Materials and Processes for NDT Technology

second edition

Errata – first printing 01/16

The following text correction pertains to the second edition of Materials and Processes for NDT Technology.
Subsequent printings of the document will incorporate the corrections into the published text.

The attached corrected page applies to the first printing 01/16. In order to verify the print run of your book, refer to the copy-
right page. Ebooks are updated as corrections are found.

Page Correction
p. 39 In 2.4.3 Hexagonal Close-packed Structure, the first sentence in the second paragraph should read as
follows: “The FCC and HCP are close-packed structures; that is, they are packed very efficiently
with the highest possible packing factor of 0.74.”

p. 57 In the fourth full paragraph, the last line should read: “Grain size G is found from the equation”
Equation 18 should read “2 to the power of G minus 1
Equation 19 has been replaced with the following: G = (ln[n] / ln[2]) + 1

p. 67 At the very bottom of the page: the left side of the equation should be B/H.

p. 90 In the paragraph on Martensitic Stainless Steel, the percentage range should be 11% to 18%.

p. 178 Figure 7.10: the label should read “Welding electrodes.”

p. 200 In the paragraph Joint Defined by Temperature and Spacing, the temperature should be 449 °C (840 °F).

p. 328 A shear wave in gold propagates at 1.2 km/s, not 3.1 km/s.

p. 356 The last sentence in the third paragraph should read: “Emissivity is inversely proportional to reflectivity
and is a key variable in IR.”

Catalog #2250
Book printed 01/16
Errata created 10/18
 CHAPTER 2 CLASSIFICATION, STRUCTURE, AND SOLIDIFICATION OF MATERIALS 39

The packing factor (PFFCC) is:

volume of atoms
(Eq. 2.10)
volume of unit cell

This can be expressed as:

 16 3 
 πR 
3
(Eq. 2.11) 3
= 0.74
 4 
 R
2 
Larger packing factors mean that the FCC metals are more densely packed. Iron
has an FCC structure at higher temperatures, and it weighs more per unit volume
than at room temperature where it is more “loosely” packed in a BCC structure.
Aluminum, copper, nickel, silver, lead, gold, and some other materials form FCC
crystallographic structures. Some compounds, such as NaCl (table salt) also have the
FCC structure. The unit cell may be viewed as an FCC structure of one type of atom, (a)
for example, Na, with the other, Cl, occupying the interstitial vacancies. Both ele-
ments for an FCC structure are intertwined.

2.4.3 HEXAGONAL CLOSE-PACKED STRUCTURE

A hexagonal close-packed (HCP) structure with the center of atoms represented as
hard balls is shown in Figure 2.24a. The hard-ball representation of whole atoms is
shown in Figure 2.24b. This structure represents three HCP unit cells, which are
skewed prisms. As can be seen, each atom in one layer is located directly above or
below the interstices created by the space between three adjacent atoms in neighbor-
ing layers. Atoms are touching along the side of the base. In an ideal HCP structure,
c/a = 1.633, but for most HCP metals c/a ratios differ slightly due to the presence of (b)
mixed bonding conditions—metallic and some covalent.
The FCC and HCP are close-packed structures; that is, they are packed very effi-
ciently with the highest possible packing factor of 0.74. Several metals have the HCP
structure including zinc, magnesium, titanium, and cobalt.

2.4.4 AMORPHOUS STRUCTURES

As mentioned earlier, solids can be generally classified into two types: (1) crystalline,
which can form a regular repeating three-dimensional structure called a crystal lat-
tice, and (2) amorphous, which can aggregate with no particular order. The word
amorphous is derived from Greek word “amorphos” meaning “without order.” (c)
In an amorphous solid, the local environment, including both the distances to
neighboring units and the numbers of neighbors, varies throughout the material. Figure 2.24: Schematics of
Different amounts of thermal energy are needed to overcome these different interac- hexagonal close-packed
tions. Consequently, amorphous solids tend to soften slowly over a wide tempera- structure.
ture range rather than having a well-defined melting point like a crystalline solid. If
an amorphous solid is maintained at a temperature just below its melting point for
long periods of time, the component molecules, atoms, or ions can gradually
rearrange into a more highly ordered crystalline form.
Amorphous solids include both natural and manufactured materials. The most
frequently cited example of an amorphous solid is glass. However, amorphous solids
are common to all subsets of solids. Additional examples include thin film lubri-
cants, metallic glasses, polymers, and gels.
 CHAPTER 2 CLASSIFICATION, STRUCTURE, AND SOLIDIFICATION OF MATERIALS 57

