Construction and Building Materials 230 (2020) 117043

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Axial compressive behavior of confined steel fiber reinforced high

strength concrete
Muhammad Usman a,⇑, Syed Hassan Farooq a, Mohammad Umair a, Asad Hanif b,⇑
a
School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, National University of Science and Technology, Islamabad, Pakistan
b
Joint Key laboratory of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Applied Physics and Materials Engineering, University of Macau, Avenida da Universidade, Taipa, Macau

h i g h l i g h t s

Effect of FRP confinement on steel fiber reinforced concrete (SFRC) is investigated.

SFRC showed excellent behavior under axial compression.

The properties were significantly enhanced with FRP confinement of SFRC.

Improved ductility and enhanced stress-strain behavior of concrete is demonstrated.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Concrete is brittle in nature which is why different materials have been used to improve this inherent
Received 22 May 2019 behavior of concrete. In this experimental study, the effect of simultaneous use of steel fibers and con-
Received in revised form 26 July 2019 finement on high strength concrete and the corresponding post peak response of fiber reinforced concrete
Accepted 18 September 2019
is investigated. A total of 39 high-strength concrete (incorporating varying amounts of steel fibers) cylin-
ders were casted. The steel fiber volume fraction (Vf) was varied as 0.5%, 1.5% and 2.5%. 18 samples were
confined with Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) sheet, and 9 samples were casted in steel pipe
Keywords:
confinement, whereas 12 control specimens (without confinement) were also prepared. The samples
Steel fiber
Fiber reinforced concrete
were tested under axial compression. The results confirmed that the use of steel fiber had minute effect
Compressive strength on the compressive strength, whereas it significantly improved the ductility and enhanced the post peak
Stiffness behavior of concrete. The confinement significantly contributed towards the compressive strength
Toughness increase. The combined use of steel fibers and confinement in concrete columns can be viewed as extre-
mely beneficial as it not only increases the concrete compressive strength but also solves the issue of brit-
tle failure to an appreciable extent.
Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction post-cracking tensile response [8,9]. Steel fibers are discontinuous

and are distributed randomly in the matrix [10] just like other
Increased interest in using High Strength Concrete (HSC) due to fibers [11,12]. These characteristics allow cracks in any direction
its superior strength, durability, and deflection control has led the to be bridged by the fibers and permit improved stress transfer
researchers to explore ways of improving its brittle behavior across all cracks, thereby improving post-cracking shear and flexu-
through composite action. Addition of steel fibers in HSC and con- ral resistance [13,14]. In compression, similar to the tensile
finement with ductile materials exhibits great benefits to improve response, steel fibers incorporation primarily augments the tough-
the performance concrete by reducing its brittleness [1–4]. The ness and post-peak ductility [6]. The fibers can act most effectively
addition of discrete fibers into the concrete matrix helps reducing if aligned in the direction of the largest tensile stress. Fibers are the
micro-cracking and localized macro-cracking, with improved post- most beneficial when large strains occur in the cement matrix
cracking strength and ductility [5–7]. The steel fibers act as crack [2,11,15].
arrestors not as crack inhibitors. They are known to improve Fiber volume content is one of a major factor influencing the
behavior of steel fiber reinforced concrete (SFRC). Many experi-
mental tests have been conducted by researchers which focused
⇑ Corresponding authors.
different properties such as uniaxial direct shear test, flexural test
E-mail addresses: m.usman@kaist.ec.kr (M. Usman), ahanif@connect.ust.hk,
asadhanif@um.edu.mo (A. Hanif). and uniaxial tension test [14,16,17]. These tests show that

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117043
0950-0618/Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 M. Usman et al. / Construction and Building Materials 230 (2020) 117043

