texture design
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE
REVIEW
Effects of surface texturing on the tribological behaviors of PEO/PTFE coating on
aluminum alloy for heavy-load and long-performance applications

ChengLu ,PeiyingShib,JingjingYangb,JunhongJiac,∗,ErqingXied,YuanSune

Surface

texturing PEO

PTFE

Self-lubricating

Tribological performances of surface textured plasma electrolytic oxidized (PEO)

coatings containing polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) on aluminum alloy
(PEO/PTFE).The tribological properties of PEO/PTFE and textured PEO/PTFE coatings
were evaluated at load of 5–25 N using a UMT-4 tribometer under dry
condition.Aluminum alloys are promising material in industrial components of
complicated shapes and sizes because of their good corrosion resistance, superior
strength and high strength to weight ratio Unfortunately, the industrial application of
aluminum alloys are limited by their low hardness and poor lubricating property
under dry sliding conditions . Plasma electrolytic oxidation (PEO) is a promising and
appropriate technique to effectively grow hard and thick ceramic coatings on different
shapes aluminum and other light alloys such as magnesium and titanium.Laser
surface texturing (LST) is an effective approach to significantly improve the
friction and wear behavior of lubricated surfaces .Solid lubricants stored in
the dimples can be released continuously to the friction surface and thus
increase the longevity of rubbed surfaces under dry
slidingconditions.Inthiswork,theeffectoftexturedsurfacesonfrictionandwear
performance of PEO coating, coated with PTFE material by vacuum
impregnation (PEO/PTFE), was studied and compared with un textured
PEO/PTFE coating .The lubrication life and bearing.
Design principles for the area density of dimple patterns

XiaoleiWang1,2,JingqiuWang1,2,BoZhang1andWeiHu
1,2
ang
DOI:10.1177/1350650114531939

In order to improve tribological properties of sliding surfaces. Currently, the patterns of micro-dimples have
attracted more attention since such closed texture cells are supposed to generate additional hydrodynamic
pressure easily. However, the optimal values of area density obtained by theoretical models are usually
different to that obtained from experiments, which show material dependence. It is found that the stress
concentration and deformation will occur on the contacting and sliding area, and influence the tribological
properties of the textured surface significantly depending on the area density and material properties.
These negative influences should be considered carefully during surface texture design.

Surface texture, area density, friction, stress concentration ,deformation.

One of the most popular TRIZ tools is the‘’40 inventive principles’ ’,which consist of a group of
gen- eric solutions that solved technical contradictions across many fields. 2 The ‘‘40 inventive
principles’’includes:curvilinearity(insteadofusingrectilinearforms,usecurvilinearones);asymmetr
ycha nge(introduce or increase the degree of asymmetry); combining (combine in space);
nesting (putting one thing inside another); moving to a new dimension; replace mechanical
systems with fields ; turn harm to benefits (use harmful factors to achieve a positive effect);
changing properties or parameters ,etc. fabrication of –hatch pattern for the cylinder liner of
combustion engine, optimizations have been continually conducted –etched patterns, etc.
various type so surface texture, including dimple and pillar patterns with different shapes and
internal structures appeared engineering field. In order to obtain desired performance,
increasing attentions have been paid to the mechanisms and design principles of surface texture.
Usually, for the objective to decrease friction, adhesion and wear of mechanical components,
related mechanisms of surface texture include reserving lubricant to prevents seizure ,trapping
wear debris to decrease further wear ,and particularly ,providing additional hydro-dynamic
effect to increase the load-carrying capacity of parallel sliding surfaces. By the hydrodynamic
mechanism ,the micro-irregularities on the surface are able to generate additional hydrodynamic
pressure to increase the load- carrying capacity of sliding surfaces. According to the theory of
Rayleigh step bearing ,the load-carrying capacity varies for different h1/h0, And achieves its
maximum at h1/h0¼1.866,where h1and h0 are the inlet film thickness and the outlet film thickness,
respectively. So, it is understandable that the deplet the quivalent to the thickness could obtain
high hydrodynamic pressure. Usually, these analytical models suggested that the area ratio of 20–
40% would be preferable since the total hydro- dynamic pressure is maximized within this range.
These results were obtained from various simulation conditions including water lubricated bearing, 25
air bearing,26 gas seal,27 and even for the contact with soft elastic materials.
Wei WANG1, Yongyong HE, Jun ZHAO , Junyuan MAO , Yutong HU , Jianbin
LUO ,“Optimization of groove texture profile to improve hydrodynamic
lubrication performance : Theory and experiments” ISSN 2223-7690 CN
10- 1237/TH.
In this study, the optimization target was the maximization of the LCC of the oil film.
It can be found that the optimal value of each generation increases continuously at first
and then tends to be stable with increasing evolutionary generations. The average value
also increases and then gradually approaches the optimal value .The profile of the optimal
groove texture changes with increasing evolutionary generations. As the evolutionary
generations increase, the profile of the optimal groove texture gradually approaches the
chevron. According to the Stribeck curve, the sliding speed is a key factor affecting the
lubrication conditions. From the optimization results, it can be seen that the optimized
shapes at different rotating speeds are all chevrons. The material of the rings is SiC, and
the surfaces are hard and tough .The COF of the untextured surface is the highest. As the
rotating speed increases, the COF decreases. It can be inferred that the lubrication state of
this friction pair is boundary lubrication. Compared with the untextured surface, the
straight groove textures obviously reduce the COF.As the rotating speed increases, the
COF decreases slightly. The LCC of the lubricant is not great enough to separate the two
surfaces .As the rotating speed increases, the COF increases slightly, and then the
lubrication state of these friction pairs is hydrodynamic lubrication. The temperature rise
of the specimen surfaces is generated by the heat caused by friction. Thus, the groove
textures reduce the energy loss efficiently while reducing the COF .For the chevron-type
groove textures, the LCC of the oil film is much greater than the load when the thickness
h0 is 0.05 μm. As the oil film thickness increases, the LCC decreases.

1) The GA-SQP hybrid method can be applied to optimize the groove

texture’sprofile to improve the hydrodynamic lubrication characteristics. Under
certain conditions, the optimized groove textures can achieve a stable
ultra-low COF (COF<0.01).
2) Small-angle chevrons show significant superiority over other shapes.
3) The main LCC enhancement mechanisms of straight-groove texture and
chevrons are different .For straight-groove textures, the textures reduce the
local contact area. For the chevrons, the high pressure generated by the
hydrodynamic effect at the corners rather than cavitation is the main
R C Singh , R K Pandey , Rooplal , M S Ranganath and S Maji,
“Tribological performance analysis of textured steel surfaces underlubricating
conditions”
,Surf. Topogr.:Metrol. Prop. 4 (2016) 034005.

