DATA COMMUNICATION

1
Lecture 2
BOOK: DATA COMBehrouz A. Forouzan
MUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING
 TRANSMISSION MEDIA

TRANSMISSIO
N MEDIA

Guided Unguided
(wired) (wireless)

Twisted Coaxial Optical

Free Space
Pair cable fiber
2
 MODULE OBJECTIVES
Module Title: Physical Layer

Module Objective: Explain how physical layer protocols, services, and network media
support communications across data networks.

Topic Title Topic Objective

Purpose of the Physical Layer Describe the purpose and functions of the physical
layer in the network.
Physical Layer Characteristics Describe characteristics of the physical layer.

Copper Cabling Identify the basic characteristics of copper cabling.

UTP Cabling Explain how UTP cable is used in Ethernet

networks.
Fiber-Optic Cabling Describe fiber optic cabling and its main
advantages over other media.
Wireless Media Connect devices using wired and wireless media.
 THE PHYSICAL CONNECTION
• Before any network communications can occur, a physical connection to a
local network must be established.
• This connection could be wired or wireless, depending on the setup of the
network.
• This generally applies whether you are considering a corporate office or a
home.
• A Network Interface Card (NIC) connects a device to the network.
• Some devices may have just one NIC, while others may have multiple
NICs (Wired and/or Wireless, for example).
• Not all physical connections offer the same level of performance.
 PURPOSE OF THE PHYSICAL LAYER

• Transports bits across the

network media
• Accepts a complete frame
from the Data Link Layer and
encodes it as a series of
signals that are transmitted
to the local media
• This is the last step in the
encapsulation process.
• The next device in the path to
the destination receives the
bits and re-encapsulates the
frame, then decides what to
do with it.
 PHYSICAL COMPONENTS
Physical Layer Standards address three functional areas:
• Physical Components
• Encoding
• Signaling

The Physical Components:- are the hardware devices, media, and

other connectors that transmit the signals that represent the bits.
Hardware components like NICs, interfaces and connectors, cable
materials, and cable designs are all specified in standards associated
with the physical layer.
 Signals

 Analog signal
 Continuously variable with times
 Digital signal: discrete values

 Periodic signal: its shape continues repeats

after a specified interval

 Aperiodic signal: its doesn’t follow a pattern

 Analog signal - signal intensity varies in a smooth fashion
over time
 No breaks or discontinuities in the signal
 Digital signal - signal intensity maintains a constant level
for some period of time and then changes to another
constant level
 Periodic signal - analog or digital signal pattern that
repeats over time
 Aperiodic signal - analog or digital signal pattern that
doesn't repeat over time
 Peak amplitude (A) - maximum value or strength of the
signal over time; typically measured in volts
 Frequency (f )
 Rate, in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz) at which the signal
repeats
 Period (T ) - amount of time it takes for one repetition of
the signal
 T = 1/f
 Phase () - measure of the relative position in time within
a single period of a signal
 Data and Signals
 Usually use digital signals for digital data and

analog signals for analog data

 It can use analog signal to carry digital data

 Using Modem

 It Can use digital signal to carry analog data

 Using codec

Analog Signals Carrying Analog and
Digital Data
Digital Signals Carrying Analog and
Digital Data
 Digital Transmission

 It concerned with content of the signal.

 A digital signal can be transmitted only a

limited distance before attenuation occurs.

 Repeaters are used for greater distance. It

receives the digital signal then retransmits a
new signal
 SIGNALING

• The signaling method is how the bit

values, “1” and “0” are represented on
the physical medium.
• The method of signaling will vary Light Pulses Over Fiber-Optic Cable
based on the type of medium being
used.

Electrical Signals Over Copper Cable

Microwave Signals Over Wireless

ENCODING

• Encoding converts the stream of

bits into a format recognizable by
the next device in the network
path.
• This ‘coding’ provides predictable
patterns that can be recognized
by the next device.
• Examples of encoding methods
include Manchester (shown in the
figure), 4B/5B, and 8B/10B.
DEFINITION OF DIGITAL SIGNAL ENCODING.
 The simplest form of digital encoding of digital data is to assign one
voltage level to binary one and another to binary zero.
 In general, the equipment for encoding digital data into a
digital signal is less complex and less expensive than digital-to-
analog modulation equipment.

The most common, and easiest, way to transmit digital signals is

to use two different voltage levels for the two binary digits.
 Nonreturn to Zero-Level (NRZ-L) is the code used to generate or
interpret digital data by terminals and other devices.
 A transition (low-to-high or high-to-low)
 0 = high level
• 1 = low level
 Nonreturn to Zero Inverted (NRZI)
• 0 = no transition at beginning of interval (one bit time)
• 1 = transition at beginning of interval

 Bipolar-AMI
• 0 = no line signal
• 1 = positive or negative level, alternating for successive ones
 Pseudoternary
• 0 = positive or negative level, alternating for successive zeros
• 1 = no line signal
 Manchester
• 0 = transition from high to low in middle of interval
• 1 = transition from low to high in middle of interval
 Differential Manchester

 Always a transition in middle of interval

• 0 = transition at beginning of interval
• 1 = no transition at beginning of interval
21
22
 PROBLEMS

1- For the bit stream 01001110, draw the waveform for this sequence using
a. NRZ-L
b. Bipolar-AMI
c. Pseudoternary

2- The waveform of the Figure belongs to a Manchester encoded binary data stream. Determine the
beginning and end of bit periods and give the data sequence.