increases in fiber amounts will lead to enhanced strength, ductility, While using discontinuous fibers is one way to improve con-
and toughness [5,18]. With increase in fiber content, more fibers crete properties, use of confinement for enhanced structural
are likely to intersect a crack, which enhances concrete matrix post behavior of concrete has also been investigated for reinforced
crack behavior [19,20]. It was concluded that by increasing the and composite structural members [24,28–32]. Although studies
fiber content, the relative flexural and tensile strength could be have been conducted in the past on FRP/steel confined concrete
increased. The response for compressive loads is also enhanced and SFRC as well, findings on the effects of such confinement on
by varying fiber volume content. With increasing fiber content, SFRC are sparse. This research work is, thus, conducted to fill the
the pre-peak ascending branch of the compressive stress-strain research gap by investigating the co-effects of steel fibers and con-
relationship is marginally improved resulting in a slightly higher finement (by FRP and steel tube or sheet) on axial compressive
elastic modulus [21,22]. The addition of steel fibers only margin- behavior of HSC. Compressive stress, strain, toughness, ductility,
ally improves the compressive strength only up to 15% [6,23]. As and post cracking behavior were thought to be improved by such
the fiber content is increased, the strain capacity is increased combined techniques which is, then, corroborated and presented
which leads to greater load absorption capacity of concrete in com- in this study.
pression. Some tests conducted with varying aspect ratio (of fibers)
showed that increasing the aspect ratio increased the strength of
matrix to a low degree but increased the toughness of matrix to 2. Experimental program
an even greater extent [5]. However, the improved tensile response
from higher aspect ratios is only true up to an aspect ratio of 75; Experimental program comprises of casting 39 (150 mm diam-
thereafter, the tensile response worsened for any further increase eter  300 mm height) cylindrical specimens of High Strength Con-
in the aspect ratio. Some research findings had also reported crete (HSC) with varying volume fraction (Vf) of steel fibers. After
increase in shear strength with higher aspect ratio [18]. The length the curing period of 28 days, 18 samples were confined with Fiber
and shape of steel fiber used can also be an influential factor in Reinforced Polymer (FRP) sheet, whereas 9 samples were directly
behavior of SFRC. By incorporating small length fibers while main- casted in steel tube.
taining the same aspect ratio, the number of fibers increase greatly,
which leads to superior crack bridging and stress transfer through
2.1. Materials
the cracks [16,21,24]. The efficiency of steel fibers in the matrix
depends on the orientation of fibers in the concrete matrix. In
All the material used in this research were obtained locally
the modeling of SFRC, many account for the effects of fiber orien-
except steel fibers and CFRP sheet were imported from China.
tation and its impact on the efficiency of fibers through a fiber ori-
Detailed material properties are summarized in Table 1. Ordinary
entation factor is studied [25–27].
Portland cement of grade 53 (Type-I) and prepared according to
It is shown that ‘‘the addition of steel fibers cause a slight
Pakistan standard PS-232-2008 and conformity to AST C150-04,
increase in the compressive strength and result in an increase in
EN 116 was used in casting samples. Sikament-520BA super plas-
peak axial strain”. It was further observed that the compressive
ticizer and sand with 2.01 fineness modulus was used to prepare
strength and ultimate strains of the specimens generally increased
high strength concrete. Use of superplasticizer in improving the
with an increase in steel fiber volume fraction (Vf), and decreased
concrete properties has already been corroborated by the Authors
slightly with an increase in steel fiber aspect ratio (As). The axial
[33]. The gradation and aggregate size was chosen as per mix
strength of concrete increased to a great extent with FRP confine-
design of HSC. The maximum size was restricted to 20 mm. Two
ment. The effect of confinement and steel fiber incorporation in
sieve sizes – 20 mm and 10 mm – were used and the ratio was
concrete enhanced the properties of concrete as expected. The
set to 1:0.8 respectively to ensure high packing density. Master
placement of reinforcing bars or meshes in structural members
Steel Fiber S65 (hooked end fiber with length 35 mm and aspect
may, thus, be eliminated with the addition of steel fibers. However,
ratio 64) was used in this research, obtained from BASF, China.
SFRC has seen limited such applications, and had some early accep-
Nine steel tubes were prepared from hot rolled sheet with a thick-
tance as primary reinforcement only in flexural-critical structural
ness of 1.02 mm with a nominal yield stress of 300 kN. The steel
members [17]. Recently, SFRC has gained acceptance in design
tubes were formed by cold rolled sheets welding at the longitudi-
codes for shear-critical members but its use in such members,
nal seam. Concrete was poured directly in the steel tubes. Carbon
especially for seismic applications, is uncommon. This is likely
Fiber Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) sheet was affixed using epoxy
attributable to the limited research and design recommendations
Master Brace P3500 and P4500 mixed at a ratio 1:0.5 for obtaining
on SFRC for these applications.
the final epoxy.

Table 1
Mechanical properties of materials.

Super plasticizer pH Value 6.5–8.5 (at 20 °C)

Bulk density 300–600 kg/m3
Steel Fiber Length 35 mm
Diameter 0.55 mm
Aspect Ratio 64
Tensile Strength 1345 MPa
CFRP Sheet Modulus of elasticity 230 KN/mm2
Tensile strength 4900 N/mm2
Thickness for static design weight/density 0.112 mm
Master Brace P3500 Adhesion strength on carbon MPa (ASTM D4541:95e1) 2.87
Compressive strength, MPa (ASTM D695:96) 73
Master Brace P4500 Compressive Strength TS EN 196 (7 days) >60 N/mm2
Bonding Strength to concrete (7 days) >3.0 N/mm2
 M. Usman et al. / Construction and Building Materials 230 (2020) 117043 3

Table 2
Details of concrete mixes.