These authors have used smooth/textured surface mild steel disc and smooth surface
steel pins. A specimen of a mild steel plate of 165 mm diameter and 8 mm thick . A
cylindrical mild steel C-50 pin of diameter 12 mm and an axial length of 30mm was taken
for testing on a mild steel circular plate. Lubricating oil (20W40)was used which has the
following characteristics:- 0.890 36 g cm−3 , 0.8912 and 120.792 48 mm2 /sec at 40 °C
and atmospheric pressure as per ASTM D-4052, D-287 and D-445. The speed of test rig
motor may be fixed as desired between the ranges 200 to 2000 rpm .Tribological studies
are conducted for the loads characterized by pressure varying in the range of 0.4–1.4 MPa
at sliding speeds 0.5–12 m s−1 (equivalent to 200–2000 RPM).Experiments were
conducted by applying 118 N (12 kg) load, for a 110 mm diameter of the disc, running at
500 rpm and for a pin with a diameter 12 mm by applying lubricant (20W40).
Additionally, the dry frictional coefficient between plain disc and pin was 0.233.It was
observed that the coefficient of friction increases with the increase of speed which may be
due to an increase of shearing force or the contact of asperities. Wearing of the material is
negligible. The coefficient of friction with respect to load decreases with load and at last
takes decreases with slightly positive slope .Wearing of the pin material shows that
initially it increases and after that it reduces and this may be due to initial abrasion and
then diffusion of debris material. The coefficient of friction continuously decreases with
speed and after a certain period it remains constant at a minimum value of nearly
0.03.The specific wear rate decreases continuously to become constant after 11 m s−1.
During fully flooded lubrication, the coefficient of friction initially decreases from 0.068 to
0.043. The material wearing characteristic of the pin decreases with the load, whichmay
be due to hydrodynamic pressure and remains constant in between 0.6 MPa and 1.14 MPa.
Beyond 1.14 MPa the slope of wear follows a small positive trend, i.e. increasing of specific
wear rate. Authors have observed that micro-dimple area density plays a major role in
improving the coefficient of friction at the interface in boundary/mixed lubricating
conditions .In starved lubrication the coefficient of friction increases with an increase of
speed.
Doris Nekesa Khaemba , Abdullah Azam , TianLong See, Anne Neville
, Farnaz Motamen Salehi, “Understanding the role of surface
textures in improving the performance of boundary additives”.
Materials used in the tests were cast iron pins and tool steel plates. The cylindrical pins
measured 20 mm in height and 6 mm diameter, the contacting surface of the pin was
machined to have a radius of curvature of 10 mm. The tool steel plates measured 15 mm x
6 mm x 3 mm. Table 1 details the material properties and surface finish of the samples
used . Tribological testing was conducted on a reciprocating Biceritribo meter with a pin-
on-plate configuration. Cast iron pins were fixed in position while the steel plates were
reciprocated. Test conditions for the tribological tests were as follows; 10 mm stroke
length, 50 N load and 1 Hz frequency (20 mm/s speed at mid-stroke). Two oils were used
in the tests, a group3 mineral oil (kinetic viscosity at 40°C=19.3 cSt, kinetic viscosity at
100°C=4.2 cSt) and a blend consisting of 0.5 wt% MoDTC in the group 3 mineral oil(0.05
% Mo and 0.05 % S).
In this study, laser surface texturing using a nanosecond laser was employed to fabricate
three different micro-scale features on steel surfaces. The friction performance of these
textured samples was then investigated through tribological tests using base oil and
model oil containing a boundary additive (MoDTC) in base oil. Results show that surface
topographies dominated by micro-sized asperities have no beneficial impact on friction
and wear compared to polished samples in tests conducted with base oil. Interestingly, in
tests with model oil, anisotropic surfaces consisting of grooves-like features promoted
additive degradation resulting in significant friction improvement. Although the best
performing surface texture did not exhibit better wear performance compared to the
untextured surface, it is envisioned that wear improvement can be achieved with texture
design optimisation and the use of anti wear additives. This study has demonstrated that
through careful selection of surface features, laser surface texturing can be successfully
employed to improve the performance of additives in boundary lubrication regime.
M B Dobrica, M Fillon, M D Pascovici, and T Cicone, “Optimizing surface
texturefor hydrodynamic lubricated contacts using a mass-conserving
numerical approach” ,DOI: 10.1243/13506501JET673

In non-cavitated hydrodynamic contacts where Reynolds assumptions hold true, it can be

theoretically shown that full texturing has a negative impact on both hydrodynamic lift
and viscous friction. Cavitation emerges as the main mechanism leading to the observed
increased lift and reduced friction in fully textured parallel sliders. It was analytically
demonstrated that, for parallel sliders of infinite width, the best texture is actually a
Rayleigh step .In this study attempts were made to determine the optimal texturing
parameters that would either minimize friction or maximize the fluid film thickness. (a)
partial texturing leads to better performance than full texturing; (b) full periodic
texturing in entirely lubricated contacts has negative impact on both load capacity and
friction; (c) dimple shape has little influence on texture performance; (d) an optimal
texture density exists, although its value is not consistent over the cited works; (e) dimple
arrangement (with respect to the leading edge) is important in parallel sliders.
The Reynolds number computed for the outlet film thickness varies among the cases
considered here between Re = 1 and Re = 10. The dimple length-to-depth ratio (λ =
Ldimple/ hdimple) varies between 10 and 1000.It can be seen that the texture extent has
a huge impact on bearing performance. For the fully textured slider the average pressure
in the contact is equal to pS ≈ 0.07 MPa, thus inferior to the supply pressure. This implies
that full texturing in this configuration leads to degradation in bearing performance. It
appears that, as long as cavitation is presentig fully textured parallel sliders, the average
contact pressure is inferior to the supply pressure. The best texture performance seems to
be obtained when cavitation is not present at all – in this case the average contact
pressure is equal to the supply pressure .It can be noted that partial texturing of plane-
inclined slider pads can lead to small performance improvements, whereas full texturing
proves harmful only partial texturing leads to positive effects.
1. Cavitation has a detrimental effect on fully textured parallel sliders and cannot explain
the hydrodynamic lift previously reported for such configurations (average contact
pressure inferior to the supply pressure).
CongShenandM.M.Khonsari,“Texture Shape Optimization for
Seal-like Parallel Surfaces: Theory and Experiment” , DOI:
10.1080/10402004.2015.1110220
The aim of researchers in this is to find the optimum texture shape within the unit cell
Which maximizes the load carrying capacity of the textured surface

On one side the researchers have focused on circular shape dimples .while On the other
hand ,some researcher shave used textures with shapes on other than circular dimples to
investigate the shape and orientation effect of surface textures.