any particular grain, all of the unit cells are arranged with one orientation and one
pattern. However, at the grain boundary, where two differently oriented crystals
meet, there is a mismatch between the atoms as well as empty space (voids). This
grain boundary, a two-dimensional imperfection, often runs to several layers of
atoms.
We can locate grain boundaries using a metallurgical microscope. The piece of
metal (in our discussion, we will use the example of metal from now on) is first
smoothly polished so that a mirror-like surface is obtained and then chemically
attacked for a short period of time. This process is called etching. The atoms on the
grain boundary have more energy than atoms in the interior of the grain (the same
way that atoms on the surface have), and they dissolve more readily in the acid,
resulting in loose particles. When they are removed, grooves are left behind, making
the grain boundary readily seen under an optical microscope.
Smaller grains have more grain boundaries per unit area. These grain boundaries
stop dislocations by interrupting their slip plane. Materials with smaller grains are
stronger at room temperature. Atoms can diffuse more easily in the material with
smaller grains. Also, materials with small grains melt at lower temperatures because
more energy is already stored in the grain boundary.
Since the grain boundary affects a material in a number of ways, it is useful to
know the amount of grain-boundary surface per unit volume Sv. This area can be
estimated if we place a line (straight or curved) randomly across the magnified pic-
ture of the piece of metal (or screen) with etched atoms. This line will intersect more
of the grain boundary in a fine-grained material than in coarse-grained material.
The relation is:

(Eq. 2.17) SV = 2 PL

where PL is the number of points of intersections per unit length between the line
and the boundaries.
A more common identification of the amount of grain boundary per unit area is
grain size (n). A method to determine the grain size number has been standardized
by ASTM International (formerly, the American Society for Testing and Materials).
Although empirical, it is a quantitative and reproducible index. Grain size G is found
from the equation:

(Eq. 2.18) n = 2 G−1

Or:

ln ( n )
(Eq. 2.19) G= +1
ln ( 2 )

where n is the number of grains per area of 1 in.2 (0.0645 mm2) at magnification of
100×.
Grains are counted as one if they are completely inside of the area, 1/2 if they are
cut by the line, and 1/4 if they are in the corners regardless of their size.
Number of Grains per Unit Area. Although there might be a little difference in
n for different areas analyzed, the number of grains will come out the same (n is a
rounded number). Only if you count two times more grains in one specimen than in
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CHAPTER 3 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS 67

the hub clamps tightly against the shaft. This process, known as autofrettage, is
applied on a number of products, especially those that experience high pressures,
such as cannons and pressure vessels.