Type Cement (Kg/m3) Sand (Kg/m3) Gravel (<20 mm) (Kg/m3) Gravel (<10 mm) (Kg/m3) w/c Ratio Steel Fiber % (Vf)
Mix 1 460 621 706 578 0.35 0
Mix 2 460 621 706 578 0.35 0.5% = (39 Kg/m3)
Mix 3 460 621 706 578 0.35 1.5% = (117 Kg/m3)
Mix 4 460 621 706 578 0.35 2.5% = (195 Kg/m3)

2.2. Preparation of samples uniformly on the concrete surface. Precision cut high strength
150 mm steel disc were placed at top and bottom of specimens
39  samples were prepared with addition of varying volume to transfer load to the concrete core. Initially the load was
fraction (Vf, 0.5%, 1.5% and 2.5%) of steel fibers. The mix design increased at 3 KN per second and upon initial softening of samples,
and percentage of steel fibers is summarized in Table 2. The steel the displacement control was set at 0.003 mm per second.
fiber and super plasticizer was added in the mixture uniformly
during the mixing for workability. The samples were casted in 3. Results and discussions
cylinders at standard room temperature of 25° C. The samples were
cured for 28 days in water bath. Then, the samples were air dried 3.1. Stress strain curves
and subsequently taken for wrapping of CFRP sheet. The surfaces
of the samples were cleaned with brush and Master BraceÒ3500 The stress – strain curves of the samples are shown in Fig. 2. The
was applied as a primer before the application of epoxy. MB3500 specimen UC-UR achieved the compression strength 50.67 MPa at
consisted of parts ‘‘A” and ‘‘B” which were mixed in ratio 28 days. The stress-strain curves shows that the peak stress was
1.67:1.0 before application. The primer was allowed to get achieved on average strain value (eco) 0.235%. The samples under-
absorbed in concrete surface for 24 h prior to the application of went brittle failure, and the stress curve fell immediately after fail-
epoxy Master BraceÒ4500. MB4500 consisted of parts ‘‘A” and ure. The increase in compressive strength due to addition of steel
‘‘B” which were mixed together in ratio 1:0.5 before application fibers was not very much effected. However, an increase of
and applied to concrete samples and CFRP laminate as shown in 10–15% in strain values were recorded. The increase in steel fiber
Fig. 1. CFRP cloth was cut as 1200  2100 to give minimum 1.500 over- content resulted in increase of peak strain as compared to control
lap at the ends. samples. However, it can be seen that after peak stress, the loss of
concrete strength was not as sudden as for the control samples. It
2.3. Specimen designation was also observed that the inherent abrupt failure property of con-
crete was diminished to an extent (Fig. 2(a)). Strain increased even
The specimens were labeled for classification of data. Label/ after peak strain, and the fibers bridged the cracks and delayed the
nomenclature started with ‘C’ or ‘UC’ for confined and unconfined, failure.
respectively. Control specimens without steel fibers were denoted The single layer FRP confined specimens showed up to 20%
with ‘UR’. For reinforced specimens, the hyphen was followed by increase in compressive strength and up to 60–70% in strain values.
‘R’, which was followed by hyphen and percentage of steel fiber Significant difference in post peak response of confined samples in
(Vf). For steel tube confined samples, the letter ‘S’ was added after comparison to unconfined containing similar was observed. The
hyphen. For example, C-R-3F-2.5% denotes the specimen which is branch after peak value shows that the strain increased substan-
confined with three layer of CFRP and reinforced with steel fiber tially further and resulted in increase in compressive stress. The
at 2.5% of volume fraction. The details of specimen tested are sum- specimen C-R-F-2.5% experienced premature bond failure. The
marized in Table 3. samples yielded at an average strain value of 0.25% and were able
to achieve failure strain ecu value of 0.483%. However, Fig. 2(b)
shows that after peak stress the loss of concrete strength was quite
2.4. Testing of specimens
mild, as for the control samples and the specimens showed better
ductile behavior due to confinement. It was observed that the
The testing of specimens was carried out on strain controlled
inherent abrupt failure property of concrete was diminished to
Universal Testing Machine IBMU4-2000. All specimens were
an extent. Strain value increased even after peak strain and steel
ensured to be grounded at ends so that load could be distributed
fibers bridged the cracks and delayed the failure.
The specimens confined with 3-layers of FRP demonstrated
good behavior and significant increase in compressive strength
up to 70–90% was recorded while corresponding strain values also
increased up to 40%. The higher yielding compression strength of
84.66 MPa was recorded at higher strain value of 0.34%. The spec-
imens exhibited better post peak behavior and ductility due to effi-
cient confinement provided by 3 layers of CFRP as shown in Fig. 2
(d). The post peak behavior also shows strain increase and does not
show sudden failure as seen in control samples. Specimens C-R-3F-
1.5% experienced bonding failure, which is attributed to the
improperly wrapped confinement on the specimens surface due
to entrapped air bubbles in between. The strain value increased
with increase in fiber content. The post peak behavior shows that
the samples were taking stress even after peak stress point.
Steel tube confined specimens with different steel fiber con-
tents yielded at the average stress of 60 MPa with strain value of
Fig. 1. (a) Master BraceÒP3500/4500, and (b) CFRP sheet wrapped on concrete 0.228%. The post peak response is seen to be different from all
specimen. other types of specimens and the stress-strain curves flattened
4 M. Usman et al. / Construction and Building Materials 230 (2020) 117043