Researchers found that the elliptical dimples offer a lower friction coefficient
underthemixedlubrication.AnotherinvestigationonStribeckcurvesofspecimen, results
indicates that friction coefficients of spherical and long-drop dimples are lower than that
of the short-dropdimple. The average hydrodynamic pressures of textures with three
shapes (circle, ellipse and triangle) and two orientations (parallel and perpendicular to
the sliding direction). Their results show that the elliptical dimple with major axis
perpendicular to the sliding direction generates the highest average pressure. Assuming
that the lubricant is Newtonian and incompressible and that the thermal and inertial
effects are negligible, the hydrodynamic pressure distribution p(θ,r) within the unit cell
can be predicted by the steady-state Reynolds equation. The area ratio is defined as the
ratio of the textured area to the total surface area. It has a significant influence on the
tribological performance of textured surfaces. Optimal area ratios in the range of5- 20%
are reported by different theoretical and experimental studies. As the AR decreases, the
groove widths of the optimum textures decreases; however, their general shapes do not
change. The chevron-like shape can help increase the formation of the hydrodynamic
pressure due to its pumping-in effect with lateral flow restriction. And the flat front can
increase the area of high-pressure region. As a result, the total load- carrying capacity is
greatly enhanced by texture shapes with these two features.

According to the optimization results without any constraint on AR, the optimum AR is 48%
under the condition simulated .Then as the AR decreases the LCC of optimal texture shapes
decreases. The upper specimen of the tests is a rotating ring with a smooth surface
(roughness average Ra = 0.01 μm). Its inner diameters 30.5 mm and outer diameter is
50.8 mm. Textures are fabricated on the surface of the stationary lower specimen. It is
smaller in size with I.D. = 38.1 mm and O.D. = 48.3 mm. The upper and lower
specimens are made of tungsten carbide and carbon graphite .
Manoj D. Nikam, Dipak Shimpi, Kiran Bhole, Sachin A. Mastud,
“Design
and
Development of Surface Texture for Tribological Application”
Authors imparted on HSS discs using CO2 laser, varying the shape and dimensions of the
resulting dimples affecting the frictional coefficient and wear .It have been accomplished
to determine effects of textural variations such as areal density of dimples, dimple shape,
area of dimples and depth of dimples on the Coefficient of Friction (COF) and Wear.
Effects of lubrication conditions (Dry and Wet), pin material (MS, SS, EN31), applied load
(25N, 50N, 75N) and Sliding velocity (400 rpm, 800 rpm and 1200 rpm) are evaluated on
COF and Wear. Tests have been performed on pin-on-disk apparatus along guidelines of
Taguchi L18 Orthogonal Array, keeping constant sliding distance of 940 m (about 10,000
cycles). it is foundthat wet lubricated, circular shaped dimples, with areal density 7.5%,
dimple are 0.09 mm2 with MS material pin provides best results. This experimental
analysis has been performed to test the applicability, efficiency and reliability of the
textured surfaces.
In case of rise in sliding velocity, 20-30 % increment in wear parameter was observed
under lubrication condition. In presence of lubricated conditions, a significant reduction
in wear parameter of about 60 to 70 percent has been observed. In case of dry conditions,
initially when load increases from 25 N to 50 N a decline in COF is observed (by about 17
percent). On further increasing load from 50 N to 75 N a drastic increment in COF of about
75 percent was observed. It was observed that on varying the load between the ranges of
25 N to 75 N the wear parameter peaked at 50 N load under wet conditions and for dry
conditions it peaked at 75 N. Maximum value for COF and wear parameter was registered
Triangular shaped dimples, proving this dimple shape to be least efficient .The least
efficient amongst the group of pin materials was MS, which showed Highest COF and wear
parameter readings for both Wet and Dry conditions.
Following conclusions can be drawn based on the experimentation conducted during this
study:

• Wet lubricated disc having circular shaped dimples, with areal density 7.5%, dimple
area 0.09 mm2 depict least coefficient of friction (0.06) • Circular shaped dimples, with
areal density 10%, dimple area 0.04 mm2 , applied load of 50 N andin contact with EN31
material pin exhibits least wear parameter of 33.99 µm .
Liu Yang Deguo Wang Yanbao Guo and Shuhai Liu “friction and
wear behaviours of sand particle against casting steel”
IT shows particles slide and transport between tool and casing, Figure 1(c) shows single
quartz sand particle slide against N80 casing steel during initial movement. The particles’
slide mechanism has great relations with the static and dynamic friction behaviour of
granular media, which has attracted a lot of investigation among researchers for
numerous industrial applications.12– 18 The frictional behaviours at contact of single
particle-steel have become a basic research task for experimental and simulation method
to investigate particle-down hole tools interaction and abrasive damage mechanism.
Particles group interaction mechanism has been investigated in many fields. Wu et al.19
studied shear property of particulate– geo membrane interface under different conditions,
degree of saturation, and bentonite contamination. Temizer21 investigated particle
geometry influence on macroscopic frictional response of granular interfaces. Results
showed that non- circular particle had a rolling resistance that caused Research also
found that particle shape had a significant impact on the result of particles movement
simulation.22–24 Khanal and Jayasundara25 investigated the effects of particle elastic
modulus and coefficient of inter- particle slide friction on milling of mineral particles
using DEM method. Computer is the central unit for data acquisition and control. The N80
casing steel plate was fastened on a lower sample platform to keep stationary. Then the
load was set and the microscope camera was turned on. Finally, friction coefficient, dis-
placement and observation data were obtained. The microscopic camera was used to in-
situ observe the side friction process at sand particle-N80 steel contact, and it
corresponded to the friction curves. The particle used in this research is quartz sand
particle, a kind of down hole deposited particle. Its density is 2650 kg/m3 , particle
diameter is about 800 mm, main content is SiO2, which accounts for 80– 90%. All tests
were repeated several times under each condition.
The hardness of particle under conditions of dry, wet (immersion in de-ionized water for
48 h), and immersion (in de- ionized water during test) was tested. The surface profile of
the particle was measured by using a light surface profile meter (WYKO), and the line
roughness at slide direction of the N80 steel was tested using Keyence VK-X100 laser
microscope.
The experiments were conducted in order to identify the frictional characteristics under
three different conditions, one main point is the contact behavior . The tests under three
different conditions are presented for discussion, dry, wet and immersion during test, the
working loads in the test are 40 g, 80 g, 120 g, and 160 g. Each friction test was repeated
six times in laboratory environment, and E0 is the combined elastic modulus of the two
contact materials. E sand and E steel are elastic modulus of the two materials. In this
research, the radius of the quartz sand particle R sand is about 400 mm and the radius of
steel plate R steel is positive infinite. a certain number under a fixed
Cong shen , M.M. khonsari “Numerical optimization of texture
shapefor parallel surfaces under unidirectional and
bidirectional sliding ” Tribology International
A benchmark problem is first solved to validate this optimization method .Then the novel
texture shapes which produce the maximum LCC for both unidirectional and bidirectional
sliding motion are proposed and analyzed .For unidirectional sliding the optimum
textures have chevron-type shapes with flat fronts and for bidirectional sliding they
consist of pairs of the trapezoid-like shapes .Finally, the performances of optimum shapes
are compared with those of regular shapes using a mass-conservative algorithm
The benefits of applying surface texturing include increasing load-carrying capacity,
reducing friction force and wear, and expanding the range of hydrodynamic lubrication.
Many theoretical and experimental studies have been carried out to optimize the
geometrical parameters of surface textures by varying dimple size, depth and area
density.
Some dimple shapes, like ellipse or long-drop shape, perform better than others in terms
of lowering the friction or increasing the LCC. The aim of the present study is to identify
optimal texture shapes for parallel flat surfaces with a mathematical optimization method.
The optimization algorithm is based on the sequential parallel equadratic programming
(SQP) method due to its superior perform –fledged mance.
the search direction and construct a better estimate. This process is iterated until the
algorithm converges to an optimal solution. A number of optimization software packages
are available thatuse this approach. In this work, the Mat lab Optimization Toolbox is used
to implement the SQP method. When solving the Reynolds equation, the half-Summer
feild boundary condition is applied.
which has a square shape with side length of L and constant step depth hg. In this case, the
objective is to find the optimal pocket. shape and step depth for maximizing the load-
carrying capacity of the slider bearing. The design variables and optimization method in
Section 2 are. successfully applied to this problem.
In this work the texture shape optimization is first tried out without any constraint on
area ratio. Then, the optimum texture shapes are obtained for three area ratios (10%,
20% and 30%). The unit cell length L is 10 mm. In order to achieve the maximum LCC,
the chevron front needs to be aligned parallel to and pointing in the sliding direction. The
governing equation is the discretized using the finite disparity method and solved by a
multi-grid method. Once the pressure distribution is determined, the LCC of a single
texture can be calculated by integrating the pressure over the entire domain. Fig. 7 shows
the effect of texture shape on the dimensionless LCC cavitation pressure under steady-
state lubrication can vary from. 30 kPa to 90 kPa depending on the operating conditions.
Two cavitation pressures were used in the simulations to consider the effect of cavitation
pressure. The LCC of a texture depends on the area of pressure build-up and the peak
pressure.
Aleksandar VENCL , Lozica IVANOVIĆ,*, Blaža STOJANOVIĆ , Elena
ZADOROZHNAYA , Slavica MILADINOVIĆ, Petr SVOBODA,
“SURFACE TEXTURING FOR TRIBOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS”.

Surface texturing is a process of fabricating specific patterns on a surface to

enhance surface properties such as friction, contact area, air aspiration, wear,
hydrophobicity, etc. Fabricating surfaces with planned micro features is an effective
method to improve tribological performance of the interacting surfaces. Laser surface
texturing process is one of the best suitable processes for producing micro-patterns.

Micro textures are imparted on HSS discs using CO 2 laser, varying the shape and
dimensions of the resulting dimples affecting the frictional coefficient and wear.
Experiments have been accomplished to determine effects of textural variations
such as areal density of dimples, dimple shape, area of dimples and depth of
dimples on the Coefficient of Friction (COF) and Wear. Effects of lubrication
conditions (Dry and Wet), pin material (MS, SS, EN31), applied load (25N, 50N,
75N) and Sliding velocity (400 rpm, 800 rpm and 1200 rpm) are evaluated on COF
and Wear. Tests have been performed on pin-on-disk apparatus along guidelines of
Taguchi L18 Orthogonal Array, keeping constant sliding distance of940 m (about
10,000 cycles).
Experimentally, it is found that wet lubricated, circular shaped dimples ,with areal
density 7.5%, dimple area 0.09 mm ² with MS material pin provides best results.
This experimental analysis has been performed to test the applicability, efficiency
and reliability of the textured surfaces.
Liu Yang Deguo Wang Yanbao Guo and Shuhai Liu “friction and
wear behaviours of sand particle against casting steel”

