4- Physical Layer

The physical layer of the OSI model sits at the bottom of the stack. It is part of the Network Access layer of
the TCP/IP model.

Purpose of the Physical Layer

∙ A physical connection can be a wired connection using a cable or a wireless connection using
radio waves.
∙ Devices on a wireless network must be connected to a wireless access point (AP) or wireless
router like the one shown in the figure.
∙ The OSI physical layer provides the means to transport the bits that make up a data link layer
frame across the network media. This layer accepts a complete frame from the data link layer and
encodes it as a series of signals that are transmitted to the local media. The encoded bits that comprise a
frame are received by either an end device or an intermediate device.
∙ The physical layer encodes the frames and creates the electrical, optical, or radio wave signals
that represent the bits in each frame. These signals are then sent over the media, one at a time.
∙ The destination node physical layer retrieves these individual signals from the media, restores
them to their bit representations, and passes the bits up to the data link layer as a complete frame.
∙ The physical layer receives frames from the data-link layer and converts it to bits for transmission.
On the sending device the physical layer passes the transmitted bits up to the data link layer as a
complete frame.
∙ The physical layer receives frames from the data link layer for encoding and transmission.

Physical Layer Characteristics

∙ The protocols and operations of the upper OSI layers are performed using software designed by
software engineers and computer scientists. The services and protocols in the TCP/IP suite are defined by
the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).
∙ The physical layer consists of electronic circuitry, media, and connectors developed by engineers.
Therefore, it is appropriate that the standards governing this hardware are defined by the relevant
electrical and communications engineering organizations.
∙ the physical layer hardware, media, encoding, and signaling standards are defined and governed
by these standards organizations:
∙ International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
∙ Telecommunications Industry Association/Electronic Industries Association (TIA/EIA)
∙ International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
∙ American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
∙ Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
∙ National telecommunications regulatory authorities including the Federal
Communication Commission (FCC) in the USA and the European Telecommunications
Standards Institute (ETSI)
∙ The physical layer standards address three functional areas:
∙ Physical Components: The physical components are the electronic hardware devices, media,
and other connectors that transmit the signals that represent the bits. Hardware components
such as NICs, interfaces and connectors, cable materials, and cable designs are all specified in
standards associated with the physical layer.
∙ Encoding: Encoding or line encoding is a method of converting a stream of data bits into a
predefined "code”. Codes are groupings of bits used to provide a predictable pattern that can
be recognized by both the sender and the receiver. For example, Manchester encoding
 represents a 0 bit by a high to low voltage transition, and a 1 bit is represented as a low to
high voltage transition.
∙ Signaling: The physical layer must generate the electrical, optical, or wireless signals that
represent the "1" and "0" on the media. The way that bits are represented is called the
signaling method. The figures display signaling :
 ∙ Bandwidth is the capacity at which a medium can carry data. Digital bandwidth measures the
amount of data that can flow from one place to another in a given amount of time.

∙ Bandwidth is sometimes thought of as the speed that bits travel, however this is not accurate. For
example, in both 10Mbps and 100Mbps Ethernet, the bits are sent at the speed of electricity. The
difference is the number of bits that are transmitted per second.

Table caption
Unit of Bandwidth Abbreviation Equivalence
Bits per second bps 1 bps = fundamental unit of bandwidth
Kilobits per second Kbps 1 Kbps = 1,000 bps = 103 bps
Megabits per second Mbps 1 Mbps = 1,000,000 bps = 106 bps
Gigabits per second Gbps 1 Gbps = 1,000,000,000 bps = 109 bps
Terabits per second Tbps 1 Tbps = 1,000,000,000,000 bps = 1012 bps
∙ Terms used to measure the quality of bandwidth include:
∙ Latency: Latency refers to the amount of time, including delays, for data to travel from
one given point to another. In an internetwork, or a network with multiple segments,
throughput cannot be faster than the slowest link in the path from source to
destination. Even if all, or most, of the segments have high bandwidth, it will only take
one segment in the path with low throughput to create a bottleneck in the throughput
of the entire network.
∙ Throughput: Throughput is the measure of the transfer of bits across the media over a
given period of time. Throughput is usually lower than the bandwidth. There are many
factors that influence throughput:
∙ The amount of traffic
∙ The type of traffic
∙ The latency created by the number of network devices encountered
between source and destination
∙ Goodput: Goodput is the measure of usable data transferred over a given period of
time. Goodput is throughput minus traffic overhead for establishing sessions,
acknowledgments, encapsulation, and retransmitted bits. Goodput is always lower than
throughput, which is generally lower than the bandwidth.