Table 3
Details of specimens.

S/No Specimen designation Vf (%) Confinement f’c (MPa) eo (%) f0 cc/f UC

1 UC-UR – – 50.67 0.235 1

2 UC-R-0.5% 0.5 – 51.45 0.259 1.015
3 UC-R-1.5% 1.5 – 49.91 0.263 0.985
4 UC-R-2.5% 2.5 – 49.95 0.268 0.986
5 C-R-F-0.5% 0.5 CFRP (1 Layer) 59.91 0.463 1.181
6 C-R-F-1.5% 1.5 CFRP (1 Layer) 58.33 0.394 1.151
7 C-R-F-2.5% 2.5 CFRP (1 Layer) 58.93 0.431 1.163
8 C-R-S-0.5% 0.5 Steel Sheet 61.94 0.426 1.223
9 C-R- S 1.5% 1.5 Steel Sheet 62.94 0.444 1.243
10 C-R- S- 2.5% 2.5 Steel Sheet 62.11 0.419 1.226
11 C-R-3F-0.5% 0.5 CFRP (3 Layer) 91.23 0.495 1.801
12 C-R-3F-1.5% 1.5 CFRP (3 Layer) 91.14 0.476 1.800
13 C-R-3F-2.5% 2.5 CFRP (3 Layer) 95.75 0.477 1.890

100 100
UC-UR UC-UR
(a) UC-R-0.5%
(b) UC-R-0.5%
UC-R-1.5%
80 UC-R-1.5% 80 UC-R-2.5%
UC-R-2.5% C-R-F-0.5%
C-R-F-1.5%
60 60 C-R-F-2.5%
Stress (MPa)

Stress (MPa)
40 40

20 20

0
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 Strain (%)
Strain (%)

100 UC-UR
100
UC-R-0.5%
(c) UC-R-1.5% (d)
80 UC-R-2.5% 80
C-R-S-0.5%
C-R-S-1.5%
60 C-R-S-2.5% 60
Stress (MPa)

Stress (MPa)

40 40 UC-UR
UC-R-0.5%
UC-R-1.5%
UC-R-2.5%
20 20 C-R-3F-0.5%"
C-R-3F-1.5%
C-R-3F-2.5%
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0 0.2 0.4 0.6
Strain (%) Strain (%)

Fig. 2. Stress strain curves for (a) unconfined SFRC samples, (b) Comparison of unconfined reinforced and single layer CFRP confined samples, (c) Comparison of unconfined
reinforced and steel sheet confined samples, and (d) Comparison of unconfined reinforced and CFRP three layer confined samples.

after peak compressive strength with higher increase in strain val- age led to increase in the stability of concrete at failure. Fig. 3
ues as shown in Fig. 2(c). The welding failures at steel tubes joint shows some of the sample at failure containing steel fibers. The
were observed closer to peak stress because of lateral expansion failure mode of confined concrete specimens was quite ductile.
of concrete. Ductile behavior for steel tube confined specimens For single layer CFRP confined concrete, the samples failed with
was observed and up to 30% increase in compressive strength debonding and CFRP sheet failure. 1.5 in. overlap proved to be
was recorded and the strain values of specimens also increased insufficient. Samples with three Layer CFRP confinements showed
up to 37%. It was observed that the peak stress is dependable on different failure mode than single Layer CFRP confined samples.
the strength of welded joints and not on the percentage of steel Three Layers CFRP sheet provided sufficient confinement to HSC.
fibers. The confinement level becomes variable because of the dif- The samples failed with crushing of concrete. Unlike single layer
ference in welding strength of steel sheets. CFRP, three layers CFRP remained intact even after failure. Due to
this, the concrete achieved high strength enhancement and the
3.2. Failure modes samples failed with the failure of concrete matrix.
Only one sample was seen to have debonding failure. The
The control samples failed, showing cracks propagation at sur- debonding may be attributed to the entrapped air while coating
face of concrete and having sudden collapse after peak loads. The and wrapping which may weaken the confinement effect. Steel
samples with steel fibers showed cracks with lesser crack widths Tube filled SFR HSC experienced altogether different failure mode
at surface. Presence of steel fibers in concrete matrix stopped com- than other types of confined specimens. The welded joints failed
plete crushing of the specimens. The increase in steel fiber percent- with increase in compressive loads. The bulging of concrete led
 M. Usman et al. / Construction and Building Materials 230 (2020) 117043 5