It shows particles slide and transport between tool and casing, shows single quartz sand
particle slide against N80 casing steel during initial movement. The particles’ slide
mechanism has great relations with the static and dynamic friction behaviour of granular
media, which has attracted a lot of investigation among researchers for numerous
industrial applications.12–18 The frictional behaviours at contact of single particle-steel
have become a basic research task for experimental and simulation method to investigate
particle- down hole tools interaction and abrasive damage mechanism. Particles group
interaction mechanism has been investigated in many fields. Wuet al.19studied shear
property of particulate– geo membrane interface under different conditions, degree of
saturation, and bentonite contamination. Temizer21 investigated particle geometry
influence on macroscopic frictional response of granular interfaces.
Results showed that non- circular particle had a rolling resistance that caused Research
also found that particle shape had a significant impact on the result of particles movement
simulation.22–24 Khanal and Jayasundara25 investigated the effects of particle elastic
modulus and coefficient of inter- particle slide friction on milling of mineral particles
using DEM method. Computer is the central unit for data acquisition and control. The N80
casing steel plate was fastened on a lower sample platform to keep stationary. Then the load was
set and the microscope camera was turned on. Finally, friction coefficient, dis- placement
and observation data were obtained. The microscopic camera was used to in-situ observe
the side friction process at sand particle-N80 steel contact, and it corresponded to the
friction curves. The particle used in this research is quartz sand particle, a kind of down
hole deposited particle. Its density is 2650 kg/m3 , particle diameter is about 800mm,
main content is SiO2, which accounts for 80– 90%. All tests were repeated several times
under each condition.
The hardness of particle under conditions of dry, wet (immersion in de-ionized water for
48 h), and immersion (in de- ionized water during test) was tested. The surface profile of
the particle was measured by using a light surface profile meter (WYKO), and the line
roughness at slide direction of the N80 steel was tested using Keyence VK-X100 laser
microscope.
The experiments were conducted in order to identify the frictional characteristics under
three different conditions, one main point is the contact behaviour. The tests under three
different conditions are presented for discussion, dry, wet and immersion during test, the
working load. Each friction test was repeated six times in laboratory environment, with a
sliding distance of 10 mm, room temperature of about 20-C, and relative humidity 35- 2%
without any vibration and shock.

According to the Hertz contact model,26 the between two sphere contact surfaces can be
calculated as follow p0 ¼6FlE02 -3R02
3ð1Þ where Fl is the working load, a is the real radius of the contact area, R0 is the
effective radius, and E0 is the combined elastic modulus of the two contact materials. E
sand and E steel are elastic modulus of the two materials. In this research, the radius of
the quartz sand particle R sand is about 400 mm and the radius of steel plate R steel is
positive infinite. a certain number under a fixed.
.
Tribological performance of surface texturing in mechanical
applications—a review Ping Lu and Robert J KWood
Keywords: surface texturing, mechanical applications, friction, wear
Mechanisms of performance enhancement For tribological applications under
hydrodynamic lubrication, the fluid film thickness and the roughness of the solid surfaces
determines the lubrication regime and friction/traction levels. The main target for
reducing friction and wear under this condition is to, there are mainly five basic beneficial
effects of surface texturing. Under all lubrication conditions, textures can capture wear
particles during normal wear with debris size ranges from 1–20 mm (debris trapping
effect). Under hydrodynamic lubrication, textures function as micro-hydrodynamic
bearings which boost the dynamic fluid pressure thus increasing the overall load-carrying
capacity (micro- hydrodynamic effect) [. In terms of pressure distribution, partially
textured surface behaves similarly to a Rayleigh step bearing. Under hydrodynamic
lubrication, textures entrain additional lubricant into the contact area when the supply
pressure in excess of the lubricant cavitation pressure.
• Under mixed to boundary lubrication conditions, texture features act as reservoirs and
supply lubricant to the interface (oil storage effect) , Under mixed to dry friction, textures
lower the overall contact area and thus friction
Texturing parameters
Various parameters have been used to describe dimple geometries, see , a single texture
is characterized by its three-dimensional shape (basic shape and internal
structure/bottom contour), dimensions (basic size and depth), and, in the case of
asymmetric textures, its orientation relative to the sliding direction. There are also
definitions about the open and close pockets, open pockets are usually referring to
pockets that are adjacent
. Successful cases in mechanical applications
. Cutting tool The metal cutting process is one of the most important and essential parts
of manufacturing. Various types of tool materials, from high carbon steels to cemented
carbides, ceramics and diamond (natural and synthetic), are used to make cutting
tools(drill bits, tool bits ,milling cutters, etc). It is important to be aware of the
differences between these tool materials and the proper usage of each material.
Hardness, toughness and wear resistance are essential characteristics of cutting tools.
According to statistics in industrially advanced countries, the use of mechanical seals
accounts for about 90% of all sealing device in rotary machines . Mechanical seals are
precision- engineered dynamic sealing product, which normally used to prevent
leakage by forming a barrier between rotation and stationary components.
Slawomir Wos, Waldemar Koszela , Pawel Pawlus