3.2.3 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Electrical properties are defined as the response of materials to an applied electric
field. They are important not only in designing circuitry, electrical machines, and
electronic devices, but also in the selection of manufacturing processes and testing
methods of products. For instance, electro-discharge machining (EDM) and electro-
chemical grinding are used on hard-to-manufacture products, and electromagnetic
testing (ET) is used on conductive materials.
Electrical conductivity is an expression of how well materials conduct electrical
current. The opposite of electrical conductivity is electrical resistivity. The units that
measure electrical resistivity are Ω/m (ohms per meter) or Ω/ft (ohms per foot) of
the length of the specimen. Therefore, conductivity is measured in units of meter/Ω
or foot/Ω. Materials with high conductivity are called conductors. Almost all pure
metals are very good conductors. The conductivity of alloys is lower than that of
pure metals. For instance, brass, which is a copper and zinc alloy, has a lower con-
ductivity than pure copper and pure zinc. The reason for this is that the different
atomic sizes of the two elements obstruct the passage of electrons within the matrix
of the parent material. Metals with only metallic bonding and a uniform structure,
such as copper, are better conductors than metals with mixed bonding, such as iron,
which has metallic and partially covalent bonding. In covalent bonding, electrons are
not free to move about to conduct electricity. Materials that are covalently bonded
(for example, most ceramics) are called resistors. As mentioned in Chapter 2, there
are materials that can conduct electricity under certain circumstances but not others.
These materials are called semiconductors.
Under very high voltages, the resistivity of materials can be “broken.” The dielec-
tric strength of materials is defined as the voltage per unit length necessary for elec-
trical “breakdown”; that is, the material becomes a conductor of direct current.
Superconductivity is a phenomenon whereby materials below some critical tempera-
ture exhibit zero electrical resistivity. Certain metals, a large number of intermetallic
compounds (combinations of two or more metals), and some ceramics exhibit
superconductivity at very low temperatures. The highest temperature at which this
phenomenon is observed is now approximately 88 °C (190 °F). Materials with super-
conductivity at appreciably higher temperatures are constantly sought, since the use
of these materials greatly improves the efficiency of electrical and electronic devices.
Some ceramics and quartz crystals exhibit the piezoelectric effect (from Greek
piezo- meaning to “press”). In piezoelectricity, there is a reversible interaction
between an elastic strain and electrical field. When these materials are compressed,
they generate an electrical current, and when they are given an electric current, they
undergo a change in dimension. This property is the foundation of ultrasonic trans-
ducers, precision actuators, sonar detectors, and some microphones.

3.2.4 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES

Magnetism refers to physical phenomena arising from the force between magnets—
objects that produce fields that attract or repel other objects.The origin of magnet-
ism lies in the orbital and spin motions of electrons and how the electrons interact
with one another. In most atoms, electrons occur in pairs. These electrons spin in
opposite directions resulting in a cancellation of the magnetic field or no net mag-
netic field.
Magnetic susceptibility (c) is one of the main properties along with magnetic
field strength (H) and magnetic flux (B): c µ B/H.
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90 SECTION ONE INDUSTRIAL MATERIALS

group was first called stainless steel. With the emphasis on high temperature use,
they are frequently referred to as heat-and corrosion-resistant steels.
Martensitic Stainless Steel. With lower amounts of chromium or with silicon or
aluminum added to some of the higher chromium steels, the material responds to
heat treatment much as any low alloy steel. The gamma-to-alpha transformation in
iron occurs normally, and the steel may be hardened by heat treatment similar to
that used on plain carbon or low alloy steels. Steels of this class are called marten-
sitic, and the most used ones have 11% to 18% chromium.
Ferritic Stainless Steel. With larger amounts of chromium, as great as 30% or
more, the austenite is suppressed, and the steel loses its ability to be hardened by
normal steel heat-treating procedures. Steels of this type are called ferritic and are
particularly useful when high corrosion resistance is necessary in cold-worked
products.
Austenitic Stainless Steel. With high chromium and the addition of 8% or more
of nickel or combinations of nickel and manganese, the ferrite is suppressed. These
steels, the most typical of which contains 18% chromium and 8% nickel, are referred
to as austenitic stainless steels. They are not hardenable by normal steel heat-treating
procedures, but the addition of small amounts of other elements makes some of
them hardenable by a solution precipitation reaction.
Composition and Structure Critical for Corrosion Resistance. In any stainless steel,
serious loss of corrosion resistance can occur if large amounts of chromium carbide
form. Consequently, the ferritic and austenitic grades are generally made with low
amounts of carbon and even then may need special heat treatments or the addition of
stabilizing elements such as molybdenum or titanium to prevent chromium carbide for-
mation. With the martensitic grades in which the hardness and strength depend on
the carbon, the steels must be fully hardened with the carbon in a martenistic struc-
ture for maximum corrosion resistance.
The austenitic steels are the most expensive but possess the best impact proper-
ties at low temperatures, the highest strength and corrosion resistance at elevated
temperatures, and generally the best appearance. They are used for heat exchangers,
refining and chemical processing equipment, gas turbines, and other equipment
exposed to severe corrosive conditions. The austenitic steels are paramagnetic (prac-
tically unaffected by magnetic flux). This fact precludes the use of magnetic particle
testing. In the as-cast state, and in welds, austenitic stainless steel is quite coarse-
grained. In ultrasonic testing of this material, high levels of noise and attenuation
serve to limit the effectiveness of the test.
Both the ferritic and martensitic stainless steels are magnetic. Most are not as
corrosion resistant at high temperatures as the austenitic type but offer good resist-
ance at normal temperatures. They are used for such products as cutlery, surgical
instruments, automobile trim, ball bearings, and kitchen equipment.
Fabrication Difficult. The stainless steels are more difficult to machine and weld
than most other ferrous materials. In no case can stainless steels be classed as the
easiest to work, but they can be processed by all of the normal procedures, including
casting, rolling, forging, and pressworking. Table 4.4 presents information on com-
mon forms of stainless steel.