Fig. 3. Failure patterns observed in (a–c) Unconfined SFRC specimens, (d–f) Single layer CFRP confined specimens, (g–i) Three layers CFRP confined specimens, and (j–l) Steel
sheet confined specimens.

to the development of tensile forces at welded joints of confining 3.3. Confinement effect on SFRC
steel sheet. The joints failed at stress levels of 9000 psi, this led
to the failure of HSC as the confinement effect diminished. The The comparison graphs of concrete specimens with different
specimen failed at the very same instant with the failure of HSC. steel fibers are shown in Fig. 4. It can be seen that compressive
6 M. Usman et al. / Construction and Building Materials 230 (2020) 117043

100 ing strain and ultimate strain. The post peak behavior is of great
UC-U R (a) interest for HSC as it is of brittle nature. It can be seen from graph
UC-R-0.5%
80 C-R-F-0.5% that confinement makes concrete more ductile. The strain ductility
C-R-S-0.5% values are greatest for steel tube filled SFRC with an increase of
Stress (MPa)

C-R-3F-0.5%
57%. The increase in compression strength of CFRP confined spec-
60
imens was quite significant but increase in strain ductility was
not significant and an increase of 16% was recorded. Results of
40
specimen with 2.5% Vf indicated that the compressive stress value
increases with increasing level of confinement. For three layer
20 CFRP confinement, the axial strength increases 91.6% to uncon-
fined. With single layer of CFRP confinement, the strength
0 increases to almost 25%. The steel tube confined specimen failed
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 to achieve appreciable strength enhancement but achieved great-
Strain (%) est strains. Steel tube filled SFRC is tougher than unconfined SFRC
100 and 1 layer CFRP confined specimen. Confinement increased the
UC-U R
(b) ultimate strain to a great extent. The post peak behavior is
UC-R-1.5%
C-R-F-1.5% improved with level of confinement.
80
C-R-3F-1.5%
C-R-S-1.5%
Stress (MPa)

3.4. Comparison of strain values

60
A comparison is made to analyze the change in average strain
40 values with the increase of Steel Fiber Content (Vf) in each type
of specimen tested in this research. The effect of steel fiber content
20 is different for each type of concrete composite. The values of yield
strain (ey), peak strain (e0) and ultimate strain (ecu) of unconfined
0 SFRC are shown in Fig. 5(a). The yield strain Ey values increased
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 with increase in steel fiber content (Vf) values. The increase in yield
Strain (%) strain for different steel fiber content was within 3.7–7.4% as com-
pared to 0.5% steel content. The ultimate strains are also seen to
100
UC-U R
(c) increase for unconfined SFRC with increase in steel fiber content
UC-R-2.5%
(Vf) values. For Vf = 2.5% there is an increase of 8.4% as compared
80 C-R-F-2.5%
C-R-3F-2.5% to ultimate strain (ecu) values of Vf = 0.5%. This is because the role
C-R-S-2.5% of steel fibers becomes predominant after failure as they act as
60 crack binders. With higher fiber content, the values ultimate
Stress (MPa)

strains (ecu) increase to an appreciable extent.