The effect of graphite surface texturing on the friction

reduction in dry contact
Graphite is a very good material in terms of the friction resistance and the heat transfer. It
is widely applied to mechanical seals, especially gas face seals, due to good mechanical
behavior especially at high temperature and low reactivity. However, due to high hardness
and a low fracture resistance graphite is difficult for machining. High open porosity and
low bend strengths are the disadvantages of conventional graphite materials. Graphite
densification by pitch and phenolic resins led to a reduction in the open porosity and better
sealing performance. The aim of this paper is to study the effect of graphite surface
texturing on the resistance of motion in dry contact. Chevron-type cavities were created by
abrasive jet machining. This technique was not previously used for graphite texturing. It
allows for obtaining gradation of channels in order to achieve a convergent gap, which is
the novelty of this paper. Tests were carried out using an Optimol SRV5 tibotester,
equipped with a rotation pin-on-disc module in unidirectional sliding. The normal load was
1 N, the rotary speed was 2000 rpm, the sliding speed was 7.6 m/s. The friction radius
measured between the centre of the graphite disc and the centre of the counter sample
was 38 mm. Tested sample made of graphite had diameter of 100 mm and thickness of 10
mm. Base surfaces of graphite discs were polished to the roughness height Ra ¼ 0.07–0.12
μm. The counter sample was made of 42CrMo4 steel of 45 HRC hardness,.
Abrasive jet machining can be used as an alternative to other graphite texturing techniques
like laser texturing or precise machining. Graphite surface texturing led to a decrease in the
resistance to motion compared to the sliding pair with un textured disc sample. A direction
of the converging bottom texture has a direct impact on the resistance to motion. Stable
and small coefficients of friction were achieved for the disc having converging steps
parallel to the arms of the chevron. The angle between chevron arms affected the friction
coefficient. After stabilization of the friction coefficient, the best results were obtained for
chevrons with 120 degree angle. Probably for low sliding speeds wider chevrons generated
more aerodynamic lift.
Due to the low normal force and short time tests wear levels of co acting parts were
negligible. The beneficial effect of chevrons was achieved in difficult conditions –
comparatively low sliding speed, which suggests that graphite surface texturing can lead
to improvement of tribological performances of sliding pairs even during start/stoppage.
N Tala-Ighil, P Maspeyrot, M Fillon, and A Bounif ,Laboratoire de Mécanique des
Solides (LMS), “Effects of surface texture on journal-bearing characteristics under
steady-state operating conditions”.
The introduction of a range of micro fabrication techniques coupled with developments in
microscopy has had a profound effect on the reappearance of tribological applications at
the microscopic level .With the help of this new technology, it is now possible to produce
microstructures on journal-bearing surfaces to improve the overall tribological
performance including reduction in friction, improvement in reliability, increase in severity
conditions and load capacity, and lowering energy consumption. Using the classical
lubrication hypothesis, it is assumed that flow is laminar; inertia is neglected. The fluid is
Newtonian and incompressible. The determination of the pressure field in the lubricant
film consists of the numerical resolution of equation (2) by using the finite-difference
method (FDM). After application of the FDM to the Reynolds’ equation (2), a system of
linear equations is obtained . The determination of the pressure field in the lubricant film
consists of the numerical resolution of equation .
s. This difference becomes greater as the size of the dimples increases (r = 5 mm and r =
10 mm). This discrepancy also arises with a rise in Nt θ . When the size of the dimples
increases, their density on the bearing surface rises too and the bearing characteristics
will be affected. Now, with the value of NtZ fixed, the variation of the bearing parameters
(maximum pressure, minimum film thickness, axial film flow, and friction torque) with Ntθ
is calculated. The results are represented in Fig. 10 for an even number value (NtZ = 28)
and for an odd number value (NtZ = 27) of NtZ,, A finite-difference numerical model is
used to study the effect of surface textures on the lubrication of a journal-bearing system
under steady-state conditions. Two cases are analysed, one in which the shaft is assumed
to be smooth and rigid and one in which the bearing surface is numerically textured with
spherical dimples. The numerical results indicate that textures affect the most important
bearing characteristics: film thickness, pressure distributions, axial film flow, and
frictional torque.
An appropriate re-partition of textures on the bearing surface positively affects the most
important characteristics of a lubricated contact and improves the performance of the
journal- bearing system. In a future work, the effect of texture geometry and dynamic load
conditions on hydrodynamic lubrication journal-bearing performance will be
investigated.
 Surface texturing techniques to enhance tribological
performance: A review
Attributing to the rise in the need for materials in varied applications, recent decades
witnessed a rise in the development of surface texturing techniques to augment material
performance and characteristics. Surface texturing has become a vital area in material
science pertaining to its ability to control exterior properties in specific applications, e.g.,
in self-cleaning of surfaces medicine, anti-bio fouling

Section snippets
Laser Surface Texturing (as shown in Fig. 2) is the most widely used technique by various
researchers because of its high controllability, high accuracy, eco-friendly nature, high
efficiency, its ability to process under room temperature and normal pressure .Mao et al.
textured on duplex stainless steel and concluded that hardness value increased from 250
to 310HV. Surface texturing has been extensively considered to improve the tribological
properties of a variety of materials. The rigorously used method for surface texturing is
the Laser surface treatment like Nd: YAG. Some more textured surface production
methods have been discussed in recent studies with their advantages and disadvantages.

Surface textured to improve erosive wear

Especially in the tribological applications, the adequate lubrication between contact
surfaces is contributed by the texture pattern by providing micro-hydrodynamic bearing,
reservoirs of lubricant, and trapping of wear debris in lubricated and non-lubricated
applications

Conclusion
The following general conclusions have been made from the literature reviewed by
various researchers.

It is evident from the article that surface texturing has considerable effects on the
improvement of corrosion resistance, friction resistance, wear resistance and other
tribological properties.

The effect of the textured surface should be considered to enhance the fatigue strength
and life of parts subjected to dynamic loading in service.
 Chapter 3
Materials and Methods :

1) Material selection
i) Pin material-Journal bearing
a) Size – 10mm (diameter), 32mm (length)

b) Material
c) Aluminium silicon alloy

Element Percentage
Aluminium 0.86
Zinc 0.0063
Lead 0.002937
Iron 0.122

Aluminium –silicon alloys or Silumin is a general name for a group of lightweight, high-
strength aluminium alloys based on an aluminum–silicon system (AlSi) that consist
predominantly of aluminum - with silicon as the quantitatively most important alloying
element. Pure AlSi alloys cannot be hardened, the commonly used alloys AlSiCu (with
copper)and AlSiMg (with magnesium)can be hardened. The hardening mechanism
corresponds to that of AlCu and AlMgSi. The rarely used wrought alloys in the 4000 series
and the predominantly used cast alloys are standardised in the 40000 series.

AlSi alloys are by far the most important of all aluminum cast materials. They are suitable
for all casting processes and have excellent casting properties. Important areas of
application are in car parts, including engine blocks and pistons. In addition, their use a
functional material for high- energy heat storage in electric vehicles is currently being
focused on.

Aluminium-silicon casting alloys are widely used in automotive and aircraft industries
because of their excellent properties such as low density, high strength-to-weight
ratio ,high corrosion resistance, good impact resistance, good thermal conductivity, and
high wear resistance

Copper zinc alloy

Element Percentage
Copper 0.694

Zinc 0.365
Tin 0.102
Iron 0.174
The copper alloys may be endowed with a wide range of property by varying their
composition and mechanical and heat treatment to which they are subjected . For this reason
they probably rank next to steel in importance to the engineer. The important alloys of copper
and zinc from an industrial point of view are the brasses comprised within certain limits of
zinc content. The addition of zinc to copper result in the formation a series of solid solution
which , in accordance with usual practice , are refered to in order of diminishing copper
content

Elongation rises to a maximum and begins to fall again before the composition reaches the
limit of solution. It fall considerably as the amount increases, and is very small in the
presence of the constituent shows the greatest resistance to shock this is diminished.

Hardness is greatly increased by the presence of and still further when appears.

Copper lead alloy

Element Percentage
Copper 0.91-0.93
Tin 0.04-0.06
Lead 0.01-0.03
Nickel 0.003-0.0055

When you combine copper with lead, you get a robust alloy with several desirable
qualities. It retains many of the properties of each metal —such as strength and
machinability—while also adding its unique characteristics. The most notable property is
its extraordinary fatigue resistance, making it well- suited for applications where
repeated stress is applied to the material, such as valves and pumps. It also has
excellent thermal stability, which makes it perfect for use in high-temperature
environments such as boilers or furnaces. Additionally, the alloy exhibits superior wear
resistance, which makes it ideal for applications where friction is present, like bearings
or gears. Finally this alloy has good electrical conductivity, so it can be used to make
electrical connectors or wiring harnesses.