23
FIBER-OPTIC CABLING
FIBER VERSUS COPPER
Optical fiber is primarily used as backbone cabling for high-traffic, point-to-point
connections between data distribution facilities and for the interconnection of
buildings
in multi-building campuses.
Implementation
UTP Cabling Fiber-Optic Cabling
Issues
Bandwidth supported 10 Mb/s - 10 Gb/s 10 Mb/s - 100 Gb/s
Relatively short (1 - 100 Relatively long ( 1 -
Distance
meters) 100,000 meters)
Immunity to EMI and
Low High (Completely immune)
RFI
Immunity to electrical
Low High (Completely immune)
hazards
Media and connector
Lowest Highest
costs
Installation skills
Lowest Highest
required
4.6 WIRELESS MEDIA

© 2016 Cisco and/or its affiliates. All rights reserved. Cisco

Confidential 25
WIRELESS MEDIA
PROPERTIES OF WIRELESS MEDIA
It carries electromagnetic signals representing binary digits using radio or
microwave frequencies. This provides the greatest mobility option. Wireless
connection numbers continue to increase.

Some of the limitations of wireless:

• Coverage area - Effective coverage can be significantly impacted by the physical
characteristics of the deployment location.
• Interference - Wireless is susceptible to interference and can be disrupted by
many common devices.
• Security - Wireless communication coverage requires no access to a physical
strand of media, so anyone can gain access to the transmission.
• Shared medium - WLANs operate in half-duplex, which means only one device
can send or receive at a time. Many users accessing the WLAN simultaneously
results in reduced bandwidth for each user.
WIRELESS MEDIA
TYPES OF WIRELESS MEDIA
The IEEE and telecommunications industry standards for wireless data
communications
cover both the data link and physical layers. In each of these standards, physical layer
specifications dictate:
• Data to radio signal encoding methods
• Frequency and power of transmission
• Signal reception and decoding requirements
• Antenna design and construction

Wireless Standards:
• Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11) - Wireless LAN (WLAN) technology
• Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15) - Wireless Personal Area network (WPAN) standard
• WiMAX (IEEE 802.16) - Uses a point-to-multipoint topology to provide broadband
wireless access
• Zigbee (IEEE 802.15.4) - Low data-rate, low power-consumption communications,
primarily for Internet of Things (IoT) applications
WIRELESS MEDIA
WIRELESS LAN
In general, a Wireless LAN (WLAN) requires the following devices:
• Wireless Access Point (AP) - Concentrate wireless signals from users
and connect to the existing copper-based network infrastructure
• Wireless NIC Adapters - Provide wireless communications capability
to network hosts

There are a number of WLAN standards. When purchasing WLAN

equipment, ensure compatibility, and interoperability.

Network Administrators must develop and apply stringent security policies

and processes to protect WLANs from unauthorized access and damage.
 MULTIPLEXING

 Capacity of transmission medium usually exceeds capacity required

for transmission of a single signal
 Multiplexing - carrying multiple signals on a single medium
 More efficient use of transmission medium
FREQUENCY-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
TIME-DIVISION MULTIPLEXING
 CIRCUIT SWITCHING
 dedicated circuit per call such as mobile phone
 Resources are idle if not used by owing call
 It need to setup connection “circuit”
 bandwidth divided into pieces allocated to calls through Time
division multiplexing TDM and frequency division multiplexing
FDM.
Example:
4 users 3 users

any user on the left can talk to any user on the right with dedicated resources
such as link capacity L.
Then 4x3 particular communication can happened then the link capacity will
be divided by 12 (L/12). Note if one particular communication not used it will
be idle
 CIRCUIT SWITCHING: FDM AND TDM

if the frequency size is R then each user will assigned a

particular frequency R/4.
The users assigned dedicated resources.
If user 4 not work then the frequency 4 not used (idle) and no
other user can use it
 CIRCUIT SWITCHING: TDM

 the time is divided to slots each user will assigned a slot and it will
repeated.
 The users assigned dedicated resources.
 If any user not work then it particular time slot not used (idle) and
no other user can use it
 Example: how long does it take to send a file of 640000 bits
from host A to host B over a circuit switch network, where all
links are 1.5Mbps, 500msec to establish connection and each
link uses 24 slots/sec.

 Solution: file size = 640000 bits =0.64Mb

24 slots means there are 24 user
Speed for each user = 1.5Mbps / 24 = .062
Time = File size/speed = 0.64 / .062=10.24 sec + 500ms
=10.7 sec
PACKET SWITCHING

 End to end data stream divided into packets.

 Users share the network resources and that is better no idle resources
 Congestion can occurs: packets queued waiting for the link use
 Packets moves one hop at a time (store and forwarded)
Entire packets must arrive at the router before it can be transmitted
 Sequences of A and B packets does not have fixed pattern

 Example: suppose the A want to send a file with size L bits to D , where
link rate R is 1.5Mbps then 3 hops takes 3L/R sec
 PACKET SWITCHING VERSUS CIRCUIT
SWITCHING

 Packet switching allow more users to use the network

 Resources sharing

 Packets can takes different routes to destinations

where in circuit switching all packets take the same
route (easy to hack)
 Simpler no call setup

 Congestion

 Delay and loss