40 The comparison of strain values of specimens confined with sin-
gle layer CFRP is shown in Fig. 5(b). The yield strain ey values are
20 seen to increase with increase in steel fiber content (Vf) values.
For Vf = 1.5% and Vf = 2.5% there is an increase of 5.26%, as com-
0 pared to yield strain (ey) values of Vf = 0.5%. The ultimate strains
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 are also seen to increase for unconfined specimen with increase
Strain (%) in steel fiber content (Vf) values. For Vf = 2.5% there is an increase
of 36.8% as compared to ultimate strain (ecu) values of Vf = 0.5%.
Fig. 4. Stress – strain curves of specimens with (a) 0.5% steel fiber, (b) 1.5% steel This is because the role of steel fibers becomes predominant after
fiber, & (c) 2.5% steel fiber.
failure as they act as crack binders. With higher fiber content, the
values ultimate strains (ecu) increase to an appreciable extent. The
failure mode for these specimens was mainly due to delamination
of CFRP sheet. Therefore, after the peak point, the specimen
strength of specimens increases with increasing level of confine- behaved as partially confined with role of steel fiber predominant
ment. The compression strength increased 16.5% for C-R-F speci- in post peak region. For higher fiber content the hold and tough-
men as compared to UC-R specimen and 77.36% increase was ness was greater. Therefore there is a huge increase in ecu values.
observed in case of C-R-3F specimen. It can be observed that the Fig. 5(c) shows the comparison of strain value of specimens
peak strain and ultimate failure strain values are greatest for C- confined by three layer of CFRP. The values for ey are seen to be
R-3F specimen. Energy absorption is also enhanced by confine- greatest for Vf = 0.5%. No significant increase in strain values is
ment. Confinement increases the toughness of concrete and steel observed for ey and eo peak strain values. This can be explained
tube filled SFRC is seen to be the toughest amongst all groups based on the failure mode of three layer CFRP confined specimens.
tested. In case of C-R-S specimen, an increase of 72.2% in strain The failure is due to the crushing of concrete. CFRP confinement
ductility was recorded this was the highest amongst all groups. remains intact so the level of confinement is sufficient. Therefore,
For 1.5% Vf of steel fibers, it can be observed that the compres- the role of steel fibers is not very predominant up to failure. There
sive stress value increased with increasing level of confinement. is an increase in ecu values with increase in steel fiber content (Vf).
For three layer CFRP confinement, the axial strength increases This could be due to the tensile forces which develop in steel fibers.
82.7% in contrast to unconfined. The steel tube confined specimen Even after failure, concrete remains confined and steel fibers help
failed to achieve appreciable strength enhancement (only 26%) but concrete to remain intact.
achieved greatest strains. Response of C-R-S specimens was better The values of strain values of steel confined specimens are
than C-R-1F specimens. The graph also shows the strain compar- shown in Fig. 5(d). The yield strain ey values are seen to increase
ison of curves. Confinement increases the peak stress correspond- with increase in steel fiber content (Vf) values. For Vf = 2.5% there
 M. Usman et al. / Construction and Building Materials 230 (2020) 117043 7

0.5 0.5
Yield Strain Peak Strain Ultimate Strain Yield Strain Peak Strain Ultimate strain

0.4 0.4
Strain %

Strain %
0.3 0.3

0.2 0.2

0.1 0.1

0 0
0% 0.50% 1.50% 2.50% 0% 0.50% 1.50% 2.50%
(a) (b)

0.5 0.5
Yield Strain Peak Strain Ultimate Strain Yield Strain Peak Strain Ultimate strain
0.4 0.4

Strain %
0.3 0.3
Strain %

0.2 0.2

0.1 0.1

0 0
0% 0.50% 1.50% 2.50% 0% 0.50% 1.50% 2.50%
(c) (d)
Fig. 5. Strain values for (a) Unconfined SFRC, (b) One layer CFRP confined SFRC, (c) Three layer CFRP confined SFRC, and (d) Steel confined SFRC.

2.50 this research was calculated, by dividing strain at 80% of peak load
0 by Strain at yield. Fig. 6 shows the ductility values and comparison.
0.50% The ductility (m) of control specimen was calculated to be 1.10
2.00
1.50% and ductility values for steel fiber reinforced specimen was about
2.50% 1.3. The value of ductility (m) increased with increase in fiber con-
1.50
Ductility