4.1.9 CAST IRON

These simplest ferrous materials are produced by causing the molten metal to solidi-
fy into approximate final product form. The result is known as a casting. The
processes of making castings is discussed in Chapter 6. Some of the relationships
between common cast irons are shown in Table 4.5.
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178 SECTION TWO MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Resistance-Welded Tubing. Light-gage steel tubing in sizes up to 40 cm (16 in.) in

diameter may be produced by resistance welding of stock that has been formed cold
by rolls, which progressively shape the material from flat strip to tubular form. The
general arrangement is shown in Figure 7.10. After forming, the tube passes between
electrodes, through which welding current is supplied, and pressure rolls that main-
tain pressure in the weld area. Because the material is heated only locally, the pressure
produces flash on both the inside and outside of the tube. The outside flash is
removed by a form cutter immediately following the welding operation. The inside
flash may be reduced by a rolling or forging action against a mandrel, depending on
size. Because this process uses rolls of strip stock as raw material and is best operated
continuously, a flying saw is required to cut the tubing to correct length. Resistance
butt welding may be done in a mill, but because of the relatively light equipment
needed, it frequently is performed as a secondary operation in a fabricator’s plant.
Some Pipe Welded with Filler Metal. For large sizes from about 15 cm (6 in.) to
an unlimited upper limit that are needed in relatively small quantities, pipe may be
manufactured by forming of plate or sheet and welding by any of the fusion process-
es. In practice, the submerged-arc method, discussed in Chapter 8, is often the most
economical welding procedure. After the edges of the plate have been properly pre-
pared by shearing or machining, the steps shown in Figure 7.11 are followed in
forming the pipe.
A relatively small quantity of larger pipe, from about 4 to 75 cm (1.5 to 30 in.) in
diameter, is lap welded. For this process, the skelp is beveled on the edges as it
emerges from the furnace. It is then formed to cylindrical shape with overlapping
edges. While at elevated temperature for welding, the tube is passed between a pres-
sure roller and a mandrel for the establishment of welding pressure.
Spiral-Welded Pipe. The making of light-gage pipe or tubing as pictured in
Figure 7.12 can be accomplished by resistance welding of a continuous spiral butt or
lap joint. A principal advantage of the process is the light equipment required and
the flexibility in changing from one size or one material to another. Any material
that can be welded can be fabricated into pipe by this method.
Seamless Tubing. In practice, the term seamless tubing refers to a tubular prod-
uct that is made without welding. The most common method used for steel involves
piercing of round billets of relatively large cross section and short length, with subse-
quent deformation operations to control the final diameter, wall thickness, and
length. Figure 7.13 shows the most common type of piercing mill used. The skew
rollers both flatten and advance the billet with a helical motion. High shear stresses
are developed at the center of the billet, at which point the material is forced over a
bullet-shaped mandrel.

Forming rolls
Pressure rolls

Butt-welded joint

Welding electrodes
Coil strip

Figure 7.10: Resistance welding of tubing.