Copper-lead alloys are used in various applications due to their unique properties.
Copper-lead alloys have a high resistance to corrosion and wear, making them ideal for
use in high-wear environments.
Copper-lead alloys also have a high resistance to thermal shock, making them ideal for
use in high-temperature applications.
Copper-lead alloys also have excellent electrical and thermal conductivity ,making them
ideal for electrical and thermal applications.
Copper-lead alloys are also non-magnetic, making them ideal for applications where
magnetic materials are not desired.
Copper aluminium alloy
Element Percentage
Copper 0.90-0.92
Tin 0.04-0.06
Aluminium 0.05-0.07
Nickel 0.003-0.005
Aluminium–copper alloys (AlCu) are aluminum alloys that consist largely of aluminum (Al)
and traces of copper (Cu) as the main alloying elements. Important grades also contain
additives of magnesium and silicon (AlCu(Mg,Si)), often manganese is also included to
increase strength (see Aluminum-manganese alloys). The main area of application is
aircraft construction. The alloys have medium to high strength and can be age-hardened.
They are both wrought alloy. Also available as cast alloy. Their susceptibility to corrosion
and their poor weldability are disadvantageous.

Duralumin is the oldest variety in this group and goes back to Alfred Wilm, who
discovered itin 1903.Aluminium could only be used as a widespread construction
material thanks to the aluminium- copper alloys, as pure aluminium is much too soft
for this and other harden able alloys such as aluminium -magnesium-silicon alloys
(AlMgSi) or the naturally hard (non-harden able)alloys.

Preparation of pins
Rod of each respective alloy were casted and pins were generated from the rod after
performing simple machining operation. Four rods of alloys that are aluminium silicon
alloy rod, copper zinc alloy rod, copper lead alloy rod and copper aluminium alloy rod of
length of 250 mm and diameter 18 mm were casted. Pins of length 32 mm and diameter
10mm were generated on a horizontal lathe machine .Single point cutting tool was used to
carry out operations that are facing and turning.The size of pin as above mentioned is taken
keeping in mind the pin-on-disc experimental setup. Pictures have been attached below
where turning operation is being performed on the in order .
 Pins
ii) Disc

a) Size(165mm diameter, 10mm thickness)

b) Material steel EN
31Chemical composition of
disc.
Element Percentage
Carbon 1.9
Manganese 0.316
Silicon 0.230
Sulphur 0.007
Phosphorus 0.017
Chromium 1.451
Nickel 0.016

DISC
2) Study of Pin on disc

Pin-on-Disk wear testing is a method of characterizing the coefficient of friction, frictional

force ,and rate of wear between two materials. During this tribological test, a stationary
disk was articulated against a rotating pin while under a constant applied load. Pin-on-disk
wear testing and the wear test by using a precise weighting balance , the experimental and
to the
can simulate multiple modes of wear. The computer software WINDUCOM 2008 was used
to generate values of frictional force and wear. The wear test was conducted at a load of
20kg and variable speed. The loss in weight was measured by using a precise weighing
balance. The experiment was conducted using pins of copper lead alloy and copper
aluminium alloy ,and the data were recorded. the following table shows the
load(kilograms) applied on pins, rpm at which the disc was rotated, track diameter , time
duration , initial and the final weight. Each pin was operated thrice with constant load but
with variable speed and time. The following data was recorded after experiment for both
the pins of respective alloys. The loss in weight was measured by weighing balance.

Selection of Output parameter of disc

Wear Friction measurement

Pin-on-disk wear test is carried out according to the ASTM G 99 standards .Parameters
used in pin-on-disk are load, sliding velocity, and sliding distance. The pin-on-disk tests
are preferably used to determine two-body sliding wear. In pin-on-disk, the pin is
attached with the polymeric material that is slid against the metallic disk or the metallic
pin is slid against the disk made of polymer material.
 The "pin on disc" wear test is a commonly used method to evaluate the wear resistance
and frictional properties of materials. In this test setup, a pin (sample material) is placed
against a rotating disc (counter-surface material), and controlled sliding motion is applied
between the two surfaces. The wear and frictional characteristics of the materials are
measured under specified conditions such as load, speed, lubrication, and duration of the
test.

Key aspects of the pin on disc wear test include:

1. Materials: The materials chosen for the pin and the disc are selected based on the specific
application or the study being conducted. They can be metals, polymers, ceramics,
composites ,etc.

2. Experimental Setup: The pin (usually cylindrical) is attached to an arm, and the disc is
fixed to a rotating spindle. The pin is pressed against the disc surface undera defined load,
while the disc rotates against the pin.

3. Parameters: Test parameters like applied load, sliding speed, sliding distance,
temperature, and environment (presence or absence of lubricant) are controlled and
varied to study their impact on wear and friction.

4. Measurement of Wear: Wear of the pin and disc surfaces is measured using techniques
like weight loss, surface profiling, wear track width analysis, or using
 Frictional Properties: The coefficient of friction between the pin and disc surfaces is
measured during the test. It helps in understanding the interaction between materials
under sliding conditions.

Analysis : Data obtained from the test is analyzed to evaluate wear mechanisms, material
degradation, lubrication effectiveness, and to compare the performance of different
materials or coatings.

This test is valuable in various industries, including automotive, aerospace,

manufacturing, and material science, to assess the wear behavior of materials and aid in
the development of more durable and efficient components.

Interpretation of the results requires understanding the specific conditions of the test and
the intended application. Different wear mechanisms (abrasive, adhesive, fatigue, etc.) can
be observed, and the test can be adapted to simulate real-world scenarios to predict material
performance in practical use.

Experimental Setup:

 Pin and Disc Configuration: The pin is typically a cylindrical or spherical sample made
from the material being tested. The disc, often made of a different material or coated
surface, is fixed to a rotating spindle.

 Load Application: A specified load is applied to the pin, usually through a mechanical
arm or system, ensuring a consistent and controlled force between the pin and disc
surfaces.

 Sliding Motion: The disc rotates against the stationary pin, or vice versa, under
controlled conditions of speed, duration, and direction of sliding.

 Environmental Conditions: Tests can be conducted under various conditions like dry
sliding, lubricated conditions (using oils, greases, or other substances), different
temperatures, or in controlled atmospheres to simulate real-world scenarios.