tent. This result is as expected because greater the fiber content,

greater the energy absorption after peak hence greater the ductil-
1.00 ity. The C-R-3F specimens showed greater strain ductility (m) val-
ues ranged from 1.4 to 1.53. The trend line shows that the strain
0.50 ductility increases as the fiber content increases in the concrete.
It also shows that greater the level of confinement, the higher
0.00 the values of strain ductility (m). For steel confined specimens,
UC-UR UC-R C-R-F C-R-3F C-R-S the strain ductility values (m) touched 1.9. This increase in ductility
is caused by the ductility of steel sheets. The welds tend to elon-
Fig. 6. Strain Ductility values Comparison for specimens. gate at joints, which increase the axial strains to a great extent. It
can be seen that the inherent brittle nature of HSC can be made
ductile through the use of composites. The use of CFRP not only
is an increase of 5.03%, as compared to yield strain (ey) values of increases the axial compressive strength to a double but also
Vf = 0.5%. No visible trend is seen in peak strain (eo) values. This enhances the post peak behavior of HSC. It increases ductility to
is because the failure mode depicts that the specimen failed with an appreciable extent.
the welded joints rupture. The role of steel fibers is not predomi-
nant in this type. The values of ultimate strains are seen to increase 3.6. Energy absorption and toughness index
with increase in steel fiber content (Vf). However, there is no clear
trend as the failure mode depicted that the failure was due to the Toughness of a material can be defined as the ability to absorb
rupture of welds. The behavior was dependent on steel tube con- energy before rupturing. It requires a balance of strength and duc-
finement and steel content had very less influence. tility. In mathematics terms, it can be obtained by integrating the
stress-strain curve. Energy absorbed for deformation per unit vol-
3.5. Strain ductility of concrete (m) ume is known as the modulus of resilience of that material. ‘‘Pre-
crack energy absorbed in compression (PEC) can be determined
A very important characteristic of any material is its strain duc- by calculating the area under the stress-strain curve up to the yield
tility (m), which refers to the ability to deform after yield point. As stress. Yield stress is taken as the stress at which first visual crack
concrete is a brittle material, special interest is paid to the ductility is observed during compressive strength test. The area under the
of composites. Ductility of different types of concretes tested in stress-strain curve from yield stress to the peak stress is taken as
8 M. Usman et al. / Construction and Building Materials 230 (2020) 117043

0.12 6%
0 0%
0.50% (a) 0.50% (b)
0.10 5% 1.50%
1.50%
2.50% 2.50%
0.08 4%
PEC

3%

CEC
0.06

0.04 2%

0.02 1%

0.00 0%
UC-UR UC-R C-R-F C-R-3F C-R-S UC-UR UC-R C-R-F C-R-3F C-R-S

0.12 0.25
0 (c) 0 (d)
0.10 0.50% 0.50%
1.50% 0.20
1.50%
0.08 2.50% 2.50%
0.15
PCEC

0.06
TEC 0.10
0.04

0.02 0.05

0.00 0.00
UC-UR UC-R C-R-F C-R-3F C-R-S UC-UR UC-R C-R-F C-R-3F C-R-S

Fig. 7. (a) PEC values Comparison for specimens, (b) CEC values Comparison for specimens, (c) PCEC values Comparison for specimens, and (d) TEC values Comparison for
specimens 21.

cracked energy absorbed in compression (CEC). Post-crack energy is because of the presence of steel fibers and their ability to dissi-
absorbed in compression (PCEC) is taken as the area under the pate energy, which imparts toughness to concrete during this crit-
stress strain curve from peak stress to the ultimate stress. Ultimate ical period. Samples with single layer CFRP showed greater values
stress is taken as the stress after the peak stress drops by 20%. Total of CEC than control samples but were lower than unconfined spec-
energy absorbed in compression (TEC) is calculated as the area imens. Samples with three layers CFRP sheet gave the highest val-
under the stress–strain curve from zero to ultimate stress” ues of toughness in this period. Samples containing 2.5% steel
[34–37]. fibers and 3 layer CFRP confinement showed the best results. This
shows that best toughness in this region is achieved with 3 Layer
3.6.1. Pre-Crack energy (PEC) CFRP confinement and 2.5% steel fibers by volume.
The Energy absorbed by concrete specimens from start point up
to yield point can be calculated from stress-strain graphs. The Fig. 7 3.6.3. Post-Crack energy absorbed in compression (PCEC)
(a) shows the values and comparison for different types of compos- PCEC is the energy absorbed after peak stress till failure and
ites with different steel fiber content (Vf). The graph shows that comparison is shown in Fig. 7(c). It can be observed that the con-
PEC value increase slightly for UC-R specimens as steel fibers rein- trol samples show very less energy absorption values. This was
force the concrete and bridge cracks. They absorb energy therefore expected as High Strength Concrete shows brittle behavior as
PEC values are greater than control samples. For single layer CFRP, expected. HSC is inherently of brittle nature and is shown by the
the values increase significantly because of the composite behav- PCEC values obtained from test data. The specimens with steel
ior. The confinement imparts toughness to concrete. PEC value is fibers showed much greater values than control samples. This elab-
the highest for 3 layer CFRP due to its high confinement sustain- orates the effect of steel fibers in concrete matrix. It imparts tough-
ability. It shows that as the confinement increases the toughness ness to concrete even after peak stress is achieved. For unconfined
of concrete increases. Similar trend was observed for C-R-S specimens with steel fibers, the greatest values are obtained for
specimens. 2.5% fiber content because as the fiber content increases, the resis-
tance to crack increases. Single Layer CFRP confined specimens
3.6.2. Cracked energy absorbed in compression (CEC) showed much greater values than unconfined specimens. The use
CEC is the energy absorbed from yield to the peak stress point. It of confinement holds the concrete even after peak stress. There-
shows the behavior of concrete after the cracks appear at yield fore, PCEC values show significant increase. The values for three
point till peak stress is achieved. The Fig. 7(b) shows the compar- layers CFRP confined specimens are slightly greater than single
ison of CEC for all types of specimens. It can be observed that there layer CFRP specimens of similar type. It could be because the pres-
is an appreciable difference in CEC values between control sample ence of three layers CFRP increase the compressive strength but do
and unconfined specimens. The specimens with steel fibers have not impart greater toughness after peak stress. Steel Tube filled
almost double values in comparison to unreinforced samples. This specimens shows the greatest values of PCEC. This is because the
 M. Usman et al. / Construction and Building Materials 230 (2020) 117043 9