2250 M&P insideQX10_416pgs.qxp_2259_RT_LIII_SG 7/11/17 4:14 PM Page 200

200 SECTION TWO MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Overall Joint Efficiency High. While a small amount of fusion of the base metal
may occur in some pressure bonds, it is incidental. No pronounced solidification
shrinkage occurs as it does with fusion welds. Consequently, distortion after weld-
ing is usually very slight. The efficiency of pressure bonds, based on the original
area, may be as high as 95%. Even though some inclusions are in the weld area,
lowering unit strength, pressure-welded joints may actually be stronger than the
original cross section as a result of the enlargement that occurs with plastic flow.
This is especially true in butt-welding procedures as used in the manufacture of
some chain links and fittings.

8.1.2.3 FLOW BONDING

Base Material Not Melted. When a filler material of different composition and lower
melting temperature than the base metal is used, the mechanism is described as flow
bonding (Figure 8.5). While some fusion of the base metal may occur, it is not essen-
tial to the process and is usually undesirable. The closeness necessary for bonding is
established by the molten filler metal conforming to the surface of the base metal.
The required cleanliness is produced by use of fluxes, ordinarily metal halides, or
borax, which dissolve the surface oxides and float them out of the joint.
Joint Defined by Temperature and Spacing. Three different operations using
flow bonds have been named: braze welding, brazing, and soldering. In braze welding,
the filler material is a metal or alloy having a melting point above 449 °C (840 °F)
and a composition significantly different from the base metal. In practice, the com-
monest alloys used as filler are copper or silver based. Occasionally, pure copper is
used for braze welding steel. The filler is usually in rod form, and the procedures are
similar to those employed in some fusion welding except that only the filler material
is melted. Fluxes are heated on the joint surfaces for cleaning. Braze welding is used
mainly for joining and repairing cast iron but is being replaced by fusion welding in
many cases. The joint strength is limited to that of the filler material in cast form.

8.1.3 SOLDERING AND BRAZING

Both brazing and soldering are common and relatively economical methods of
mechanically joining both similar and dissimilar metals with filler material. These
processes require contact between mating surfaces as the filler material, when heated
to slightly above its melting temperature, is drawn into the microscopic voids

Filler material (rod or shim)

(low melting temperature)

Filler material
Flux for cleaning
(granular or liquid)

Base material

Heat provided to melt filler

material and flux only and
increase chemical activity

Figure 8.5: Flow bond.

328 SECTION THREE NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING

the first critical angle at a water-aluminum interface, with 1.48 km/s and 6.3 km/s
respective compression wave velocities, occurs when the incident sound field is ori-
ented 13.59° off perpendicular. This is calculated using Snell’s law as follows:

sin θ1 V1
=
sin θ2 V2
V1
sin θ1 = sin θ2 ⋅
V2
V1
(Eq. 12.5) θ1 = sin –1 sin θ2 ⋅
V2
1.48 km/s
θ1 = sin –1 sin 90˚ ⋅
6.3 km/s
θ1 = 13.59˚

The second critical angle is the incident angle at which the slower shear wave is
refracted at 90°. In our water-aluminum example, a shear wave in gold propagating
at 1.2 km/s would be refracted at 90°—this is the second critical angle—with an inci-
dent angle of 28.52°.
Use of Wedges. The incident angle of the sound field may be modified electroni-
cally and/or mechanically, for example, with water coupling and a variable angle-
probe manipulator or with an angled wedge. Wedges are common on conventional
single-angle transducers—for example, 45°, 60°, and 70°—and they are also useful in
the higher-end phased array (PA) systems, also referred to as phased array ultrasonic
testing (PAUT) systems. The wedge angle for single-angle probes is fabricated based
on Snell’s law to produce a shear wave within the test object at a desired angle. Recall
that velocity, and consequently the angle, will change with temperature. Wedges for
PAUT probes also have a particular angle, but these systems have the capability to
alter the direction and shape of the sound field. PAUT systems can electronically
sweep the sound field through a range of angles in what is known as a sectorial scan,
focus the acoustic pressure at desired depths within the near field, and scan an area
without moving the probe as in a linear scan.