Copper Cabling:

∙ Networks use copper media because it is inexpensive, easy to install, and has low resistance to
electrical current. However, copper media is limited by distance and signal interference.
∙ There are three different types of copper cabling that are each used in specific situations.
∙ Data is transmitted on copper cables as electrical pulses. A detector in the network interface of a
destination device must receive a signal that can be successfully decoded to match the signal
sent. However, the farther the signal travels, the more it deteriorates. This is referred to as signal
attenuation. For this reason, all copper media must follow strict distance limitations as specified
by the guiding standards.
∙ There are three main types of copper media used in networking:
∙ Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cabling is the most common networking media. UTP cabling,
terminated with RJ-45 connectors, is used for interconnecting network hosts with intermediary
networking devices, such as switches and routers.
∙ Shielded twisted-pair (STP) provides better noise protection than UTP cabling. However,
compared to UTP cable, STP cable is significantly more expensive and difficult to install. Like UTP
cable, STP uses an RJ-45 connector. STP cables combine the techniques of shielding to counter
EMI and RFI, and wire twisting to counter crosstalk.
∙ Coaxial cable, or coax for short, gets its name from the fact that there are two conductors that
share the same axis. As shown in the figure, coaxial cable consists of the following: A copper
conductor is used to transmit the electronic signals. A layer of flexible plastic insulation
surrounds a copper conductor. The insulating material is surrounded in a woven copper braid, or
metallic foil, that acts as the
second wire in the circuit and as
a shield for the inner conductor.
This second layer, or shield, also
reduces the amount of outside
electromagnetic interference.
The entire cable is covered with
a cable jacket to prevent minor
physical damage. There are
different types of connectors
used with coax cable. The Bayonet Neill–Concelman (BNC), N type, and F type connector.
Although UTP cable has essentially replaced coaxial cable in modern Ethernet installations, the
coaxial cable design is used in the following situations:
∙ Wireless installations - Coaxial cables attach antennas to wireless devices. The
coaxial cable carries radio frequency (RF) energy between the antennas and the radio
equipment.
∙ Cable internet installations - Cable service providers provide internet connectivity
to their customers by replacing portions of the coaxial cable and supporting
amplification elements with fiber-optic cable. However, the wiring inside the
customer's premises is still coax cable.
UTP Cabling:
∙ UTP cable does not use shielding to counter the effects of EMI and RFI. Instead, cable designers
have discovered other ways that they can limit the negative effect of crosstalk:
∙ Cancellation - Designers now pair wires in a circuit. When two wires in an
electrical circuit are placed close together, their magnetic fields are the exact
opposite of each other. Therefore, the two magnetic fields cancel each other and also
cancel out any outside EMI and RFI signals.
∙ Varying the number of twists per wire
pair - To further enhance the cancellation
effect of paired circuit wires, designers
vary the number of twists of each wire
pair in a cable. UTP cable must follow
precise specifications governing how many
twists or braids are permitted per meter
(3.28 feet) of cable. Notice in the figure
that the orange/orange white pair is
twisted less than the blue/blue white pair.
Each colored pair is twisted a different
number of times.
∙ UTP cabling conforms to the standards established jointly by the TIA/EIA. Specifically, TIA/EIA-568
stipulates the commercial cabling standards for LAN installations.
∙ The electrical characteristics of copper cabling are defined by the Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE). IEEE rates UTP cabling according to its performance. Cables are
placed into categories based on their ability to carry higher bandwidth rates.
∙ Category 3 was originally used for voice communication over voice lines, but later
used for data transmission.
∙ Category 5 and 5e is used for data transmission. Category 5 supports 100Mbps
and Category 5e supports 1000 Mbps
∙ Category 6 has an added separator between each wire pair to support higher
speeds. Category 6 supports up to 10 Gbps.
∙ Category 7 also supports 10 Gbps.
∙ Category 8 supports 40 Gbps.
∙ UTP cable is usually terminated with an RJ-45 connector. The TIA/EIA-568 standard describes the
wire color codes to pin assignments (pinouts) for Ethernet cables.
∙ Different situations may require UTP cables to be wired according to different wiring conventions.
This means that the individual wires in the cable have to be connected in different orders to
different sets of pins in the RJ-45 connectors.
∙ The following are the main cable types that are obtained by using specific wiring conventions:
∙ Ethernet Straight-through - The most common type of networking cable. It is
commonly used to interconnect a host to a switch and a switch to a router.
∙ Ethernet Crossover - A cable used to interconnect similar devices. For example, to
connect a switch to a switch, a host to a host, or a router to a router. However,
crossover cables are now considered legacy as NICs use medium-dependent interface
crossover (auto-MDIX) to automatically detect the cable type and make the internal
connection.
∙ Another type of cable is a rollover cable, which is Cisco proprietary. It is used to connect a
workstation to a router or switch console port.
Cable Types and Standards
Cable Type Standard Application
Both ends T568A or Connects a network host to a network device such
Ethernet Straight-through
both ends T568B as a switch or hub
Connects two network hosts Connects two
One end T568A, other
Ethernet Crossover network intermediary devices (switch to switch or
end T568B
router to router)
Connects a workstation serial port to a router
Rollover Cisco proprietary
console port, using an adapter