3.75 concrete (HSC) to investigate its properties under axial compres-

0 sion (strength, modulus, and post peak behavior), for civil engi-
0.50% neering applications. Specimens reinforced with steel fibers were
3.00
1.50% then confined with three variable confinements (1 layer CFRP, 3
Layer CFRP and Steel tube). The stress strain curves for all the spec-
Toughness Index

2.50%
2.25 imens were analyzed and following conclusions are made:

1.50 i. Three layer CFRP wrapping provides efficient confinement at

which the concrete crushes but confinement does not fail. It
enhances axial compressive strength by 70–80% of uncon-
0.75
fined strength. 1 layer CFRP confinement also shows strain
enhancement but with much less increase in compressive
0.00 strength (20–25%).
0 UC-R C-R-F C-R-3F C-R-S ii. The addition of Steel Fiber has little effect on the axial com-
pressive strength but make HSC tougher and ductile. With
Fig. 8. Toughness index of the specimens.
increase in steel fiber content (Vf) the Post Peak behavior
steel confinement provided sufficient ductility. The welds elongate is affected predominantly and causes increase in the ulti-
to an appreciable extent, absorbing the energy before failure. mate strains Eu.
iii. Steel Filled SFRC exhibit highest toughness and ductility, but
endure failure at lower loads due to failure of welded joints.
3.6.4. Total energy absorbed in compression (TEC)
In can be concluded that the strength and behavior of this
TEC value refers to the total energy absorbed by the specimens
type of composite depends on the strength of welded joints
before ultimate failure as shown in Fig. 7(d). The control specimen
as steel sheet poses much greater tensile strength for
achieved TEC value of 0.061. When HSC specimens were reinforced
confinement.
with steel fibers, TEC values increased to 0.078 for 0.5% steel fiber
iv. The use of steel fiber and confinement simultaneously in
content and increased with increase in fiber content. This is in line
compression members leads to increased compressive
with previous research results that as the percentage increase, the
strength, energy absorption, increased strain values,
energy absorption also increases. For single layer CFRP wrapping
enhanced post peak response; thus can reduce the brittle-
on SFRC, TEC values increased substantially. This is the combined
ness and defects of HSC.
effect of fibers and confinement that the energy absorption
increases to an appreciable extent. Specimens with 3 layer CFRP
wrapping, showed the highest TEC values. The specimens with
2.5% steel fibers were the toughest amongst all the specimens. Declaration of Competing Interest
The specimens confined with steel also dissipated energy much
greater than control specimens. It absorbed energy greater than The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
single Layer CFRP samples. This is as expected due to the high ten- cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
sile strength of steel confining sheet. The value would had been to influence the work reported in this paper.
greater if the weld would not had failed at slightly lower loads than
expected. Acknowledgements

3.6.5. Toughness index (TI) Funding support from China National Key R&D Program – Inter-
Toughness of a material can be defined as the ability to absorb governmental International Scientific and Technological Innova-
energy before rupturing. It requires a balance of strength and duc- tion Cooperation Key Project, ‘‘Research on the application and
tility. In mathematics terms, it can be obtained by integrating the demonstration of the green construction materials for the post-
stress-strain curve. Toughness index in compression (TIC) is ‘‘the disaster reconstruction in Pakistan and Nepal”, Grant No.
ratio of total energy absorbed in compression to the pre-crack 2018YFE0106300, 2019.07-2022.06, is gratefully acknowledged.
energy absorbed in compression” [34] (i.e. TEC/PEC). Fig. 8 shows
the comparison of TI values of all concrete specimens. The values References
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