12.4.2 MATERIALS, EQUIPMENT, AND TECHNIQUES

Ultrasonic testing techniques for nondestructive testing have three general purposes:
(1) detection and characterization of discontinuities in materials, (2) evaluation of
material properties or thickness, and (3) bond characterization. Techniques have
been developed to economically evaluate large or small test objects of nearly every
material type and across essentially every industry. Techniques may be divided by
application, such as thickness gaging or discontinuity detection; by type of transduc-
er, such as immersion, contact, or noncontact; by how the transducer is manipulat-
ed, that is, manual versus automated; and/or by the number and configuration of
transducers used.
356 SECTION THREE NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING

Heat can be described as the energy associated with the random and chaotic
motions of the atomic particles which compose matter. Temperature is a measure of
the intensity of particle motion in degrees celsius (°C) or fahrenheit (°F), or in the
absolute scales of kelvin (K) or rankine (°R). At a microscopic length scale, the ther-
mal energy of a substance is the vibrational kinetic energy of its constituent atoms or
molecules. Increased thermal energy causes increased vibration or motion. The
atomic or molecular velocities are proportional to temperature, and the lowest point
on the kelvin temperature scale where atomic/molecular motion essentially ceases—
that is, absolute zero—indicates a thermal energy of zero. Heat always flows from a
warmer to a cooler region, and it may be transferred between two points via conduc-
tion or convection within a substance and via radiation as the thermal motion of
particles emits electromagnetic radiation.
Convection and Conduction. Convection is thermal energy transfer through the
motion of fluids, which is the dominant transfer mode for liquids and gases, for
example, heated air rising as a result of its lower density, while cooler air sinks.
While convection is limited to fluids, conduction and radiation occur in all forms of
matter: solid, liquid, gas, or plasma. Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy by
diffusion and by collisions between constituents. All matter with a temperature
greater than absolute zero (0 K or –273 °C) emits thermal radiation. The total energy
emitted, the peak wavelength, and the spectral energy distribution of this thermal
radiation may be predicted mathematically based on the object’s temperature. Total
emitted energy and the energy of electromagnetic radiation photons emitted increase
proportionally with temperature. The amount of radiated energy also varies with the
material and surface properties of the specimen.
Emissivity and Blackbody Radiation. Emissivity is the ratio of total energy radi-
ated by a specimen’s surface at a given temperature, as compared with the total ener-
gy radiated by a blackbody radiator of the same temperature. A hypothetical black-
body emits the maximum radiation energy theoretically possible at a given
temperature; consequently, it has an emissivity of 1.0. A blackbody would also
absorb all incident radiation falling upon it. Emissivity is inversely proportional to
reflectivity and is a key variable in IR.
All real materials have emissivities greater than 0.0 and less than 1.0. Poor under-
standing of emissivity will lead to poor measurement results. In other words, no real
surface will absorb all incident radiation, so it will also emit less radiation that an
ideal blackbody. Coatings, such as tape, carbon black, paint, or metallic surface treat-
ments, alter a sample’s emissivity. One example is low-emissivity glass, which uses a
metallic coating to keep more thermal energy on the source side of the pane. The
operator must be aware that discontinuities may be missed or obscured due to
reflections, emissivity, or spatial variations due to the viewing angle or interference
from wind, sunlight, moisture, or personnel.

12.12.2 EQUIPMENT AND TECHNIQUES

Contact and Noncontact Thermography. Infrared and thermal testing is the meas-
urement or mapping of surface temperatures when heat flows from, to, or through a
test object. Contact thermography techniques are available for mapping the tempera-
ture distribution of an area, possibly using a liquid crystal panel of the type that has
been useful in medical applications to screen patients for deep-vein thrombosis.
Noncontact IR techniques detect infrared wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation
emitted by the test object. Noncontact techniques are useful for moving targets,
when the target is in a controlled environment, such as in a vacuum or held within
an electromagnetic field, and when the target temperature exceeds the capability of
contact techniques.