Fiber-Optic Cabling:
∙ Optical fiber cable transmits data over longer distances and at higher bandwidths than any other
networking media. Unlike copper wires, fiber-optic cable can transmit signals with less
attenuation and is completely immune to EMI and RFI.
∙ Optical fiber is a flexible, but extremely thin, transparent strand of very pure glass, not much
bigger than a human hair. Bits are encoded on the fiber as light impulses. The fiber-optic cable
acts as a waveguide, or “light pipe,” to
transmit light between the two ends with
minimal loss of signal.
∙ Fiber-optic cables are broadly classified into
two types:
∙ Single-mode fiber (SMF): SMF
consists of a very small core and uses
expensive laser technology to send a
single ray of light, SMF is popular in
long-distance situations spanning
hundreds of kilometers, such as those
required in long haul telephony and
cable TV applications.
∙ Multimode fiber (MMF): MMF
consists of a larger core and uses LED
emitters to send light pulses.
Specifically, light from an LED enters the
multimode fiber at different angles, as
shown in the figure. MMFs are popular
in LANs because they can be powered by low-cost LEDs. It provides bandwidth up to 10
Gbps over link lengths of up to 550 meters.
∙ One of the highlighted differences between MMF and SMF is the amount of dispersion.
Dispersion refers to the spreading out of a light pulse over time. Increased dispersion means
increased loss of signal strength. MMF has a greater dispersion than SMF. That is why MMF can
only travel up to 500 meters before signal loss.
∙ Fiber-optic cabling is now being used in four types of industry:
∙ Enterprise Networks - Used for backbone cabling applications and
interconnecting infrastructure devices
∙ Fiber-to-the-Home (FTTH) - Used to provide always-on broadband services to
homes and small businesses
∙ Long-Haul Networks - Used by service providers to connect countries and cities
∙ Submarine Cable Networks - Used to provide reliable high-speed, high-capacity
solutions capable of surviving in harsh undersea environments at up to transoceanic
distances. Search the internet for “submarine cables telegeography map” to view various
maps online.
∙ A variety of optical-fiber connectors are available. The main differences among the types of
connectors are dimensions and methods of coupling. Businesses decide on the types of
connectors that will be used, based on their equipment.
∙ Some switches and routers have ports that support fiber-optic connectors through a small form-
factor pluggable (SFP) transceiver.
∙ Fiber-optic connectors type:
∙ Straight-Tip ST connectors were one of the
first connector types used. The connector
locks securely with a 'twist-on/twist-off'
bayonet-style mechanism.
∙ Subscriber Connectors SC connectors are
sometimes referred to as 'square connectors'
or 'standard connectors'. They are a widely-
adopted LAN and WAN connector that uses a
push-pull mechanism to ensure positive
insertion. This connector type is used with
multimode and single-mode fiber.
∙ Lucent Connectors LC simplex
connectors are a smaller version of the
SC connector. These are sometimes
called little or local connectors and are
quickly growing in popularity due to
their smaller size.
∙ Duplex multimode LC connector is similar
to an LC simplex connector, but uses a
duplex connector.
∙ Some fiber connectors accept both the transmitting and receiving fibers in a single connector
known as a duplex connector, as shown in the Duplex Multimode LC Connector in the figure. BX
standards such as 100BASE-BX use different wavelengths for
sending and receiving over a single fiber.
∙ Fiber patch cords are required for interconnecting
infrastructure devices. The use of color distinguishes
between single-mode and multimode patch cords. A yellow
jacket is for single-mode fiber cables and orange (or aqua) for
multimode fiber cables.
 ∙ UTP and Fiber-Optic Cabling Comparison:

Implementation Issues UTP Cabling Fiber-Optic Cabling

Bandwidth supported 10 Mb/s - 10 Gb/s 10 Mb/s - 100 Gb/s

Distance Relatively short (1-100 meters) Relatively long ( 1 - 100,000 meters)

Immunity to EMI and RFI Low High (Completely immune)

Immunity to electrical hazards Low High (Completely immune)

Media and connector costs Lowest Highest

Installation skills required Lowest Highest

Safety precautions Lowest Highest

Wireless Media:
∙ Wireless media carry electromagnetic signals that represent the binary digits of data
communications using radio or microwave frequencies.
∙ These are some of the limitations of wireless:
∙ Coverage area - Wireless data communication technologies work well in open
environments. However, certain construction materials used in buildings and structures,
and the local terrain, will limit the effective coverage.
∙ Interference - Wireless is susceptible to interference and can be disrupted by such
common devices as household cordless phones, some types of fluorescent lights,
microwave ovens, and other wireless communications.
∙ Security - Wireless communication coverage requires no access to a physical
strand of media. Therefore, devices and users, not authorized for access to the network,
can gain access to the transmission. Network security is a major component of wireless
network administration.
∙ Shared medium - WLANs operate in half-duplex, which means only one device
can send or receive at a time. The wireless medium is shared amongst all wireless users.
Many users accessing the WLAN simultaneously results in reduced bandwidth for each
user.
∙ WLAN requires the following network devices:
∙ Wireless Access Point (AP) - These concentrate the wireless signals from users
and connect to the existing copper-based network infrastructure, such as Ethernet. Home
and small business wireless routers integrate the functions of a router, switch, and access
point into one device, as shown in the figure.
∙ Wireless NIC adapters - These provide wireless communication capability to
network hosts.

∙ These are the wireless standards:

 ∙ Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11) - Wireless LAN (WLAN) technology, commonly referred to as Wi-Fi.
WLAN uses a contention-based protocol known as carrier sense multiple access/collision
avoidance (CSMA/CA). The wireless NIC must first listen before transmitting to determine if the
radio channel is clear. If another wireless device is transmitting, then the NIC must wait until the
channel is clear. Wi-Fi is a trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance. Wi-Fi is used with certified WLAN
devices based on the IEEE 802.11 standards.
∙ Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15) - This is a wireless personal area network (WPAN) standard,
commonly known as “Bluetooth.” It uses a device pairing process to communicate over distances
from 1 to 100 meters.
∙ WiMAX (IEEE 802:16) - Commonly known as Worldwide Interoperability for Microware
Access (WiMAX), this wireless standard uses a point-to-multipoint topology to provide wireless
broadband access.
∙ Zigbee (IEEE 802.15.4) - Zigbee is a specification used for low-data rate, low-power
communications. It is intended for applications that require short-range, low data-rates and long
battery life. Zigbee is typically used for industrial and Internet of Things (IoT) environments such
as wireless light switches and medical device data collection.
∙ Note: Other wireless technologies such as cellular and satellite communications can also provide
data network connectivity.