Test Parameters:

 Load: The force applied between the pin and disc.

 Sliding Speed: The rotational speed of the disc relative to the pin or vice versa.

 Sliding Distance: The total distance traversed by the pin against the disc during
the test.
 Measurement and Analysis:

Wear Measurement: After the test, the wear of the pin and disc surfaces is quantified.
Techniques like weight loss measurement, wear track width analysis, surface profiling, or
microscopic examination are employed to assess wear.

 Frictional Properties: The coefficient of friction is measured through out the test to
understand the interaction between the materials under sliding conditions.

 Wear Mechanisms: Analysis of wear patterns, surface morphology, and material debris
can help identify wear mechanisms such as adhesive, abrasive, fatigue, or corrosive wear.

Applications:

 Material Selection: Evaluating the performance of materials for specific

applications, aiding in material selection for components subjected to wear.

 Quality Control: Assessing the durability and wear resistance of materials used in
manufacturing processes.

 Research and Development: Studying the effects of different factors (like coatings,
lubricants, surface treatments) on wear and friction to improve material performance.

Importance:

 Provides valuable insights into the wear behavior of materials under controlled
conditions.

 Helps in predicting the lifespan and performance of components in real-world

applications.

 Assists in developing more durable materials and coatings for various industries.

The data obtained from pin on disc wear tests is crucial for engineers and researchers to
make informed decisions about material selection, design improvements, and optimizing
the performance of mechanical components subjected to bowear.
The "pin on disc" friction test is a method used to measure the frictional properties
between two surfaces. It's often employed in materials science and engineering to
evaluate the coefficient of friction and understand the interaction between different
materials under sliding conditions. This test setup involves a pin (usually a sample of the
material being studied) in contact with a rotating disc (typically made of a different
material or with a different surface finish).

Here are the key aspects of the pin on disc friction test:

Experimental Setup:

Pin and Disc Configuration: The pin, representing one material or sample, is placed
against the surface of the disc, which represents another material or surface. The pin can
befixed while the disc rotates or vice versa, depending on the experimental requirements.

Load Application: A specified load is applied between the pin and disc, ensuring
consistent contact pressure. The load can be adjusted to simulate different real-
world scenarios.

Sliding Motion: The disc undergoes controlled rotational movement while in

contact with thepin, or the pin moves against a rotating disc. The sliding motion
generates frictional forces between the two surfaces.

Measurement Instruments: Sensors or devices are used to measure the frictional

forces acting between the pin and disc. These instruments typically record the
frictional force or torque, enabling the calculation of the coefficient of friction.
 Test Parameters:

 Load: The force applied between the pin and disc surfaces.

 Sliding Speed: The rotational speed of the disc relative to the pin or vice versa.

 Contact Area: The area of contact between the pin and disc, influencing the
distribution of frictional forces.

 Environmental Conditions: Variables like temperature, humidity, and the

presence or absence of lubricants or contaminants can significantly affect
frictional behavior.

Measurement and Analysis:

 Coefficient of Friction: The ratio of the frictional force resisting the sliding
motion to the normal force between the surfaces is calculated. It indicates the
frictional behavior of the materials in contact.

 Graphical Analysis: Frictional force or torque measurements are plotted

against time, sliding distance, or other variables to analyze changes in friction over
the course of the test.

 Surface Analysis: Post-test examination of the pin and disc surfaces using
microscopy or surface profiling to identify wear patterns, surface alterations, or
material transfer that may influence friction.

Applications:

 Material Characterization: Assessing the frictional behavior of different

materials or coatings to select suitable components for specific applications.

 Tribological Studies: Studying the effects of variables like load, speed, and
environmental conditions on friction to improve designs and reduce wear.

 Quality Control: Verifying the consistency and performance of materials in

manufacturing processes by analyzing frictional properties.
 Importance:

 Helps in understanding how materials interact under sliding conditions.

 Provides insights into the suitability of materials for specific applications based on their
frictional behavior.

 Enables the development of more efficient and durable components by optimizing

materials and surface treatments to reduce friction and wear.

Overall, the pin on disc friction test is a valuable tool in materials science and engineering
to quantify and understand the frictional behavior between two surfaces, aiding in the
development and optimization of various mechanical components and systems.

Measurements in a pin on disc experiment involve various parameters related to wear,

friction, andmaterial behavior. Here are some key measurements and data obtained
during a pin on disc test:

Wear Measurements:

 Wear Volume/Loss: The most common measurement involves determining the volume
or weight loss of the pin and/or disc material after the test. This is typically measured
using precise weighing techniques or volume calculations based on wear track profiles.

 Wear Track Width/Depth: Measuring the width or depth of the wear track formed on
the pin or disc surface using profile meters or microscopy helps to understand the extent
of material loss.

 Surface Morphology: Examination of the surface using microscopy (optical or electron)

provides information on wear mechanisms, surface damage, cracks, and material transfer
between surfaces.

Friction Measurements:

 Coefficient of Friction: Calculated as the ratio of the frictional force to the normal force
applied between the pin and disc. This can be obtained continuously throughout the test
using force sensors or torque measurements.

 Frictional Force/Torque vs. Time/Distance: Graphical representation of the frictional

force or torque against time or sliding distance provides insights into how friction evolves
during the test.
 Parameters Recorded During Test
 Load: The force applied between the pin and disc surfaces, often measured using
load cells or calibrated weights.

 Sliding Speed: The rotational speed of the disc relative to the pin or vice versa,
usually measured using tachometers or rotational sensors.

 Temperature: Monitoring the temperature during the test, especially in studies where
temperature changes might influence material behavior.

 Contact Pressure: Calculated as the force applied divided by the contact area between
the pin and disc.

Analysis:

 Comparative Analysis: Comparing wear rates, coefficients of friction, and wear

mechanisms for different materials, coatings, or test conditions to draw conclusions about
their performance.

 Statistical Analysis: Conducting statistical assessments to determine the significance of

observed differences or correlations between variables.

 Wear Mechanisms Identification: Analyzing surface features and wear patterns to

identify mechanisms such as adhesive, abrasive, fatigue, or corrosive wear.

Data Interpretation:

 Understanding the relationship between test parameters (load, speed, environment and
observed wear and friction behavior.

 Drawing conclusions about material performance, durability, and suitability for specific
applications based on the measured data.